· TRAPPE RS AN D TRADE RS I N THE KEn/ATI N: THE FUR TRADE AS AN AGENT OF ACCULTURATION A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Mas te r of Arts in the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology by David A. Powell Saskatoon, Saskatchewan c 1982 D .A. Powe 11 For Matthew 'I UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN PERMISSION TO'USE POSTGRADUATE THESES TITLE 'OF THE SIS TMppeM and TJtadeM 1._n :the KewctU.n: The Fwr. 'rMdi M An AgeYL:t 06 Ac.c.u1;twr.a.:t{_on. NAME OF AUTHOR Vav1._d AJtno-td Powell DEPARTMENT OR COLLEGE AYL:thJtopo-togy and AJtc.haeo-togy DEGREE' 'MM:teJt 06 Aw J " In presenting this thesi$ in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely avail­ able for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copyingof this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or prof'e s so.r s who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the ,Head; of the Department or the pean of the College' in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial . gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. -A- SIGNATURE�'d rJw�. ADDRESS 1105 - 13:th Sued EM:t SASKAT00 N • SM k.CLtc.heLA!�an,-,-- _ DATE Sep:tembeJt 77. 1982 I ABSTRACT In the years immediately fo1 lowing the whaling enterprise I in Hudson s Bay, the organ i zed Fur Trade es tab 1 i shed and consolidated an extensive trade network. This corporate presence had a number of direct .and indirect repercussions for the Inuit of the Keewatin, the inhabitants of that area on the western shore of the Bay. Accompanying the fur traders were other external institutions and agencies which also played important roles in effecting changes in the indigenous culture of the region. This study will attempt to depict and and explain such changes, examining the events as recorded in the available documents of the. period 1920 to 1950. Attention will be focused upon the several aspects of change which resulted, including those in the material or ecological, and the socia1·and cultural realms. A key facet of this analysis will hinge on the development of a body of ideas tentat1:ve1y designed to frame those changes as they transpired at local and regional levels. This theoretical framework will incorporate models drawn from cultural ecology and transaction or exchange theory, whilst also striving to illustrate the less. tangible areas of cognitive and value change. Such a broad-based theoretical approach is consistent with an awareness that change, both accu1turative and otherwise, is a· rvas i ve i reas of l a cu pe pe rtneat a mate r 1 , 1 tura 1 and phenomenon,· ng --many . social existence. It is intended that this chosen mode of analysis will throw the iii , historical facts of cultural contact in the Fur Trade years into ,sharp relief by explaining how the process of change operated, in addition to documenting the unfolding of events. The character of the source material is far from uniform and is, in places, fragmentary. Nonetheless, by drawing from a comprehensive spectrum of documentary resources, it should be possible to render a holistic picture of the integrated nature of cultural change in the Keewatin. This wil I entail some scrutiny of ecological change stimulated by the Trade and sociocultural change engendered by all three institutions, the Hudson's Bay Company along with other fur enterprises, the Missions, and also the R.C.M.P. Furthermore, attention will be directed to the relation­ ships of these agencies regarding one another, and the results of this interplay. Thu�, the cultural changes, observably will stem from not on l yrthe watershed of l nu lt and qctUu.na.a..t exchanges, the traditional focus of Arctic acculturation, but also from the internal network of the qallu.naat or White agencies. Overall, the study seeks to point out and explain the changes wrought by acculturative contact, illuminating the historical events themselves and providing some anthropological insight into the cultural processes which guided such events. iv ACI<No\�LE OGEMENTS Sincere gratitude is extended to those people, who by their continued help and encouragement contributed to the completion of this project. The resources of the Hudson's Bay Company Archives, particularly the assistance of Shirlee Smith, the archivist there, were of inestimable value. Thanks also to Stan Horral of the R.C.M.P. History Branch and to Peter Cooke and Peter Buchan at the Pub 1 i c Arch i ves of Canada. The_ Ang 1 i can Church Arch i ves in Toronto also provided help and information. For their copious correspondence, thanks to P.A.C. Nichols of Burgess, Virginia and Father Marcel Rio of the O.M .. I. To all the former personnel of the H.B.C., particularly W.A. Buhr, thanks for some memorable interviews. To those people more directly involved at the University of Saskatchewan in a personal and academic sense, special gratitude for your.patience arid tenacity. Sincere thanks to Sandy Ervin for his early support and direction. R.G. Williamson showed an abiding commitment to results, and displayed an admirable doggedness, and a genuine understanding I in his capacity as academic advisor. My thesis committee members, M. Marino, J.F.V. Mi llar, J. McConnell arid T.O. Regehr deserve special. thanks. The real laurels should go to the redoubtable Miss Ann Childs for her encouragement and her untiring application'to this project. Thanks Ann. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v TABLE OF CONTENTS ••••••••••••••••••• '.' ••••• ,. ••••••••••••• !!I •• vi LI ST OF MAPS xi LI ST OF TABLES xi LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS xi LIST OF CHARTS xi i CHAPTER 1 GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL CONTENT 1 . 1 1.1 Introduction . 1.2 Geography of the Keewatin . 3 1.2.1 Glacial Topography in South and Central Keewatin .. 5 1.2.2 The Wager Uplands and Northern Keewatin . 8 1.2.3 The Coastal Character of Keewatin . 13 I s . 18 1.2.4 Southampton land � 22 1.3 General Climatic Conditions ......•............... 1.4 Population of the Keewatin 2.5 ' 1.5 Concl US ions ......................... 29 1.6 Historical Considerations •....•.................. 30 1.6.1 Voyages of Discovery .. 31 1.6.2 T�ade Explorations .....•......•.................. 35 1.7 The Presence of the Whalers ....................•. 43 1.7.1 Material Innovation .. 45 1. 7.2 Emp loymen t and Con t ract \�ha 1 i ng . 50 1.7.3 Demographic Changes: Mobility and Location . 51- 1.7.4 Sociocultural Impact 53 1.7.5 Selection of Personnel ................ '.' . 54 ·1.7.6 Generational Continui ty of Employment Roles 58 1 .7.7 New Names, New Games .. 59 1.7.8 Summation. ..............•........................... 61 vi CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL ISSUES 62 2.1 Theory and Problem 63 2.2 Acculturation: Meaning and Implication 65 2.3 Psychological Approaches to Acculturation 75 2.4 Social-Structural Modes of Acculturation 82 2.5 Features of Change in Acculturation Studies 86 2.6 Acculturation as a Theoretical Canvas 88 2.7 Cultural Material and Cultural Ecological Strategies .......•............................ 92 2.7.1 Consideration of Emic and Superstructural Fe a t u re s . • . • 1 0 3 2.7.2,Superstructural Elements 105 2.7.3 Cultural Material Change 106 2.7;4 The Problems of Boundaries 108 2.7.5 Ecological Concommitants of the Fur Trade Enterprise 109 2.7.6 Further Ecological Implications of the Trapping En te rp rise .. • . • . 11 3 2.7.7 The Cultural Ecology of the'Trading Post 117 2.8 The Utility of Transactional Models 122 2.8.1 The Issue of Power 127 2.8.2 Modes of Transaction ........•................... 129 2.8.3 Brokerage ......................•..............•. 1 31 2.8.4 Characteristics of the Indigenous Cultural ' Broke r . 134 2.8.5 Elements of Brokerage 134 2.8.6 Marginality and Protection 138 2.8.7 The Selection of Personnel 140 2.8.8 Role Models of the Native Broker 142 ,2.8.9 Brokers in a'Sociocultural Network 143 2.9 Re 1 i g i on an d Va 1 ues 146 2.9.1 ReI igion - Fi rst Principles 147 2.9.2 Traditional Inuit Bel ief System and Cosmology 154 2.9.3 Erosi,onof Traditional Religious Sentiment 157 vi i , 3.3 The Missions 265 3.3.1 The Goals of the Missions: Spiritual and Socio- cultural Strategies ........•................... 265 3.3.2 Missionary Roles and Confl icts 273 3.3.3 Traditional and Incursive Religious Parallels 281 3.3.4 Control and Access to Resources 285 3.3.5 Inuit Perception of the Chesterfield Hospital 287 3.3.6 Denominational ism: Friction and the Response of the n u . .. '1 it. • 292 3.3.7 The Sociocultural Influence of the Missions: Health, Education and Social Wel fare 297 3.3.8 Education and Social Welfare 301 3.3.9 The Secularization of the Resource Quest 306 3.3.10 Inuit Response to Christianity 309 3.3.11 Missionary Brokerage 317 3.3.12 Limitations of the Data 319 . 3 � 4 The R. C . M. P . • . .. 319 3.4.1 Goals and Activities 321" 3.4.2 The I ronies of Law and Order 329 3.4.3 Inuit' Response to the Pol ice Presence 341 3.4.4 Pol ice Brokers 342 3.4.5 R.C�M.P.