Richard Gallion, president of the Heritage Society in Shelburne, , is among the thousands of Nova Scotians who can find their ancestors’ names among the three thousand recorded in the . FREEDOM

BOUNDA simple act – having one’s name recorded in a ledger known as the Book of Negroes – promised freedom to Black Loyalists in 1783 and, for some, allowed passage to Canada. But was Canada the promised land? by

t is not easy to find original documents about the the Life of , a Black Preacher. Written by history of blacks in Canada. Indeed, many high- Himself, which begins, like most slave narratives, with school or university students would come back the circumstances of his birth: “I was born in the One copy of empty-handed if you sent them to the Province of , 28 miles from the Book of library in search of material about Charlestown. My father was stolen from Africa Negroes, a blacks in the eighteenth century. A few when he was young …” hand-written, Ienterprising students might unearth newspaper But even some of the keenest students bound list of advertisements for runaway slaves. For example, might miss a little-known document offering black passen- the July 3, 1792, issue of The Royal Gazette and details about the names, ages, places of origin, gers leaving the Nova Scotia Advertiser carries a crude sketch and personal situations of thousands of blacks New York on of runaway slaves with the advertisement: “Run who fled American and hoped to find British ships in Away, Joseph Odel and Peter Lawrence (Negroes) their promised land in Canada. 1783 during from their Masters, and left Digby last evening … It is called the Book of Negroes. the American Whoever will secure said Negroes so that The handwritten ledger runs to about 150 Revolutionary their Masters may have them again, shall receive TEN pages. It offers volumes of information about the lives of War, is stored DOLLARS Reward, and all reasonable Charges paid. Daniel living more than two centuries ago. On an at the Nova SHANNON HENNIGAR Odel, Phillip Earl.” anecdotal level, it tells us who contracted smallpox, who Scotia Archives The truly motivated student might dig up one of the was blind, and who was travelling with small children. in Halifax. memoirs written centuries ago by blacks who had come One entry for a woman boarding a ship bound for Nova to Canada. One, for example, would be the Memoirs of Scotia describes her as bringing three children, with a

The Beaver February - March 2007 17 Born in men, women, and children who travelled – some as free Newfoundland people, and others the slaves or indentured servants of in 1783 where white United Empire Loyalists – in 219 ships sailing his father served from New York between April and November 1783. The as governor, Book of Negroes did more than capture their names for Sir Henry Clinton posterity. In 1783, having your name registered in the was appointed document meant the promise of a better life. commander-in- chief of the s the last British stronghold during the Revolu- British forces in tionary War, Manhattan – where the sacred and A the profane mingled so freely that an area in 1778. His 1779 teeming with brothels was ironically dubbed “Holy Philipsburg Ground” for its proximity to churches – became a Proclamation haven for black refugees. Some of the blacks who stated that any crowded into the city arrived on their own volition. But “Negro who shall others came on the invitation of the British, who twice desert the Rebel issued formal proclamations asking blacks to abandon Standard” would their slave owners and to serve the military forces of receive full pro- King George III. tection, freedom, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM IN BRITAIN The first proclamation appeared in November 1775, and land. just months after the Revolutionary War had begun. To attract more support for the British forces, John Murray, the governor who was formally known as Lord Dunmore, infuriated American slave owners with his famous Dunmore Proclamation:

The Book of Negroes did more than capture their registered in the document meant the promise of a

baby in one arm and a toddler in the other. In this way, To the end that peace and good order may the sooner be the Book of Negroes gives precise details about when restored … I do require every person capable of bearing and where freedom seekers managed to rip themselves arms to resort to His Majesty’s standard … and I do free of American slavery. As a research tool it offers his- hereby further declare all indented servants,Negroes,or torians and genealogists the opportunity to trace and others (appertaining to Rebels) free, that are able and correlate people backward and forward in time in other willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty’s Troops, documents, such as ship manifests, slave ledgers, and as soon as may be, for the more speedily reducing this census and tax records. Colony to a proper sense of their duty to his Majesty’s Sadly, however, the Book of Negroes has been largely crown and dignity. forgotten in Canada. And that is a shame. Dating back to an era when people of African heritage were mostly Enslaved blacks attentively followed this proclamation, excluded from official documents and records, the Book fleeing their owners to serve the British war effort. of Negroes offers an intimate and unsettling portrait of The came four years later the origins of the Black Loyalists in Canada. Compiled and was designed to attract not just those “capable of bear- in 1783 by officers of the British military at the tail end ing arms,” but any black person, male or female, who was of the American Revolutionary War, the Book of Negroes prepared to serve the British in supporting roles as cooks, was the first massive public record of blacks in North laundresses, nurses, and general labourers. Issued in 1779 America. Indeed, what makes the Book of Negroes so by Sir Henry Clinton, commander-in-chief of the British fascinating are the stories of where its people came forces, it promised: “To every Negro who shall desert the from and how it came to be that they fled to Nova Sco- Rebel Standard, full security to follow within these lines, tia and other British colonies. any occupation which he shall think proper.” The document, which is essentially a detailed It is no small irony that Lord Dunmore, who issued ledger, contains the names of three thousand black the first proclamation, was a slave owner himself. The

18 February - March 2007 The Beaver sad truth is that when a number of former British mili- of , blacks in Manhattan became increas- tary officers left New York City at the end of the war, they ingly desperate about their prospects. They had been took with them slaves or indentured servants, all of promised freedom in exchange for service in wartime. whom had no choice but to follow the men who claimed But would the British live up to their side of the bargain? to own them as they sailed to areas still under the rule of For a time, it looked as though they would not. When their king. the terms of the provisional peace treaty between the los- Nonetheless, in response to the British promises of ing British and the victorious rebels were finally made security and freedom, many blacks escaped from their known in 1783, the loyal blacks felt betrayed. Article 7 of owners and lent their skills and their labour to an army the peace treaty left the Black Loyalists with the impres- that had been weakened by smallpox epidemics and by sion that the British had abandoned them entirely. It said: the daily toll of fighting a war on a foreign continent. If you want to find examples of blacks joining the Brit- All Hostillities both by Sea and Land shall from hence- ish war effort, you would only have to scroll through the forth cease all prisoners on both sides shall be set at Lib- Book of Negroes to find listings of blacks who had served in erty and His Britannic Majesty shall with all a British military regiment called the Black Pioneers. In the convenient Speed and without Causing any destruc- ship La Aigle [sic], for example, which left New York for tion or carrying away any Negroes or other Property of on October 21, 1783, all forty-four of the the American Inhabitants withdraw all its Armies,Gar- black men, women, and children on board are listed as risons, and Fleets, from the said United States. having served with the Black Pioneers. The children appear to have been with their parents as they served Boston King, a Black Loyalist who fled from his slave behind British lines: owner in South Carolina, served with the British forces in the war, and went on to become a church minister in Nova Jam Crocker, 50, ordinary fellow, Black Pioneers. For- Scotia and subsequently in , noted in his merly servant to John Ward,Charlestown,South Caroli- memoir the terror that blacks felt when they discovered na; left him in 1776. the terms of the peace treaty: names for posterity. In 1783, having your name better life.

Molly, 40, ordinary wench, incurable lame of left arm, Black Pioneers. Formerly slave to Mr. Hogwood, Great came to Bridge near Portsmouth,Virginia; left him in 1779. Nova Scotia with her Jenny, 9, Black Pioneers. Formerly slave to Mr.Hogwood, family after Great Bridge near Portsmouth,Virginia;left him in 1779. the American Revolutionary How did it happen that among the thousands of blacks who War, likely huddled in Manhattan – many staying in a shantytown of tents arriving at Annapolis and shacks – ended up filling the pages of the Book of Negroes Royal in and sailing to Nova Scotia in the final months of the war? June 1784. Certainly, not all American blacks believed in the British She earned a cause during the Revolutionary War. Indeed, many fought living as a for the , and the first person to die in the Revolu- “trucker,” tionary War was a black rebel from Boston by the name of carrying Crispus Attucks. (He was one of five people killed in the baggage with Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770, and has been frequently a wheelbarrow

named as the first martyr for the cause of American inde- NOVA SCOTIA ARCHIVES/1979-147-56 for passengers pendence.) However, the blacks who sided with the British travelling did so in the hope of finding freedom at the end of the war. on the Saint By 1782, as it became apparent that the British were John–Digby– losing the war, and as , commander- Annapolis in-chief of the , prepared to take control ferry.

Inside the Book of Negroes

here are British and American versions T of the Book of Negroes.The British version, left, which appears to be the original, is written in ink in a large ledger of about 156 pages. For each person entered in the book, details run horizon- tally across two facing pages, much like these pages 37 and 38.There are nine columns for information, but not every person has an entry in every column.The columns include the name of the vessel on which the Black Loyalist is travelling, where it is bound, the passengers’ name, age, and description. By modern stan- dards, the descriptions are cruel.“Almost past his labour;” “stout, squat with small child;” and “tall & worn out” are typi- cal entries.There are also col- umns for the names and place of residence of “Claimants” – a euphemism for slave owners – and for “Names of the Persons in whose possession they are now,”people holding blacks as NATIONAL ARCHIVES, KEW, indentured servants. Finally, the second page for each entry contains “Remarks,”which provide personal details. – L.H. The horrors and devastation of war happily terminated protection, but, for the most part, it also gives a descrip- and peace was restored between America and Great tion of each person, information about how he or she Britain,which diffused universal joy among all parties, escaped, his or her military record, names of former slave except us, who had escaped from slavery and taken masters, and the names of white masters in cases where refuge in the English army; for rumour prevailed at the blacks remained enslaved or indentured. New York, that all the slaves, in number 2,000, were to Following is a small sample of passengers listed on be delivered up to their masters, altho’ some of them July 31, 1783, on the ship L’Abondance heading for Port had been three or four years among the English. Roseway (Shelburne), Nova Scotia (“GBC” stands for Brigadier General Samuel Birch’s Certificate, which was This dreadful rumour filled us all with inexpressible proof of service to the British military during the Ameri- anguish and terror, especially when we saw our old can Revolutionary War). masters coming from Virginia, North Carolina, and other parts, and seizing upon their slaves in the streets John Green, 35, stout fellow. Formerly the property of of New York, or even dragging them out of their beds. Ralph Faulker of Petersburgh,Virginia; left him four Many of the slaves had very cruel masters, so that the years ago. GBC. thoughts of returning home with them embittered life to us. For some days we lost our appetite for food, and David Shepherd,15,likely boy.Formerly the property of sleep departed from our eyes. William Shepherd, Nancy Mun Virginia; left him four years ago. GBC. In the end, Boston King and his wife, Violet, and three thousand other Black Loyalists did manage to get their Rose Bond, 21, stout wench. Formerly the property of names registered in the Book of Negroes, a necessary pre- Andrew Steward of Crane Island,Virginia; left him four requisite to obtaining permission to sail to Nova Scotia. years ago. GBC.

This passport belonged to Dick Bond, 18 months, likely child. Daughter to Rose Cato Ramsay, Bond & born within the British Lines. GBC. allowing him to immigrate The Book of Negroes also gives the name of the ship on to Nova Scotia. which they sailed, its destination, and its date of departure: Some black refugees with- We did carefully inspect the aforegoing Vessels on 31st out passports July 1783 and … on board the said Vessels we found the would be NOVA SCOTIA ARCHIVES/GIDEON WHITE FAMILY negroes mentioned in the aforegoing List amounting to turned away One hundred and Forty four Men, One hundred and and made to Thirteen Women and ninety Two Children and … we return to their furnished each master of a Vessel with a Certified List of place of origin the Negroes on Board the Vessel and informed him that – to a life of he would not be permitted to Land in Nova Scotia any slavery. We see other Negroes than those contained in the List and that here that Ram- if any other Negroes were found on board the Vessel he say gained his To a certain degree, they owed this opportunity to the would be severely punished … freedom by stubborn loyalty of Sir Guy Carleton, British commander- escaping to the in-chief in the final days of the war. As historian James To qualify for departure by ship to a safe haven well away British lines, W. St. G. Walker at the University of Waterloo has noted, from the and the new country they which would Carleton interpreted the peace treaty to mean that blacks were about to establish, blacks had to prove that they have been a who had served the redcoats for a year were technically had served behind British lines for at least one year. risky venture. free, thus they could not be considered “property” of the Many obtained certificates demonstrating their service Americans. They were free to leave with the British. to the British. But many others who had no such certifi- Much to the consternation of George Washington, cates were entered into the Book of Negroes and allowed Carleton ordered his officers to inspect all blacks who to sail. wished to leave New York and, most importantly, to regis- In the end, while frustrated American army officers ter those who could prove their service to the British in the looked on, 1,336 men, 914 women, and 750 children Book of Negroes. Carleton told Washington that the British embarked on more than two hundred vessels waiting to would keep a record of the blacks being removed from spirit them out of the New York Harbour. Some of the Black New York, and he kept his promise with the meticulously Loyalists went to Quebec, England, or Germany, but most detailed ledger. travelled to Nova Scotia, establishing communities that The document gives not only the name and age of exist to this day in places such as Shelburne, Annapolis every black person who sailed from New York under British Royal, Digby, Sydney, and Halifax and its nearby areas.

22 February - March 2007 The Beaver The (Legislative) End of the Trade in Slaves

assed 200 years ago, the Slave Trade Act was 114 to 15, to become law on March 25, 1807. But it officially titled, “An Act for the Abolition of the would take another twenty-five years before slavery PSlave Trade.” The act rid the slave trade in the itself became illegal – when parliament passed the British Empire, which had begun about 250 years ear- Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. lier, during the reign of Elizabeth I. A group opposing The British soon set their sights on convincing the slave trade, consisting of Evangelical Protestants other nations to end the slave trade, if only to elimi- and Quakers, rallied behind the Slave Trade Act. The nate a foreseeable economic and competitive disad- Quakers had long viewed slavery as immoral. The anti- vantage they would be placed in. The British slave-trade groups had considerable numbers of sym- campaign was a large-scale foreign-policy effort. It pathizers in the English Parliament by 1807. Nicknamed would take decades to convince some nations to the “saints,” this alliance was led by parliamentarian abandon the slave trade. Denmark and the United William Wilberforce, the most vocal and dedicated of States banned the trade much later, around 1850. the campaigners. Wilberforce and Charles Fox led the Some small trading nations, such as Sweden and Hol- campaign in the House of Commons, whereas Lord land, which had little to lose, responded much earlier. Grenville was left to persuade the House of Lords. After the Slave Trade Act was passed in 1807, Brit- Grenville made a passionate speech arguing that ish captains caught transporting slaves were fined £100 the slave trade was “contrary to the principles of jus- for every individual found on board. Still, the slave tice, humanity, and sound policy” and criticized fellow trade continued, more deviously than ever. Slave ships members for not abolishing it. They put it to a vote. in danger of being captured by the British navy would The act was passed in the House of Lords by 41 votes throw many of their illegal passengers overboard to to 20 and it was carried in the House of Commons by minimize the £100 fine per individual.

Although many Nova Scotians can still trace their was a promised land for fugitive American slaves. Many heritage to the Black Loyalists, the blacks who arrived in of the people listed in the book travelled “on their own 1783 did not meet with a fairytale ending. Some never bottom” and free, assuming that their newfound liberty received the land they had been promised in exchange would be protected in Canada. On the other hand, a substan- for serving the British during the war, but worse, many tial number of the blacks listed in the Book of Negroes came were subjected to cruel treatment in the province – con- to this country as the property – slaves or indentured servants fronting a segregated society, the ropes of hangmen, – of white United Empire Loyalists. For them, Canada would and the first race riot in North America (when dis- be a new place to test the chains of human bondage. banded white soldiers drove blacks out of their homes in Birchtown, near Shelburne, in order to secure Lawrence Hill lives in Burlington, Ontario. His new novel, The Book of Negroes, employment for themselves). has just been released by HarperCollins Canada. For more information, see Understandably, more than one thousand Black . Loyalists elected to migrate again, just a decade later. Embarking in a flotilla of fifteen ships in the Halifax har- Et Cetera bour, they commenced the first “back to Africa” exodus in the history of the Americas, literally navigating past The Book of Negroes can be found in the Nova Scotia Public Archives, the National Archives of the United States, and in the slave vessels as they sailed east across the Atlantic National Archives (Public Records Office) in Kew, England. It can Ocean to found a new colony in Sierra Leone. That voy- also be found on microfilm at the National Archives of Canada, age, too, was thoroughly documented. But that is and accessed electronically through Library and Archives Canada, another story. by visiting: . deserves to be considered as such. The Nova Scotia Archives, the Nova Scotia Museum, the Public Archives In The Beaver: “In Bondage” by Tom Derreck. February/March 2003. of Canada, and the Black Loyalist Heritage Society have Black slavery arrived in Canada in 1628 aboard a privateer’s ship. It would all helped document the Book of Negroes. Like any great not be abolished for more than two centuries. “Jim Henson’s Journey” by historical document, it offers far too much information Peter Meyler. April/May 1998. Examines Jim Henson’s journey from to be absorbed in a single sitting. It offers repeated slavery to freedom. “The Varieties of Black Experience” by Christopher glimpses of the difficult relationship between Great Brit- Moore. June/July 2002. By the 1850s, blacks were a more rooted, ain and the nascent United States, and manages to both permanent, and diverse part of the Canadian population than the fugitive reinforce and shatter the romantic notion that Canada slave narratives might suggest. Back issues available at TheBeaver.ca.

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