DOCSLIB.ORG

A Brief History of NTP Time: Confessions of an Internet Timekeeper 1,2

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Brief History of NTP Time: Confessions of an Internet Timekeeper 1,2 A Brief History of NTP Time: Confessions of an Internet Timekeeper 1,2 David L. Mills, Fellow ACM, Senior Member IEEE3 Abstract This paper traces the origins and evolution of the Network Time Protocol (NTP) over two decades of con- tinuous operation. The technology has been continuously improved from hundreds of milliseconds in the rowdy Internet of the early 1980s to tens of nanoseconds in the Internet of the new century. It includes a blend of history lesson and technology reprise, but with overtones of amateur radio when a new country shows up on the Internet with NTP running. This narrative is decidedly personal, since the job description for an Internet timekeeper is highly individ- ualized and invites very few applicants. There is no attempt here to present a comprehensive tutorial, only a almanac of personal observations, eclectic minutae and fireside chat. Many souls have contributed to the technology, some of which are individually acknowledged in this paper, the rest too numerous left to write their own memoirs. Keywords: computer network, time synchronization, reports and briefing slide presentations are at technical history, algorithmic memoirs www.eecis.udel.edu/~mills/ntp.htm. There are three main threads interwoven in the follow- 1. Introduction ing. First is a history lesson on significant milestones for An argument can be made that the Network Time Proto- the specifications, implementations and coming-out par- col (NTP) is the longest running, continuously operat- ties. These milestones calibrate and are calibrated by ing, distributed application in the Internet. As NTP is developments elsewhere in the Internet community. Sec- approaching its third decade, it is of historic interest to ond is a chronology of the algorithmic refinements lead- document the origins and evolution of the architecture, ing to better and better accuracy, stability and robustness protocol and algorithms. Not incidentally, NTP was an that continue to the present. These algorithms represent active participant in the early development of the Inter- the technical contributions as documented in the refer- net technology and its timestamps recorded many mile- ences. Third is a discussion of the various proof-of-per- stones in measurement and prototyping programs. formance demonstrations and surveys conducted over the years, each attempting to outdo the previous in cali- This paper documents significant milestones in the evo- brating the performance of NTP in the Internet of the lution of computer network timekeeping technology epoch. Each of these three threads winds through the over four generations of NTP to the present. The NTP remainder of this narrative. software distributions for Unix, Windows and VMS has been maintained by a corps of almost four dozen volun- 2. On the Antiquity of NTP teers at various times. There are too many to list here, but the major contributors are revealed in the discussion NTP’s roots can be traced back to a demonstration at to follow. The current NTP software distribution, docu- NCC 79 believed to be the first public coming-out party mentation and related materials, newsgroups and links of the Internet operating over a transatlantic satellite net- are on the web at www.ntp.org. In addition, all papers work. However, it was not until 1981 that the synchroni- and reports cited in this paper (except [23]) are in Post- zation technology was documented in the now historic Script and PDF at www.eecis.udel.edu/~mills. Further Internet Engineering Note series as IEN-173 [35]. The information, including executive summaries, project first specification of a public protocol developed from it 1. Sponsored by: DARPA Information Technology Office Order G409/J175, Contract F30602-98-1-0225, and Dig- ital Equipment Corporation Research Agreement 1417. 2. This document has been submitted for publication. It is provided as a convenience to the technical community and should not be cited or redistributed. 3. Author’s address: Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, [email protected], http://www.eecis.udel.edu/~mills. 1 appeared in RFC-778 [34]. The first deployment of the There was considerable discussion during 1989 about technology in a local network was as an integral func- the newly announced Digital Time Synchronization Ser- tion of the Hello routing protocol documented in RFC- vice (DTSS) [23], which was adopted for the Enterprise 891 [32], which survived for many years in a network network. The DTSS and NTP communities had much prototyping and testbed operating system called the the same goals, but somewhat different strategies for Fuzzball [24]. achieving them. One problem with DTSS, as viewed by the NTP community, was a possibly serious loss of What later became known as NTP Version 0 was imple- accuracy, since the DTSS design did not discipline the mented in 1985, both in Fuzzball by this author and in clock frequency. The problem with the NTP design, as Unix by Louis Mamakos and Michael Petry at U Mary- viewed from the DTSS community, was the lack of for- land. Fragments of their code survive in the software mal correctness principles in the design process. A key running today. RFC-958 contains the first formal speci- component in the DTSS design upon which the correct- fication of this version [29], but it did little more than ness principles were based was an agreement algorithm document the NTP packet header and offset/delay calcu- invented by Keith Marzullo in his dissertation. lations still used today. Considering the modest speeds of networks and computers of the era, the nominal accu- In the finest Internet tradition of stealing good ideas, the racy that could be achieved on an Ethernet was in the Marzullo algorithm was integrated with the existing low tens of milliseconds. Even on paths spanning the Atlantic, where the jitter could reach over one second, suite of NTP mitigation algorithms, including the filter- the accuracy was generally better than 100 ms. ing, clustering and combining algorithms, which the DTSS design lacked. However, the Marzullo algorithm Version 1 of the NTP specification was documented in its original form produced excessive jitter and seri- three years later in RFC-1059 [27]. It contained the first ously degraded timekeeping quality over typical Internet comprehensive specification of the protocol and algo- paths. The algorithm, now called the intersection algo- rithms, including primitive versions of the clock filter, rithm, was modified to avoid this problem. The resulting selection and discipline algorithms. The design of these suite of algorithms has survived substantially intact to algorithms was guided largely by a series of experi- the present day, although many modifications and ments, documented in RFC-956 [31], in which the basic improvements have been made over the years. theory of the clock filter algorithm was developed and refined. This was the first version which defined the use In 1992 the NTP Version 3 specification appeared [18], of client/server and symmetric modes and, of course, the again in PostScript and now running some 113 pages. first version to make use of the version field in the The specification included an appendix describing a for- header. mal error analysis and an intricate error budget includ- ing all error contributions between the primary reference A transactions paper on NTP Version 1 appeared in source over intervening servers to the eventual client. 1991 [21]. This was the first paper that exposed the NTP This provided the basis to support maximum error and model, including the architecture, protocol and algo- estimated error statistics, which provide a reliable char- rithms, to the technical engineering community. While acterization of timekeeping quality, as well as a reliable this model is generally applicable today, there have been metric for selecting the best from among a population of a continuing series of enhancements and new features available servers. As in the Version 2 specification, the introduced over years, some of which are described in model was described using a formal state machine and following sections. pseudo code. This version also introduced broadcast The NTP Version 2 specification followed as RFC-1119 mode and included reference clock drivers in the state in 1989 [25]. A completely new implementation slavish machine. to the specification was built by Dennis Fergusson at U Toronto. This was the first RFC in PostScript and as Lars Mathiesen at U Copenhagen carefully revised the such the single most historically unpopular document in version 2 implementation to comply with the version 3 the RFC publishing process. This document was the first specification. There was considerable give and take to include a formal model and state machine describing between the specification and implementation and some the protocol and pseudo-code defining the operations. It changes were made in each to reach consensus, so that introduced the NTP Control Message Protocol for use in the implementation was aligned precisely with the spec- managing NTP servers and clients, and the crypto- ification. This was a major effort which lasted over a graphic authentication scheme based on symmetric-key year during which the specification and implementation cryptography, both of which survive to the present day. converged to a consistent formal model. 2 In the years since the version 3 specification, NTP has At this point the history lesson is substantially complete. evolved in various ways adding new features and algo- However, along the way several specific advancements rithm revisions while still preserving interoperability need to be identified. The remaining sections of this with older versions. Somewhere along the line, it paper discuss a number of them in detail. became clear that a new version number was needed, since the state machine and pseudo code had evolved somewhat from the version 3 specification, so it became 3. Autonomous Deployment NTP Version 4.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Measurement of Time
    Measurement of Time M.Y. ANAND, B.A. KAGALI* Department of Physics, Bangalore University, Bangalore 560056 *email: [email protected] ABSTRACT Time was historically measured using the periodic motions of the sun and stars. Various types of sun clocks were devised in Egypt, Greece and Europe. Different types of water clocks were assembled with ever greater accuracy. Only in the seventeenth century did the mechanical clock with pendulums and springs appeared. Accurate quartz clocks and atomic clocks were developed in the first half of the twentieth century. Now we have clocks that have better than microsecond accuracy. This article gives a brief account of all these topics. Keywords: Sun clocks, Water clocks, Mechanical clocks, Quartz clocks, Atomic clocks, World Time, Indian Standard time We all know intuitively what time is. It can be civilizations relied upon the apparent motion of roughly equated with change or motions. From these bodies through the sky to determine the very beginning man has been interested in seasons, months, and years. understanding and measuring time. More We know little about the details of recently, he has been looking for ways to limit timekeeping in prehistoric eras, but we find the “damaging” effects of time and going that in every culture, some people were backward in time! preoccupied with measuring and recording the Celestial bodies—the Sun, Moon, planets, passage of time. Ice-age hunters in Europe over and stars—have provided us a reference for 20,000 years ago scratched lines and gouged measuring the passage of time. Ancient holes in sticks and bones, possibly counting the Physics Education • January − March 2007 277 days between phases of the moon.
    [Show full text]
  • Grade 6 Quarter 1 Lessons Ycsd.Pdf
    Name__________________________________________________________________ th 6 Grade - Grading Period 1 Overview Ohio's New Learning Standards Minerals have specific, quantifiable properties. (6.ESS.1) Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary rocks have unique characteristics that can be used for identification and/or classification. (6.ESS.2) Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary rocks form in different ways. (6.ESS.3) Clear Learning Targets "I can": 1. _____ follow a laboratory procedure and work collaboratively within a group using appropriate scientific tools. 2. _____ work individually, with a partner, and as a team to test a scientific concept, change a variable, and record the experimental outcome. 3. _____ use the engineering design cycle to develop a solution with a predictable outcome. 4. _____ cite specific text or online resource to support a proposed design solution. 5. ____ identify minerals by testing their properties 6. ____ use mineral properties, to use in testing and identifying minerals. 7. ____ use the rock cycle to describe the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. 8. ____ identify the unique characteristics to classify rocks. 9. ____ describe the formation of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks 10. ____ use the unique characteristic of sedimentary rocks to identify and classify sedimentary rocks. 11. ____ identify the characteristics/classify metamorphic rocks. 12. ____ describe how metamorphic rocks form. Name_________________________________________________________________ th 6 Grade - Grading
    [Show full text]
  • 18 TK Client DS
    SECURE ENTERPRISE TIME SYNC WHITEPAPER SERIES TimeKeeper’s Competitive Survey Introduction The TimeKeeper® suite of products are more accurate, more reliable and far more capable than CAPEX-free open source alternatives. TimeKeeper has a lower OPEX than alternatives, but more importantly, TimeKeeper has features found nowhere else. These features include the ability to verify time is correct, compare against many time sources, report when time is incorrect or when time sources fail, and much more. Standard logging and integration provide guarantees of accuracy whenever proof is needed in the future. Some TimeKeeper customers previously built large in-house projects to try to make alternative solutions fit their needs. These expensive and very limited solutions were abandoned once they saw TimeKeeper gave them all they needed and more out of the box, saving valuable time and resources. TimeKeeper in use TimeKeeper hardware and software is in use by financial institutions of all sizes, from exchanges and very throughout Wall Street & large investment banks to small “prop shops”. TimeKeeper is there because after rigorously evaluating the globally product, customers found it gave them capabilities they simply could not get anywhere else. In addition, TimeKeeper support is far better than any of the competition. A few comments from our customers: “KCG has been using TimeKeeper Client and Server Software for two years in our trading environment with great success. TimeKeeper delivers accurate time, and has helped us to reduce operational risk with its built-in failover and event notification. We use TimeKeeper Client Software on our servers, using NTP or PTP to sync them to our GPS Based TimeKeeper Servers.” – Steve Newman, Managing Director, Corporate IT and Infrastructure, KCG “Technology is readily accessible for synchronizing to the microsecond, and there is no excuse for not having this in place today.
    [Show full text]
  • DS1284/DS1286 Watchdog Timekeepers Are
    DS1284/DS1286 Watchdog Timekeepers www.maxim-ic.com GENERAL DESCRIPTION FEATURES The DS1284/DS1286 watchdog timekeepers are . Keeps Track of Hundredths of Seconds, self-contained real-time clocks, alarms, watchdog Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Days, Date of the timers, and interval timers in a 28-pin JEDEC DIP Month, Months, and Years; Valid Leap Year and encapsulated DIP package. The DS1286 Compensation Up to 2100 contains an embedded lithium energy source and a . Watchdog Timer Restarts an Out-of-Control quartz crystal, which eliminates the need for any Processor external circuitry. The DS1284 requires an external . Alarm Function Schedules Real-Time-Related quartz crystal and a VBAT source, which could be a Activities lithium battery. Data contained within 64 8-bit . Embedded Lithium Energy Cell Maintains registers can be read or written in the same manner Time, Watchdog, User RAM, and Alarm as byte-wide static RAM. Data is maintained in the Information watchdog timekeeper by intelligent control circuitry . Programmable Interrupts and Square-Wave that detects the status of VCC and write protects Outputs Maintain JEDEC Footprint memory when VCC is out of tolerance. The lithium . All Registers are Individually Addressable via energy source can maintain data and real time for the Address and Data Bus over 10 years in the absence of VCC. Watchdog . Accuracy is Better than ±1 Minute/Month at timekeeper information includes hundredths of +25°C (EDIP) seconds, seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, . Greater than 10 Years of Timekeeping in the and year. The date at the end of the month is Absence of VCC automatically adjusted for months with fewer than .
    [Show full text]
  • A Measure of Change Brittany A
    University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Theses and Dissertations Spring 2019 Time: A Measure of Change Brittany A. Gentry Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd Part of the Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Gentry, B. A.(2019). Time: A Measure of Change. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/5247 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you by Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Time: A Measure of Change By Brittany A. Gentry Bachelor of Arts Houghton College, 2009 ________________________________________________ Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Philosophy College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina 2019 Accepted by Michael Dickson, Major Professor Leah McClimans, Committee Member Thomas Burke, Committee Member Alexander Pruss, Committee Member Cheryl L. Addy, Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School ©Copyright by Brittany A. Gentry, 2019 All Rights Reserved ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank Michael Dickson, my dissertation advisor, for extensive comments on numerous drafts over the last several years and for his patience and encouragement throughout this process. I would also like to thank my other committee members, Leah McClimans, Thomas Burke, and Alexander Pruss, for their comments and recommendations along the way. Finally, I am grateful to fellow students and professors at the University of South Carolina, the audience at the International Society for the Philosophy of Time conference at Wake Forest University, NC, and anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on various drafts of portions of this dissertation.
    [Show full text]
  • Table of Contents
    TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION I ACCESS THE KRONOS TIMEKEEPER I-1 SECTION II POST ABSENCE/ATTENDANCE CODES IN KRONOS II-1 A. Absence Reports II-1 B. Absence/Attendance Pay Codes II-2 C. Teacher’s Full Time Equivalency (FTE) II-8 D. Absences Posted to an Employee in the Full Screen Editor II-10 E. Employee's Balances Viewed from the Full Screen Editor II-19 F. Absences Viewed from the History Module II-21 SECTION III EDIT TIME IN TIME EDITOR III-1 A. Time Editor II-1 B. Editing a Punch or Absence Record III-4 C. Add an In and Out Punch III-6 D. Insert a Single Punch or a Transfer Punch III-9 E. Delete a Line Item III-11 F. Delete a Single Punch III-13 G. Forcing Overtime / Comp Time III-15 H. Editing Student Activities Records III-17 I Viewing Available Positions III-19 J. View Time Clock Punch Detail in History Inquiry III-21 Reference Pages Options in the Time Editor III-23 Function Keys in the Time Editor III-24 Help Screens Within the Column Headings III-25 SECTION IV RUN REPORTS FROM REPORT MODULE IV-1 A. Employee Master IV-2 B. Punch Detail IV-4 C. Punch Detail with Exceptions Only IV-8 D. Punch Detail Summary by Position Number IV-12 E. Punch Detail by Pay Codes IV-15 F Time Card Report IV-18 G. Total Hours IV-22 H. Approaching Overtime Report IV-24 I. Employee Accrual Report IV-26 Section II-1 Revised 7/23/2015 Revised SECTION V PRINT REPORTS FROM WORK SPOOL FILE V-1 A.
    [Show full text]
  • Time and Frequency Users' Manual
    ,>'.)*• r>rJfl HKra mitt* >\ « i If I * I IT I . Ip I * .aference nbs Publi- cations / % ^m \ NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 695 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Bureau of Standards Time and Frequency Users' Manual 100 .U5753 No. 695 1977 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 1 The National Bureau of Standards was established by an act of Congress March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology and facilitate their effective application for public benefit To this end, the Bureau conducts research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, a technical (3) basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to pro- mote public safety. The Bureau consists of the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research the Institute for Applied Technology, the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology, the Office for Information Programs, and the Office of Experimental Technology Incentives Program. THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United States of a complete and consist- ent system of physical measurement; coordinates that system with measurement systems of other nations; and furnishes essen- tial services leading to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry, and commerce. The Institute consists of the Office of Measurement Services, and the following center and divisions: Applied Mathematics
    [Show full text]
  • Rhythmic Auditory-Motor Entrainment of Gait Patterns in Adults
    RHYTHMIC AUDITORY-MOTOR ENTRAINMENT OF GAIT PATTERNS IN ADULTS WITH BLINDNESS OR SEVERE VISUAL IMPAIRMENT A DISSERTATION IN Music Education and Psychology Presented to the Faculty of the University of Missouri-Kansas City in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by DELLA MOLLOY-DAUGHERTY B.M.E., University of Kansas, 1992 M.M.E., University of Kansas, 1997 Kansas City, Missouri 2013 © 2013 DELLA MOLLOY-DAUGHERTY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED RHYTHMIC AUDITORY-MOTOR ENTRAINMENT OF GAIT PATTERNS IN ADULTS WITH BLINDNESS OR SEVERE VISUAL IMPAIRMENT Della Molloy-Daugherty, Candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2013 ABSTRACT The following study investigates the impact of a rhythmic cue on the observational gait parameters of a population of adults with blindness or severe visual impairment. Forty- six adults who had sight loss significant enough to require the use of a long cane for mobility purposes participated in the study. Participants were between the ages of 18 – 70 years. The study design was a within-subjects, repeated measures design with two levels for the independent variable of the metronome (uncued versus cued) and two levels for the independent variable of tempo (normal walk versus fast walk). Dependent variables of cadence (steps per minute), velocity (meters per minute), and stride length (cadence ÷ (velocity ⁄ 2)) were recorded. Within-subjects repeated measures statistical analyses identified a main effect for the independent variable of the metronome; subsequent analysis revealed that the metronome had a significant effect on the dependent variable of cadence. iii The presence of a rhythmic cue seemed to improve observational gait parameters for many of the study participants.
    [Show full text]
  • Computer Time Synchronization Computer Time Synchronization
    Computer Time Synchronization Computer Time Synchronization Michael Lombardi Time and Frequency Division National Institute of Standards and Technology The personal computer revolution that began in the 1970's created a huge new group of time and frequency users, those people who need to keep computer clocks on time. As you probably know, computer clocks aren't particularly good at keeping time. Simple clocks like your wristwatch and most of the clocks in your home usually keep better time than a computer clock. The poor performance of a computer clock can cause problems, since many computer applications require time kept to the nearest second or better. For example, the computers in a financial institution must keep very accurate records of when transactions were completed, for legal or other reasons. Computer systems that make physical measurements and acquire scientific data need to know precisely when the measurements were made. Software used on a manufacturing floor may need to turn a piece of equipment on or off at a specified time. Also, any system involved with synchronous communications must keep accurate time. For example, radio and TV stations may need computers that can switch feeds or link up with remotes at the right time. This paper describes several methods to keep accurate time by computer. Before looking at these methods, let's look at how a PC-compatible computer keeps time. Section 1.1 - How a Personal Computer keeps time Since the introduction of the IBM-AT personal computer in 1984, all PC-compatible computers have kept time the same way. Each PC contains two clocks, regardless of whether it uses the 286, 386, 486, or Pentium microprocessor (or a derivative).
    [Show full text]
  • Halloween Ball Promises . '
    .I . REFLECT . 1920 - Mirroring Life ot lndiona Central College - 1965 Volume 46, Number 4 Indianapolis, Indiana . Wednesday, October 27;=1965 Poet John Knoepfle Students To View OCTOBER, 30 ICC Advertising . ’. To Appear On Campus . Advertising and its concern on Halloween Ball Promises the college c a m p u s will be ex- Indiana Central College is delighted to bring the distinguished poet plored under the direction Of AIr. AIr. John Knoepfle to the campus Thursday and Friday. Nov. 4 and 5, Don Eisinger in the Student Lead- Treat - No Ghostly Tricks for the Sutpbin Lectures. ership Training Program Session Have you ever been served refreshments by a live “monster?” Or’ 1IIr. Knoepfle was born in Cin- Thursday, Oct. 28. have you recently found yourself placed in a “pleasant” atmosphere cinnati, 0.; in 1923. He obtained Mr. Eisinger will be the main of goblins, witches, and ghosts. Better still, have you on occasion en-’ his Master’s demee from Xavier speaker for this session in the Fine tered our cafeteria scarcely realizing that it is a plaee where food is University. In thi Navy he served Arts Auditorium at 9:35 a.m. IIe served? at Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Iie has wil relate the field of advertising For an evening of real enjoyment and for a chance to experience worked as a producer-director for directly with the recognized need for improvement in Indiana Cen- the things mentioned above, the Senior Class invites you to attend the an educational television station. IIallo\reen Ball - Saturday, Oct. 30 from 9 to 12 p.m.
    [Show full text]
  • Accurate and Stable Timekeeping Another Challenge Is the Process of Tuning (Locking) the Laser to the Atomic Transition Andrei Derevianko Frequency
    NEWS & VIEWS Corrected: Publisher Correction −19 ATOMIC CLOCKS figures (9.5 × 10 fractional uncertainty) by carefully evaluating the effects of numerous perturbations in their clock. Accurate and stable timekeeping Another challenge is the process of tuning (locking) the laser to the atomic transition Andrei Derevianko frequency. Because the measurement process is inherently noisy, locking requires averaging Atomic clocks reached a record-breaking uncertainty of less than 10−18 and over repeated measurements. The averaging the time needed to compare clocks is now less than an hour. These results error scales down as the inverse square root push towards a possible redefinition of the second from a microwave to an of the number of measurements, or as 1/√τ for a total integration time τ. For example, in optical standard. Al+ the reported fractional averaging uncer­ tainty or stability is 1.2 × 10−15/√τ, where τ is in Refers to Brewer, S. M. et al. 27Al+ quantum-logic clock with a systematic uncertainty below 10−18. Phys. Rev. Lett. 123, 033201 (2019) | Oelker E. et al. Demonstration of 4.8 × 10−17 stability at 1 s for two independent optical clocks. Nat. Photon. seconds. This means that reaching a frac­ −18 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-019-0493-4 (2019). tional uncertainty of 10 requires a 2­week experimental campaign. There are two aspects that any precision mea­ The appearance of an atom is far from being This brings us to the important advance surement must address: systematic errors and cameo in such clocks. Laser cavities and there­ in stability announced by Oelker et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Time and Frequency Users Manual
    A 11 10 3 07512T o NBS SPECIAL PUBLICATION 559 J U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / National Bureau of Standards Time and Frequency Users' Manual NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS The National Bureau of Standards' was established by an act of Congress on March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety. The Bureau's technical work is per- formed by the National Measurement Laboratory, the National Engineering Laboratory, and the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY provides the national system of physical and chemical and materials measurement; coordinates the system with measurement systems of other nations and furnishes essential services leading to accurate and uniform physical and chemical measurement throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry, and commerce; conducts materials research leading to improved methods of measurement, standards, and data on the properties of materials needed by industry, commerce, educational institutions, and Government; provides advisory and research services to other Government agencies; develops, produces, and distributes Standard Reference Materials; and provides
    [Show full text]