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Innovations : the Metallurgy of Copper Wire Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Skip to search Skip to primary navigation menu Skip to secondary navigation menu Skip to main body of content Skip to footer Back to top Home Contact Us Press Room Questions? A Copper Alliance Member Applications Architecture Design Handbook Copper in Architecture Awards Featured Projects FAQs Finishes Educational Programs Architecural Manufacturers & Distributors Consultants and Contractors Automotive Electric Vehicles Copper-Nickel Brake Tube Radiators and Heat Exchangers Electrical Building Wire Power Quality Busbar Tube, Pipe & Fittings Copper Tube Handbook http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Overview Key Copper Benefits HVAC/R DX Geothermal Heat Pumps Tech Corner Applications Fuel Gas Industrial Casting Alloys Bronze Sleeve Bearings Selecting Bronze Bearing Materials Electronic Connector Design Guide Copper Alloy Molds Mold Design Guidelines Marine Copper Nickel Machined Products Free-Cutting Brass Copper and Brass Forgings Bronze Sleeve Bearings Forging Guide Glossary Telecommunications Antimicrobial Do It Proper With Copper Video Series Resources Find Suppliers of Copper Copper Alloy Supplier Database Architectural Installation Contractors Database Architecural Manufacturers & Distributors Copper Technical Reference Library Publications List http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Seminars, Workshops & Training Market Data Standards & Specifications UNS Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper ASTM Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys International Alloy Systems for Copper Comparison of National Standards Cross Specification Index European Numbering System for Non-Ferrous Metals Inactive Alloys Registering A New Copper Alloy Alloy Properties & Uses Copper Alloys Search - Basic Copper Alloys Search - Advanced Properties of Copper Low Temperature Properties of Copper Cryogenic Properties of Copper Copper Compounds Microstructures of Copper Alloys Corrosion Protection & Resistance Powder Metallurgy Metallurgy of Copper-Base Alloys Questions? Consumers Copper in the Arts 2014 Archive 2013 Archive 2012 Archive 2011 Archive 2010 Archive 2009 Archive 2008 Archive 2007 Archive Copper in Your Home Archtecture, Lighting & Decor Cookware & Decorations Do It Yourself Electrical & Communications Wiring http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Environment & Health Home Planning Plumbing, Heating & Cooling Innovations & Technology Copper Links FAQs Copper News Copper & Human Health Education Copper Is... Copper Production Copper Facts History of Copper 60 Centuries of Copper Copper in the USA The Statue of Liberty Concept Construction & Installation Facts & Figures Repair Concerns Repair Details Reclothed Lady Copper and Kids Fingerprint Disinfection Test Copper Experiment Seek a Word Connect the Dots Private Whys? Where Does Copper Come From? Copper Production The Copper Learning Center Environment Sustainable Energy http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Electric Motors Energy Efficiency Energy Storage Renewables Transformers Latest in SE SE at a Glance Mining & Recycling Trends In Copper Alloy Scrap In The U.S. Copper - The World's Most Reusable Resource Recycling of Copper Green Properties of Copper Copper in Drinking Water Corrosion Symposium Report Lead-free Solders for Drinking Water Plumbing Systems Copper in the Natural Environment Case Studies Copper Roof Stormwater Runoff Copper in Brake Pads Publications Newsletters Building & Architecture News Discover Copper Online Innovations Publications List About CDA CDA Mission CDA Staff Press Room 2014 Press Releases 2013 Press Releases 2012 Press Releases 2011 Press Releases http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire 2010 Press Releases 2009 Press Releases 2008 Press Releases 2007 Press Releases 2006 Press Releases 2005 Press Releases 2004 Press Releases 2003 Press Releases 2002 Press Releases 2001 Press Releases 2000 Press Releases 1999 Press Releases 1998 Press Releases 1997 Press Releases 1996 Press Releases Membership Associate Membership Association By-Laws CDA Membership Application Member Login Tradeshows 2014 2015 Disclaimer Contact Us Link to Us Site Help Subscribe to Copper.org Home Publications Newsletters http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Innovations 1997 Archive The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Publications Direct Exchange Thermal Systems: The Wave Of The Future Copper Alloy Molds: Why Didn't Someone Tell Me Sooner? The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Innovations December 1997 The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Copper Applications in Metallurgy of Copper & Copper Alloys By Dr. Horace Pops Director-Metals Laboratory Essex Group, Inc. Introduction Conductor Requirements Applications Production of Rod and Wire Role Of Impurities Influence of Oxygen Content Thermal-Mech. Process Var. Annealing Behavior Surface Effects Future Challenges Summary Introduction Copper is the preferred and predominant choice in the electrical industry because of its high conductivity, both electrical and thermal. In order to obtain the required properties, unalloyed high purity copper is almost always used. This article discusses the rationale for this choice, and pays particular attention to the underlying metallurgical principles. It is intended to serve as a technical discussion of pertinent developments spanning the past several decades in the copper wire industry. Back to Top Conductor Requirements Considerable progress has been made in recent years to explain the electronic nature of the noble metals, i.e., copper, silver, and gold. These elements exhibit high conductivity because their conduction electrons show relatively little resistance to movement under an electric field. Copper in particular is an excellent conductor because outermost electrons have a large mean free path (about 100 atomic spacings) between collisions. The electrical resistivity is inversely related to this mean free path. http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1997/12/wiremetallurgy.html[2/12/2015 8:48:40 PM] Innovations : The Metallurgy of Copper Wire Several electrically conductive metals are lighter than copper, but since they would require larger cross-sections to carry the same current, are unacceptable if limited space is a major requirement (e.g., in small electric motors). Consequently, aluminum is used mainly when excessive weight could become a problem. Copper possesses the best characteristics for commercial applications, inasmuch as silver must be dismissed because of its prohibitively high cost. Back to Top Applications Copper is one of the few metals that finds most widespread use in the pure form, rather than as an alloy. There are approximately four dozen different wrought alloys that contain a minimum copper content of 99.3 weight percent (and therefore designated as "coppers"), albeit only a handful are used industrially as electrical conductors. The most widely used of these dilute alloys is known as electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) copper, which consists of extremely high purity metal that has been alloyed with oxygen in the range of 100 to 650 ppm. ETP copper is not recommended for use in hydrogen environments due to its susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement when exposed to these temperatures. Under these environmental environments, either oxygen-free (OF) or oxygen-free electronic (OFE) grades of copper should be used. Silver bearing copper (OFS) finds limited use in power transformers because of its higher strength and softening resistance at elevated temperature. Back to Top Production of Rod and Wire Prior to the 1970s nearly all copper rod was made by a batch process, which included pouring and solidification of molten copper into special shaped ingots known as wirebars, reheating the bars in a slightly reducing protective atmosphere, and breaking up the cast dendritic structure by hot rolling in air to a rod form. This was followed by pickling in 10 percent sulfuric acid to remove oxides, and by butt welding of one end to another to form larger coil lengths. Today, a continuous casting and rolling process produces virtually all copper rod. Benefits of continuous casting include less microsegregation of impurities, reduction of copper oxide particles on the surface, fewer steel inclusions resulting from contact with mill rolls, almost total elimination of welds, and lower overall processing costs. Oxygen is intentionally alloyed with copper to act as a scavenger for dissolved hydrogen and sulfur to form the gases H 2O and SO 2 in the melt. If the oxygen content is kept under control, microscopic bubbles form throughout, and under ideal conditions will offset the approximately 4% shrinkage in volume associated with the liquid-to-solid transformation. If the resulting pores are not too large, they are completely eliminated during hot rolling. Most continuous casting and rolling units contain non-destructive equipment (eddy-current)
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