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ED 264 638 EA 017 932 AUTHOR Goodman, Leroy V., Ed. TITLE The Education Almanac, 1985-1986. Facts and Figures about Our Nation's System of Education. Second Edition. INSTITUTION National Association of Elementary School Principals, Alexandria, VA. PUB DATE 85 NOTE 297p. AVAILABLE FROMPublication Sales, National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke Street, Alexandria,VA 22314 ($14.95 prepaid). PUB TYPE Reference Materials - General (130)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC12 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Court Litigation; Educational Attitudes; Educational Change; Educational Finance; Educational History; Educational Trends; *Elementary Secondary Education; Enrollment; Federal Aid; Federal Programs; Microcomputers; National Organizations; Periodicals; School Law; School Support; Statistical Data; Tables (Data); Teacher Employment; Teachers; Yearbooks ABSTRACT A wide range of facts, figures, and background information about the operation of schools inthe United States is collected in this reference work. Materialon various topics is presented in the form of essays, lists, statisticaltables, charts, and brief descriptive articles. Among the topicsaddressed are efforts toward educational reform, currP:-.t issuesand trends in education, the character and 'istory of Anericaneducation, enrollment trends, teacher characteristics andemployment trends, microcomputer use, educational finance, and thestatus of education in each of the states. Other topicsare major national educational organizations, periodicals, and significant individuals;important federal agencies and programs; other nationalprograms; and recent court decisions affecting school law. Additional topicsinclude television, libraries, public relations, significantdates, and even jokes and quotes with educational themes. (PGD)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRSare the best that can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** THE EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

U.S. DWPANTININT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION "TM! *ION TO REPRODUCE THIS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES iNTORMATiON MA RIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) 14 This document has been mproduced as mimed from ttgr wow or orgemmuon originating it. 13 Minor changes hays been mods to away* reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated In this docu- TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES ment do not necessarily repiseem officio% NM Ralston or poky, INFORMATION CENTER (EFIIC),"

Facts and Figures About Our Nation 1111, System of Education THE EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Facts and Figure About Our Nation's System of Education

.1\Aiti.?

Prepared and Published by National Association of ElementarySchool Principals 3 ii

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 85-060359 International Standard Serial Number (ISSN 0747.5772) National Association of Elementary School Principals 1920 Association Drive Reston, VA 22091 Executive Director: Samuel G. Sava Copyright ©1985 by the National Association of Elementary School Principals

Editor: Leroy V. Goodman Contributing Editors. John H. Wherry, Virginia M. Ross, Jim Stimson, Story Moorefield, Mary Massey, Anne Lewis, Lillian M Goodman, Sherry i reeland, June Cook, RichardD. Bagin, Ashton Alvis Production: M. Rita Brown, Lee Greene, Charlotte Marson, Ellen Matthews, Carolyn Pool Typography: Scott Photographics, Inc. Printing: Ken Wirsing, VMW Printing, Inc. Printed in the United States of America The EducationAlmanac iii 1985-1986

This is the second edition of The (1984) edition. More are warmly Education Almanac, plannedas a invited, particularly in regard to continuingly revised and renewed information that might be included reference tool that brings togethera in future editions. wide range of facts, figures, and All such suggestions will be background information about the carefully studied. Staff limitations operation of America's schools. make it impossible, however, to The editors are grateful for the guarantee a response to such numerous valuable suggestions and comments or to questions about the comments generated by the initial, contents. 0, - ..14 '4110 .1:& 5 PP!" A N . AMERICAN SELECTION Of :tieffons iiLReading andSpeaking. CALCULATED TO IMPROVE the MINDSand It`EFIN the TASTE, of YOUTH': Aso A IC,. To inaruetthemikthecrAi OISTORys and POLITICS OfAi ttlieD STATES, TO WHIG} AIR HUMID,

f. U LIs 'ELOCLI +JON,andDIRECTIONSfor expref. fing the principal Passions of the M x a. s'ixo e THIRDPART of a Gtiati4iTicAt. INsTirdtt of the Eximiski LAWGUA0E.

---, Y NOAH. VIEB'STERrjun. Lsiputs. trraoo of,, DOSPISTATIONSon theENGLISH LAN. GUAOSir " CoLlicTIoNof Esr..sYs end Fitourive W.. IITINGS."ice. i, 3 el'0 *--.----7 Moms and Andrews's THIRDEI5ITION.. With -many COniScTIons end suynovistieTs, by the AUTHOR. .

-8, Seim w;th the Infant in hie Cradle t.Letthe &ft Word be Hips b.WASIIINGTOCL".Mist Assets.

6

BEST COPYAVAILABLE Contents

Foreword vii

Education's Newsiest Issues 1 The "Excellence" Movement 8 Charts of Recommendations 11 What's Right with American Education 13 America's Unique System of Education 19 A Brief History of American Education 23 Some Vital Education Statistics 32 Enrollments 35 Tables and Charts 37 Education Profiles of the States 55 What the Polls Say about Public Education 108 Microcomputers in the Schools 118 Meet the Nation's Teachers and Principals 122 Three Polls of Teachers and Principals 125 Major National Education Organizations 128 Recent Court Rulings Affecting the Schools 149 Selected Education Periodicals ; 161 Quotable Comments on Education 169 CONTENTS vi Some Emerging Educational Trends 174 The U.Department of Education 176 Federal Programs to Aid Elementary and Secondary Education 179 ERIC: Education's Burgeoning Resource File 191 Head Start: A New Lease on Life 194 Preschool Education: State Support Grows 196 The Magnet School Movement 199 Education in Canada 200 Toward A-1 K-8 Schools 203 About Homework 205 TV: The Semimarvelous Educational Medium 206 The American Library 210 Current Books on Education 213 PRAn Education Priority 218 Landmark Dates in American Education 224 Pathfinders in Education 230 Special Occasions for 1985 237 The National Assessment of Educational Progress 248 ED's Education Indicators 250 The National Teacher of the Year Program 252 American Education Week 253 National Distinguished Principals Program 254 The Pledge of Allegiance 255 Frequently Told Jokes at Education Conventions 256 Calendars for 1985, 1986 258 Index 260

8 Foreword VII School Reform: Missing the Boat

by Samuel G. Sava Executive Director, NAESP

he first of the course." Students in England, various task force Germany, Japan, and other reports on industrialized nations attend school educationthat of from 220 to 240 days a year, the National compared to 180 days for American Commission on Excellence in students. Foreign students are Educationappeared in April requiredto take courses in 1983. While it is too early to render advanced mathematics, biology, a verdict on the reforms engendered chemistry, physics, and geography, by those reports, it is not premature and to devote three times asmany to comment on their class hours to these subjectsas even recommendations in light of other the most science-oriented students research. in the U.S. In 1980, only eight Among the findings of the reform American states required schools to commissions were these: the offer foreign language instruction, proportion of American high school 35 required only one year of math students taking a vocationalor or science, and in 13 states, 50 college preparatory program percent or more of the credits dropped from 88 percent in 1964 to required for a high school diploma 58 percent in 1979; the rest takea could be chosen by the student. "general" program, which the These findings led to a broad National Commission characterized array of proposed reforms: tougher as "a cafeteria-style curriculum in curricula, with fewer electives; a which the appetizers and desserts longer school day and schoolyear; can easily be mistaken for the higher admissions standards among 9 FOREWORD =Mk viiiteacher-education institutions, and countries who have been attending a reduction in pedagogical courses school 240 days a year from the age in favor of substantive courses in of 5. other disciplines; and better As one principal expressed the management of the school day to matter, "The kids who will do the reduce time spent on discipline and extra homework don't need it, and classroom routines, and to the ones who need it won't do it." maximize "time on task." Age 15 is late to hope for even Though the panels differed in the modest change in a human's emphasis assigned each item, their attitude toward school, let alone recommendations were markedly radical change. similar in one respect: virtually all focused on the high schools. Common sense:As might be Certainly we must do the best we expected of adults concerned about can, within the relatively brief the nation's ambiguous economic period left to them, to strengthen fortunes, the members of the the academic and vocational reform panels laid heavy stress on preparation of our older students. disciplines readily convertible into Yet the near-total focus on industrial advantage, that is, higher secondary schooling, and the math, the sciences, computer near-total disregard of elementary literacy, and foreign languages. Yet schooling, flies in the face of the building blocks of math and human nature, common sense, science are laid in the primary educational research, and grades; youngsters who have failed educational experience. to master long division or the multiplication tables cannot do well Human nature: By thetime at algebra or calculus. According to youngsters enter high school, they the National Science Foundation, have had at least eight years of students who have formed a dislike formal education, have compiled for math or science in the early patterns of success, failure, or grades are unlikely to do well in average performance in school, and these subjects later onand they have developed strong likes and form their attitudes "as early as the dislikes for certain subjects. Their third grade." learning personalities have been Foreign languages are most easily powerfully shaped by their previous and quickly learned in the early experience in school. Though years; as someone has pointed out, pressure from adults in such forms "We all learned a foreign language as higher expectations and more by the time we were threethe homework may produce temporary language our parents spoke." And change, it is absurd to expect that computers, which are only teenagers accustomed to the inanimate slaves designed to chop comparatively relaxed pace of the simplest command into dozens American schools will suddenly be or hundreds of "yes" or "no" bits transformed into avid students, according to instructions flogging themselves into a patriotic programmed for them by a human zeal to bail out the economy by being, presuppose a literate bettering their peers in other operator. Turning the computer l.0 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

into a tool rather than a diversion first grade. "It would appear, requires the ability to read, write, therefore, that our national and thinkeach of which, unless it problem lies not only in American is conferred at the elementary schools, but also in American school level, is rarely conferred at homes," Stevenson concluded ina all. 1983 report. "When differences in achievement arise so early in the Educational research:In the child's formal education,more early 1960s, research by a variety of must be involved than inadequate cognitive psychologistsscholars educational practices in the first and practitioners inquiring into the grade." sequential development of the Stevenson began his report, human intellectgave rise to such provocatively enough, by referring statements as this, by John Fischer, to the reform commissions and former President of Columbia their concentration "on the nation's Teachers College: secondary schools, a questionable There is substantial evidence that emphasis.... Improving secondary the level of intellectual capability education is an important goal, but young people will achieve at 17 is efforts concentrated on secondary already half-determined by the age school students may come too late of four, and that another 30 in their academic careers to be percent is predictable at seven effective." years. This is no ground for believing that a child's academic Experience:Finally, the focus of fate is sealed by his seventh our reform efforts on high schools birthday, but it means that a contradicts our experienceonce community that seriously wants to we have been sufficiently patient to improve its children's opportunities ascertain what that experience is, will start them to school early. rather than hoping for some "quick fix" to produce persuasive results The specific percentages of within a year or two: cognitive development cited by Dr. The Perry Preschool Program, Fischer have since been disputed, conducted in Ypsilanti, Michigan, in but the basic ideathat a the early 1960s, worked for five disproportionate amount of years with disadvantaged, black, intellectual development takes place below average (IQs between 70 and in the early yearshas not been 85) children. Early IQ gains of 12 challenged. points, which elated the program Indeed, this insight of 20 years designers, disappeared by the ago is given fresh support by Harold second grade. Nevertheless, by W. Stevenson of the University of tracking these youngsters until they Michigan, whowith American, were 19, the Perry researchers Chinese, and Japanese colleagues- discovered that 67 percent of them studied 5,000 first and fifth graders had graduated from high school, in those three nations and found compared to 47 percent of their that American youngsters lag classmates who had not participated detectably behind their Asian peers in the program; 58 percentwere as early as the fourth month of the employed, compared to 32 percent 11 FOREWORD x of non-program classmates, and such a wide range of kindergarten only 17 percent were on welfare, as programs. Moreover, Woodruff opposed to 37 percent of their found, students with kindergarten non-program classmates. On other backgrounds had been held back measures, the Preschool students at from advancing ko the next grade age 19 had markedly lower much less oftensaving Tennessee frequencies of arrests or taxpayers $2.5 million annually. pregnancies, better behavioral There may be those who will records while in school, and had continue to insist that the salvation been held back in school much less of American education lies in often than their classmates. improving our high schools. If they Bobby J. Woodruffs should prevail, the educational examination (for the Appalachia reform movement will continue to Educational Laboratory and the miss the boat. Our youngsters are Tennessee State Department of as capable as those of any other Education) of the 1979-80 scores of nation; it is not the difficulty of all 64,000 eighth-grade students in secondary-level studies that lowers Tennessee indicated that the their achievement and hampers two-thirds who had attended their transition into productive kindergarten in 1971-72 clearly adulthood. It is, rather, their exceeded their classmates in earliest experiences with the most scholastic performance. This humble learning tasks. Those finding is particularly remarkable in experiences shape our children's that it included such a large response to everything that follows. number of students, across all Genuine educational reform must socioeconomic levels, and from begin early in childhood.

12 Education's Newsiest IIssues

he education issues In the following list, the issues that made headlines that probably will generate the most in 1983 and 1984 are friction, and the biggest headlines, likely to make them are listed first. But that's just a again in 1985 and function of how the tea leaves fall. 1986, and some may pick up steam Supposedly minor issues have been rather than fizzle out. As for the known to come back to haunt issues related to school reform, the school planners. focus has shifted from national studies to state and local action. Merit pay for teachers: This idea There remains, to be sure, a has been kicking around for years, cosiderable question as to how but in 1984 many of the nation's much school reform will stay in the governors made it a central issue in limelight. their dealings with state The education establishment is legislatures, to the tune of a not designed for rapid change. The background chorus of approval and huge size of the enterprise together support by President Reagan and with its conservative nature tends former Education Secretary Terre! to make education immune to Bell. convulsive upheaval. Nonetheless, The secretary stumped almost public opiniondriven by such incessantly for some form of merit new influences as governors and the pay in speeches around the country, business communitymay have his favorite being the master created irresistible pressures for teacher plan, which would give change. teachers additional responsibilities 13 NEWSIEST ISSUES

2 along with higher pay. "Until we do objective rating of quality to each this," he said, "we will continue to teacher's performance. Under Bell's lose our best talent after a few years plan, teachers would be reviewed by of teaching." President Reagan their peers, a system he says is publicly blamed "some of the "eminently more attainable." heaviest hitters in the national Meanwhile, the push for some education lobby" for delays in state form of incentive pay seems to have action, a barb aimed at the National unearthed another problem: The Education Association. Albert poor quality of most evaluation Shanker of the rival American systems, a situation that led analyst Federation of Teachers presumably Arthur Wise of the Rand scored points when he declared that Corporation to object to "reforms "Some of the more recent proposals that assume that there is already in allowing advancement of teachers place an adequate evaluation to master teacher-type career roles system." Incentive pay based on involving extra pay warrant inadequate evaluations, he pointed consideration." This won praise out, won't be accepted by teachers. from the Administration and some sectors of the education Tuition lax credits: This community, and may have forced proposal met defeat in the Senate in the NEA to moderate its stand. 1983, but continued backing from It has pretty much been left to the Reagan Administration and the governors, however, to lead the religious lobbyists ensures a second way. Thus Tennessee Governor chance in 1985 and 1986 and Lamar Alexander, after failing in possibly throughout the Reagan 1983, convinced his legislature to administration. Nonetheless, install a master-teacher program in opposition from a unified public 1984. education lobby together with heavy California, Florida, Idaho, budget pressures will assure any )llinois, and Utah soon followed suit new proposal an uphill struggle. with master-teacher or Shortly after the 1983 bill's career-ladder plans. Many other Senate defeat, Department of statesat least 24 according to the Education Deputy Undersecretary National Center for Education Cary Bauer vowed that the Statisticshave begun considering Administration "would continue to them and almost certainly will take strongly push" for tax credits. This some sort of action during 1985 and included recruiting Edward 1986. The Southern Governors' Anthony, a tax credit lobbyist for Association has made the issue a the U.S. Catholic Conference, for top priority in that area of the the Department's legislative staff. nation. The principal sponsors, Senators Bell also sought to clear up Daniel Patrick Moynihan (D-NY) confusion between "the and Robert Packwood (R-OR), are old-fashioned merit pay concept" continuing their fight for passage; and his master-teacher/ equally firm are such opponents as career-ladder proposals. Under the Senators Ernest Hollings (D-SC), former, a principal or other Lowell Weicker (R-CT), and David superior assigns a presumably Boren (D-OK).

14 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Moynihan and others seem to be doubtless continue to involve the 3 placing their hopes chiefly on the President, the Congress, the U.S. matter of "fairness," arguing that Supreme Court, and state parents who send their children to governments, but not necessarily private schools are paying twice the nation's educators. in tuition and in local property Each year there ;ire predictions taxes. The Administration may well that the Supreme Court will make a follow suit, in effect abandoning the final judgment on the matter, and contention that competition conceivably it may actually do so in between public and private schools 1985 or 1986. will help both improve. The kind of case that might lead Opponents will doubtless say to such a resolution is typified by something like this: "At a time of Wallac.; v. Jaheree, brought by an proposals for severe cuts in the agnostic parent who challenged federal budget, affecting crucially Alabama's voluntary school prayer important programs, it would be law. Lower courts held the law to be unthinkable for the Congress to unconstitutional, but on appeal the consider proposals that could cost high court accepted the case for more than $2.3 billion initially and argument. Having done so there is added amounts thereafter. Georgia always the chance that the court State Superintendent of Schools will overturn the rulings of the Charles McDaniel told a House lower courts and make a definitive subcommittee that the plan would ruling. result in the federal government In any event the case capsulizes paying up to $560 per student in the basic issues involved. private schools and just $145 per Ishmael Jaffree sued the state student in public schools and asked, over teacher-led prayers, and the "is this the proper federal role in legislature responded with a law education?" sanctioning those prayers. It even Opponents have mustered potent established a state prayer. That counterarguments to the claims of measure was quickly stricken by the supporters. Those who tout the courts, but a companion bill fairness issue should realize that providing for a moment of silence state and local taxes are paid to for silent prayer or meditation at ensure an educated populace, they the start of the school day is still on say, not for the schooling of a the books. A Department of Justice taxpayer's child. And to the brief contends that "moment-of- contention that private schools silence statutes are libertarian in relieve public education of some of the precise spirit of the Bill of its teaching load, opponents note Rights: they accommodate those that private schools usually "cream" who believe that prayer should be the ablestand cheapest to teach an integral part of life's and seldom take those with activities... ." A federal appeals learning problems. court ruled, however, "that the state cannot participate in the advancement of religious activities School prayer: The debate on through any guise, including prayer in public schools will teacher-led meditation. It is not the 15 ri NEWSIEST ISSUES 4activity itself that concerns us; it is transcends educational attainment. the purpose of the activity." Senator Christopher Dodd (D-CT) The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed recently pointed out before the that ruling but nevertheless agreed Senate Children's Caucus the to hear further argument in significant risk for children left connection with the Alabama home unattended. One-sixth of all "silent prayer" statute. Some 21 fires in Newark, NJ., are started by other states have similar laws on children at home alone, he noted, the books. adding that "Children between the In its deliberations the court ages of 6 and 16 were the victims of presumably would consider the over 15 million injuries in this three-part test developed under country." Lemon v. Kurtzman in 1971. To be These pressures and some deft ruled constitutional, this test held, politicking led Congress to add a a law must (1) have a secular new section to the Head Start purpose; (2) have a principal effect statute that could provide up to $20 that neither advances nor inhibits million in state grants to improve religion; and (3) not lead to child care. The program would excessive government entanglement support "school-age child care with religion. Some constitutional services before and after school in szholars have suggested that this public or private school facilities or standard itself may be on the way in community centers in out and may be replaced by the communities where school facilities current Supreme Court or by a are not available." It also would court made even more conservative support state and local resource and by future appointments by referral activities. The legislation President Reagan. got its start in Congress as a separate School Facilities Child Care Act, sponsored by Latchkey children: One-fifth of Representative Patricia Schroeder all school-age children now live in (D-CO). Her bill would have single. parent homes, up from 12 supported grants and assessment at percent in 1970. Six million the federal level rather than grants children between 6 and 13 care for to states. themselves after school, and 60 Margaret Heckler, secretary of percent of all women with children the Department of Health and are in the workforce. Educators Human Services, added an increasingly feel that an t stra effort economic incentive to providing is called for in dealing with such quality child care. "Availability of students. The federal government adequate day care is an essential has evinced interest in getting into element if welfare mothers or the act, through a program to others with young children are to promote after-school child care; it work," she said. The U.S. apparently has settled the question Commission on Civil Rights has of who should provide after-school pointed out that lack of child care care by stipulating this as a school also prevents low-income women responsibility. from participating in subsidized The problem of latchkey children education and training programs. 16 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986 Asbestos:This issue is likely to on the quality of work done in the grow in significance because the state. Other states seem certain to public is becoming increasingly continue this trend. aware of asbestos hazardsan Meanwhile, unions continue to awareness fed by press coverage, the pressure EPA and individual states widespread concern about to step up abatement efforts. The environmental matters, and the Service Employees International Environmental Protection Agency's Union, which represents various newly aggressive enforcement nonprofessional school employees, policies. Many educators complain has sued EPA over its failure to that this aggressiveness is not address the problem. Similarly, New accompanied by help in dealing Jersey teachers sued the state over with this perplexing problem. failure to clean up schools. EPA stepped up enforcement in The national effort to clean up 1984, fining several districts for asbestos in schoolsand in other failing to inspect buildings public buildingsremains a appropriately and notify faculty and patchwork of conscientious efforts parents. EPA cited an additional 200 and horror stories. Experts report districts without fining them. that some contractors still back But in seeking solutions to the their trucks to school windows an'd problem the states appear to have throw asbestos out as if it was been bequeathed the lead. The ordinary plaster. The pressure to Reagan Administration has opposed cut costsand laws requiring federal funding to help schools schools to take low bids from remove asbestos, although Congress contractorscause contractors to recently approved $50 million to cut corners, often with disastrous help the nation's neediest schools. results. EPA opposed this program and does But schools are making progress, not plan to ask for any funds at all at least, on the legal front. A in 1985 and perhaps 1986. EPA bankruptcy court in New York is official Edward Klein explained that accepting property damage claims the agency does not want schools from school districts against the "to sit around and wait for the Manville Corporation. Some say money." All sides agree that the $50 that firm declared bankruptcy in million is far short of what is order to avoid asbestos liability, needed to solve the problem, whose though the outcome of this total cost is estimated at $1.4 maneuver is not clear. A federal billion. judge in Philadelphia, in a separate New Jersey is enacting an lawsuit, certified all public and ambitious school-aid program, private schools in the country as paired with tough standards for parties to a class-action suit against inspections and contractors. The 56 asbestos companies. The action state also has set an extremely low covers only property damage, and air-level limit for airborne asbestos districts that seek large awards or fibers. Maryland has a program that punitive damages may opt out and requires contractor training and *sue their own lawsuits. In licensing, which one contractor Lexington County, South Carolina, says has had a remarkable impact U.S. Gypsum settled out of court for

1,I NEWSIEST ISSUES

6$675,000, almost twice what the the 'excellence movement' is district spent to remove its promoting. The colleges of asbestos. education, for example, have clear and strong interests in continuing Teacher training: With the to be the primary route into the nationwide push to improve teaching occupation." teaching, teacher training The movement to downgrade institutions are falling under teacher education has raised a increasingly closer scrutiny. backlash among some educators. Schools of education face two David Berliner, a professor at the immediate challenges: to upgrade University of Arizona, argues that, the quality of all teachers and to "for the first time, teacher provide a better supply in shortage education has a scientific areas such as mathematics, science, foundation. But now that we are and foreign languages. capable of monumental reform in The quality issue has been teacher educationreform guided addressed to at least some extent by by researchwe hear only calls for state boards of education and by the reduction or total elimination of legislatures. Illinois created a board teacher preparation programs." to monitor its 64 teacher-training Berliner notes the exceedingly institutions, resulting in the complex task facing a teacher- -up decertification of four of those to 1,500 transactions per day and 10 institutions and disapproval of more significant decisions each hour than 300 separate programs. That and insists that teachers need more same state board also recommended pedagogical training, not less. He more and earlier field training for paints a picture of a field on the prospective teachers. verge of major breakthroughs. A tea..her shortage problem led This issue may gain visibility if some statesNew Jersey was one the focus on :eform in coming to enact alternate certification years shifts from elementary and procedures, permitting those secondary schools to higher without the usual background of education. The public will continue education coursework to enter the to demand better schools and with classroom. Though these systems them better teachers. The critical usually are touted as short-term or question would appear to be emergency solutions, the very whether the reform from within existence of such a trend would that Berliner envisions will take seem to some to indicate a place before public dissatisfaction continuing erosion of support for forces a major shakeup of the educational pedagogy. institutions from without. Conservative observers view such trends with skepticism. Chester Special education: The terrain of Finn of Vanderbilt University notes, special education is shifting. The "The educational enterprise, like initial thrust of Public Law 94-142, most others, is driven by the Education for All Handicapped institutional and organizational Children Act enacted in 1975, was vested interests, many of which are to get orthopedically impaired seriously threatened by the changes students and the educable mentally 18 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 S- 1 9 8 6

retarded into regular classrooms as those kids are classic LD kids," he much as possible. But in recent said, perhaps as high as 45 percent, years almost all of the growth in the and adds that a large number of the special population has come from functional illiterates in adult learning-disabled students. prisons also show signs of learning Total handicapped enrollment disabilities. increased from 3.7 million in 1977 "If a kid really needs services, he to 4.2 million in 1983, but analysts gets them," said Stan Dublinske of note that this total would have the American Speech-Language- declined if the LD group hadn't Hearing Association. "It's the grown from 796,000 to 1,741,000. peripheral ones they're having a As a percentage of total school hard time justifying." Dublinske enrollment, the LD group grew sees a disturbing trend in which during that period from 1.8 percent "some districts are setting tighter of all students to 4.4 percent. eligibility standards," a move that Moreover, said Joseph Ballard of could eliminate services to some LD the Council for Exceptional students. Public Law 94.142 Children, these are the students permits states to set their own most likely to be "mainstreamed" standards, and federal officials into regular classes. That's why the "haven't done a good job of defining CEC advocates "a strong who is or isn't handicapped." movement.. . to develop The problems for school officials collaborative models with general are varied. First, they are education." Special educators and confronted with the isolated case of classroom teachers "have got to get a severely handicapped student. to know each other," Ballard said, "It's not that the average cost is because an increasing proportion of high," Garry points out. ",,ut for a special education students will find few kids, the cost is very high." their way to regular classrooms. Local educators also may lack the Parents whose children struggle resources or expertise to address in school are turning to special the subtle problems of the LD education in increasing numbers to student. How much counseling is get help for their children. The LD justified? Is psychological testing a label is imprecise and has been used related service under the law? How to describe conditions ranging from much parent training is necessary severe dyslexia to moderate reading or practical. or mathematical difficulties. Nationally, both Dublinske and In the past many LD students Ballard complain, there is little weren't even identified, much less information on how LD students given special services. Where are are being served and in what types they today? Martin Gerry, a lawyer of educational settings. "We who specializes in issues involving constantly hear about the fact that the handicapped, finds them in related services are very costly," prisons and juvenile detention said Dublinske, "but unfortunately, facilities. "A very high percentage of there's no reliable data."

19 8The "Excellence" Movement

he continuing District of Columbia (to take production of reports effect over a three-year period). dealing with A longer school day or school educational year, or schedule changes that excellence has result in reserving a greater part predictably produced a bonanza of of the school day to teaching and rhetoric, but that is not all. It has learningin 24 states and the also touched off a wave of genuine District of Columbia. reform in the states and local Stricter controls over teacher school districts that seems destined certification, recertification, to shape American education for the evaluation, and teacher education remainder of the current decade. programsin 42 states (also over More than 200 state commissions a three-year period). dealing with excellence in general, Payment of higher salaries to the or such facets of it as teacher better teachersin at least 20 training and pay, studied and made states and the District of recommendations in the months Columbiathrough following the release of the most master-teacher, merit-pay, or influential of the various statements career-ladder plans that affect the Department of Education's A about 1 million teachers. Nation At Risk. Special loan and scholarship In following up on that report the incentives to encourage college Department noted such students to become math and developments as these: science teacherspassed by 29 Stiffer high school graduation state legislatures. requirements in 41 states and the In several states the reforms were 20 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

more than piecemeal. Texas and control (American School Board 9 South Carolina, for example, Journal, September 1984). approved massive reform measures. Others called reactions such as The South Carolina plan contains these a "backlash" that shows a lack more than 60 provisions, ranging of faith in high-quality teaching and from pre-kindergarten programs to systematic learning (The American requiring training of school Spectator, September 1984). administrators. Many groups presented their own Reaction to the so-called reform suggestions, one being the "excellence movement" has National Association of Elementary nonetheless included certain School Principals. Noting that A reservations. First, many local and Nation At Risk tended to slide over state education leaders point out the critical K-8 years and that most that the reform movement had of the reform proposals are directed begun before A Nation At Risk was at the high school, NAESP released and that results of better developed standards of excellence in teaching already had begun to show seven categoriesorganization, up in reports from the National leadership, curriculum, instruction, Assessment of Educational training and development, school Progress. This was particularly true, climate, and evaluation and they said, for children considered assessment (see page 203). "hard to teach," such as the According to the National disadvantaged and minority student Education Association, the populations. deliberations on reform have too Student advocacy groups and often failed to include teachers. Its others are critical of some of the Task Force on Educational quantitative emphasis in the Excellence called for a restructuring reformsmore courses, more time of schooling, with formal education in schoolas the antithesis of what beginning at age 4; off -campus is needed by such special groups of opportunities integrated with students as potential dropouts and classroom learning; and an the non-college-bound. They also emphasis on solving problems and have expressed fears that the thinking critically. resources and attention going to The National Association of educational excellence detract from Secondary School Principals said the unfinished agenda for real reform must take place at the educational equity. school level. Among other things it According to one reviewer of called for limiting stricter high various reactions to the reform school graduation requirements to efforts, the critics' opinionscan be college-bound students and not summed up as follows: The reforms students receiving technical and in some states are basedon occupational training. The unreasonable and unrealistic principals also disapproved of a assumptions about schools, changes longer school day or year, urging are being made without regard to instead that the current time be their impact on school curriculaor used more wisely. the supply of teachers, and changes While the early discussion about could erode the tradition of local reforms (particularly by President "EXCELLENCE"

10 Reagan and former Secretary of form of awarding performance. Education T. H. Bell) emphasized Through series of ceremonies, the the need for merit pay, there was a U.S. Department of Education has turn in direction as the months recognized outstanding secondary went by. Plans that once had been schools, elementary schools, private labeled "merit pay" began to be schools, vocational schools, math discussed rather as career-ladder and science teachers, and school plans, and the Department of boards. Education talks of "master teacher" Discussions of merit pay and programs. other aspects of the education One critic, Joseph Featherstone, reform movement will doubtless an educator and writer now become less fervent but they will preparing a follow-up book to High not soon end; indeed, given the School: A Report on Secondary far-flung nature of our system of Education in America, suggested education and its complexities, the three guidelines for the reform debate may become more extensive movement. It must advocate quality and more probing. The American for all, it must use the individual people clearly favor constructive school as the locus of reform, and it changeand as numerous surveys must ally with principals and have revealed, they say they are teachers. willing to pay the taxes necessary to At the federal level, the push for assure that excellence is achieved. educational excellence. took the

22 : - - 0 tanamaammumaimusZimasmaaunNuaimaimmiumamagm11111111111113111111111111111ammiuma mum imam taaammuammlam41111111131111111111111121111311Unamanammams,11011111Mdanamanrnaamarsamunaaa11111111=1:11113111111111111111 1311111111111131111a rimmenro anausamm 4cmumnismoutemsimumarmommormumMaaaaaamaamaamlasausaimmiinanaamainoHaaaaaammansaaaaaaaaamamiamas om 01:111111111111311111 Ns Innarnmscos r %ciacammiumumu nammicumummi 4Mmuom. Ingummumu101301130131:113inumninciciourmiunummummmuomuuucommmumiounitunumnumsOU mmumommummu U U mmuniummommium umm mmium ilimum $1111:11011111MUME111111111111113DO ISME11101111101EMIEMDU 1:1131131131CIEIN013013101 itionommonam cluc13UUIUUUIO 00112UUEILI1301111311:3111131111111E111111111 Nam What's Right with 13 IAmerican Education?

merica's system of expects a lot from them. education has been Fortunately there is a strong receiving more public foundation on which to build. Far attention during the more is right with American last couple of years education than is wrong with it,as than it had during the previous witness such matters as the decade. Most of it has been critical. following: While some felt the criticisms were unfairly damaging and a few seemed The Public Believes Education Is to feel they heralded the demise of Important public education, most educators welcomed education's return to the According to the National Opinion spotlight. The most important Research Center, the public placesa aspect of the criticisms, they said, higher priority than ever on was the vivid demonstration of how education today. In 1984, 65 deeply the people care about their percent of the people surveyed felt schoolsthe depth of their concern we are "spending too little" on that education in America do its job education. in our democratic society. Given While 65 percent think weare the message that ours is "A Nation spending too little on education, At Risk," the response was to move only 61 percent think weare promptly toward reform. spending too little on the That our schools needed environment, 60 percent on health, strengthening clearly was true 51 percent on solving the problems and always will be, for the nation ofgScities, 37 percent on helping WHAT'S RIGHT

14blacks, 25 percent on welfare, 18 the hundreds of thousands of percent on the military support staff workers who keep our armaments and defense, 13 percent schools operating every day. on space, and 5 percent on foreign aid. Only solving crime (at 70 Attesting to the value the public percent) and drug addiction (66 sees in getting an education, the percent) outranked education. Bureau of the Census has found that each succeeding generation has There is good news about potential spent more years in school than the public tax support. In response to a one preceeding it. The latest figures question in the 1983 Gallup Poll, a (for 1979) show that: clear majority of the people 58 People 25 to 29 years old had an percentsaid "Yes," they would be average of 12.9 years of willing to pay more taxes to raise education education standards. People 45 to 49 years old had an average 12.5 years of education A recent poll by Time magazine in People 75 and over had an conjunction with the survey firm of average of just 8.8 years of Yankelovich, Skelly & White found education that "Providing Quality Education" ranked only behind "Reducing the Risk of Nuclear War" and Schools Today Serve Everyone "Providing Jobs for the Unemployed" among a list of 16 The long-held dream of assuring an urgent national concerns. appropriate education to every "Providing Quality Education" youngster is closer to reality today outranked such matters as in the United States than at any "Keeping Inflation Under Control," time, in any nation, in history. "Reducing the Amount of Crime," American schools, for example, "Keeping Our Defense Strong," make special education programs "Protecting the Environment," available to virtually every child "Stopping the Spread of with a handicap. The latest available Communism," and "Dealing figures (1982-83) indicate that 10.7 Effectively with the Soviet Union." percent of our overall school population are now involved in Education has the potential of special learning programs of some remaining high on the public's list kind, an all-time high. The figure of top priorities. Why? Because compares with 9.6 percent in education is the primary activity of 1979-80 and 8.3 percent in 1976-77. nearly 61 million Americans. Statistics show that more than one Dramatic evidence of how today's of every four of our 234 million U.S. schools are serving everyone is seen population are directly involved in in the rapid increases in the the educational process as students, enrollment of students in their teachers, principals, early years. We see steadily growing superintendents, supervisors or enrollments in nursery and other instructional staff members. kindergarten programsfrom And these figures do not even count 4,279,000 in 1970 to 5,859,000 in 6 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

1984 and a projected 6,877,000 by Assessment of Educational Progress 15 19901 have shown encouraging improvement in recent years in In a society that believes it is math and reading for students at important to educate all children to ages 9 and 13, mobile score! for the full extent of their ability, our 17-year-olds have gone down schools' record in enrolling and slightly. A downward trend in retaining students clearly adds up science test scores for 9-, 13-, and to educational success. According to 17-year-olds has continuud, but the latest statistics available (for with increased attention to science 1982): lately, authorities expect 90 percent of our 5-year-old improvements the next time the children were in school tests are given. (kindergarten) In education today we are often 99 percent of those 6 to 13 concerned about attendance years old were in school problems. But students today attend (grades 1-8) school far more regularly than 94 percent of those 14 to 17 years students in previous generations. old were in school (grades During the 1869-70 school year, 9-12), and only 59 percent of the students 30 percent of those 18 to 27 years enrolled attended school regularly. old were in school (college) Today, not only do we have a higher percentage of students enrolled in Not only are our schools enrolling schools but over 90 percent of them more students earlier and ke(:ping attend school regularly. them longer, but "lifelong learning" is also becoming a reality today.oy Looking at student attendance facts 1981, according to the latest figures in another way, in 1869-70 the available, over 21,550,000 people average length of a school term was were participating in adult 132 days and the typical student education programs. attended school only 78 days a year. Today, the average length of the As of Fall 1982, the latest available school term is 179 days and the figures, an all-time high of typical student attends school 161 12,426,000 students were enrolled days each year. in colleges and universities. PublicAttitudes About Schools Are There is Encouraging News About Improving Our Students One of the best measures of public Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) opinion about our schools is the scores have finally reversed a nearly annual Gallup survey of public 25-year decline. Since bottoming attitudes toward the public schools. out in about 1980, scores have been In the 1984 poll, 48 percent of going steadily upward. those surveyed gave their local schools an A or B grade, an increase Student achie reme. A test scores as of 11 percentage points over the measured by the National previous yearand the highest WHAT'S RIGHT

16 percentage of As and Bs since 1976. level of adults in the United States over the years. In 1910, the typical In the 1984 Gallup Poll of public adult 25 years old or older had 8.1 attitudes toward the public schools, years of education. By 1950, 40 50 percent of those surveyed rated years later, the typical adult had 9.3 the teachers in their local public years of education. As of 1982, the schools A or B compared with 39 typical adult had 12.6 years of percent in 1981. education and the level is still rising today. In the latest Gallup Poll, 47 percent rated their local schools' principals We tend to think that education has and administrators A or B compared always been much as it is today. But with 36 percent in 1981. this overlooks many of our most substantial achievements. Forty-one percent in the most Educational historian Ralph W. recent Gallup Poll rated their local Tyler has estimated that at the time school board A or B, the first our country's Declaration of time that question had been asked. Independence was signed in 1776, 85 percent of our population was More and more, Americans are illiterate. Thanks to our educational indicating that they would be system, by 1959 the Bureau of the willing to raise taxes to improve Census found only 2.2 percent of their schools. In the 1984 Gallup our population illiterate. By 1969 it Poll, 41 percent said they would was only one percent, and the best vote to raise taxes in situations estimates are that less than one-half when schools said they needed of one percent of our population much more moneythe highest today can neither read or write. percentage since 1969, when 45 percent said they would raise taxes, Concern is often expressed today and a significant increase from because something just under 75 1981, when only 30 percent said percent of our 17ear-olds have they would support such taxes. graduated from high school. But in fact, this is the highest percentage We Can Point to Substantial School in our nation's history. In 1869-70, Achievements only 2 percent of our 17-year-olds were high school graduates. By The United States is now producing 1929-30, that figure had risen only an all-time high number of to 29 percent. It's good that we graduates with bachelor's and other think that every student should advanzed degrees. We now confer graduate from high school and we more than 955,000 bachelor's must keep working to try to achieve degrees each year, more than that goal, but the fact is that with 300,000 master's degrees, and more nearly three-fourths of our young than 33,000 doctorate degrees. people now graduating from high school, we have already One of the most impressive accomplished a great deal. achievements of our schools has been the rapidly rising educational The longer a student stays in E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

school, the greater his or her United States literacy rates compare 17 lifetime earnings are likely to be, very well with other selected according to the U.S. Department of countries of the world. The United Commerce and the Bureau of the States along with the USSR, France, Census. As of 1979, a man with less Australia, Germany, Japan, the than a high school education could Netherlands, and Poland all report expect to earn $845,000; with a 99 percent or better literacy rates. high school education $1,041,000; Here are the figures for other with one to three years of college selected countries: United $1,155,000; with four years of Kingdom, 97 percent; Canada, 93 college $1,392,000; and with five or percent; Argentina, 93 percent; more years of college $1,553,000. Korea, 90 percent; Spain, 90 A woman with less than a high percent; Mexico, 74 percent; South school education could expect to Africa, 61 percent; Iran, 47 percent; earn $500,000; with a high school Nigeria, 38 percent; India, 36 education $634,000; with one to percent; Ethiopia, 5 percent. three years of college $716,000; with four years of college $846,000; A remarkable increase flab been and with five or more years of achieved in the number of school college $955,000. library books per student over the The United States is a world leader last 50 years. In 1935, public school in the percentage of its population libraries averaged 1.1 books per enrolled in school and in the student. That jumped to 2.5 books percentage of its Gross National per student in 1954, to 5.5 in 1961 Product spent for education. The and then leaped to 12.5 booksper latest figures available, for the student in 1978, the latest available school year 1980-81, show that figure. worldwide, about 15 percent of the population of any given country is Education Is a Responsive Social enrolled in school and an average of Institution 5.6 percent of each country's Gross National Product (GNP) is spent for Education may well be the most education. responsive social institution in Grouping countries into major America. The recent flurry of areas we find that North America, education reports such as A Nation including the United States, leads At Risk have already resulted in the world with 24 percent of its constructive program changes in population enrolled in school and about one-third of America's 6.5 percent of its GNP spent for schools as reported by teachers and education. Here's how we compare principals in a recent survey by the with other major areas: Latin Educational Research Service. In America, 24 percent enrolled, 4 another third of our school districts percent of GNP; Oceana, 21 percent changes are being discussed. enrolled, 5.8 percent GNP; Europe, 19 percent enrolled, 5.5 percent Despite public concerns about GNP; Africa, 17 percent enrolled, discipline in the schools and the 4.6 percent GNP; Asia, 11 percent stereotype that schools are chaotic enrolled, 5 percent GNP. and unsafe, a, recent survey of 29 WHAT'S RIGHT

18 teachers and principals by the The expected shortage will require Educational Research Service the public and our schools to indicates that 95 percent to 97 rethink teacher qualifications and percent of the principals and compensation programs. teachers surveyed reported that the following were either "minor," Also resulting directly from public "little," or "no problem": Theft of requests, the number of states personal property, damage to requiring competency assessment of personal property, vandalism of teachers has grown from three in school property, extreme verbal 1977 to 22 in 1981 to 30 in 1983. abuse, threats to personal safety, physical attack. The Facts Are Impressive We will have the best opportunity in many years to focus public Clearly our schools are far from attention on the teaching profession perfect, but their successes are and teacher working conditions impressive. No other society has during the next few years. While ever set out to educate all its teacher shortages have existed here peopleregardless of their and there in the last several years, circumstances or the disadvantages U.S. schools have, overall, found an or problems they bring to the adequate supply of teachers. classroom. Projections for the next decade, Achieving the dream of education however, indicate that if our for all provides a formidable schools rely solely on the supply of challenge. Perhaps that dream and new teacher graduates, we will find our stubborn dedication to only 65 to 75 percent of the achieving it best defines the teachers needed by the early 1990s. American character.

'47

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41114111111Siii, America's Unique System of Education

he most basic, most people increasingly moved to cities, compelling, most and as costs steadily rose, distinctive consolidations dramatically reduced characteristic of the number of school districts. American education foday there are just over 15,000. is its exemplification of the However, the United States democratic ideal. approach to public education American schools educate all remains unique. Many observers youngsters, irrespective of their have marveled not only that the background, however disadvantaged system works so well but that it they may be, whatever handicaps manages to work at all. they may have, whatever their gifts The world's nations have or problems or their plight. In this developed three basic administrative respect the American system of styles in providing free public education is like no other. education for their people: It is novel also in the lengths to (1) centralized authority vested in which it has carried the national government, (2) joint decentralization. In the 1930s, in national-local control whereby the fact, the "system" actually consisted central government enacts school of 127,000 separate, independent laws and disburses funds but leaves systems. That's how many local administration to localities, and school districts, each with its own (3) decentralized control under school board and decision-making which most of the authority is held authority, were charged with by political units below the national educating American youth. As leyel. p1 UNIQUE SYSTEM

20Centralized Systems though it has proved highly National control is to be found in effective there. London sets school democratic and authoritarian states policy but allows local authorities to alike, but for different reasons. interpret it to meet local needs, Sweden and Denmark have preferences, and school conditions. egalitarian schools, centrally Central government inspectors controlled to assure that every periodically visit schools to make student has an equal opportunity to sure funds are wisely spent and advance solely on merit. France has national policies followed. a central system in order to Japan has a similar national-local equalize the quality of education partnership, but the tradition of nationwide. Italy stresses vocational local citizen involvement in school and religious training, controlling affairs is not as strong as England's. the curriculum in private as well as public schools. Belgium, the Decentralized Systems Netherlands, Greece, and most State and local control is usually Middle Eastern nations use the found in countries where public centralized approach because they schooling began at the grass roots are small and it's the most practical level and political unity was fostered and economical way. In Latin by a confederation of sovereign America, the centralized schooling states. authority deals with illiteracy, the Following World War II, West isolation of communities in rugged Germany delegated education terrain, inadequate funding, and authority to its 11 states, including political instability. West Berlin, States exercise close The Soviet Union controls supervision of local schools, though schools from Moscow to assure that financing is shared with local no religious or non-Marxist districts, which have full doctrine is taught and to responsibility for maintaining accommodate multiethnic physical plants and providing for populations in its far-flung student health and welfare. republics by providing instruction India's 1947 Constitution, in more than 100 languages as well adopted at independence from Great as Russian. Major decisions Britain, charged the federal affecting education are made not by government with providing public the government but by the education to children up to age 14. Communist Party. Like the Soviet However, New Delhi has lacked the Union, China prohibits private funds to provide a national system, schools and colleges; it relies on and responsibility has been assumed public education to produce good by the states. They in turn confront citizens and train specialists in the task of educating a population fields that advance the central speaking 12 major languages and government's economic and 200 dialects. India has 300 million cultural goals. illiterate citizens. Public education in Canada is a Joint National-Local Systems joint function of the ten provinces Few nations follow England's lead and local districts. The Dominion and use joint administration, government retains authority to E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

overrule any provincial school law. dramatically. By the early 1980s, 21 It also guarantees the education the state share was up to more than rights of minorities and operates 47 percent, the federal share to 9 the schools in the Yukon and percent, with localities paying 44 Northwest Territories and those for percent. The state and federal Indians and Eskimos. shares are somewhat lower for Australia's 1900 Constitution education as a whole, including delegated school responsibility to colleges and universities. the six states, each of which has a Nevertheless, states vary in the ministry of education and requires degree of responsibility delegated to marked conformity of curriculum local authorities, though no state and procedures in all schools within board of education has the its jurisdiction. Since 1968, the authority of state ministries in Commonwealth government has other countries. Massachusetts, for operated the schools in the Capital instance, delegates nearly all and Northwest Territories. authority. New York, in contrast, has considerable control over The American System education standards through state As a decentralized enterprise, public examinations for all students, and education in the United States is an Delaware also tends toward anomaly. The U.S. Constitution, centralization. unlike those of many nations, made State financial support for no mention of education in setting schools also varies. Some states forth the functions of the federal have less vigorous economies than government. Thus, under the Tenth others and thus lower tax revenues Amendment, Article X, education to help support public schools. For was one of many functions left by example, New York in 1981-82 was default to states. But public schools able to spend $4,280 per pupil, from colonial days onward were while Mississippi spent only $1,706. founded and supported largely by local initiative. The Federal Role States through the years have While not constitutionally continued to give local residents a mandated, federal support for major voice in school operations, schools has been public policy since along with a major responsibility the republic's founding. The for supporting them, primarily Founding Fathers recognized that through local property taxes. Towns struggling,young states and and cities well into the 20th century territories lacked the resources to provided nearly all-school funding. provide the quality education for all As recently as 1920, local taxes children demanded by a democratic provided 83.2 percent of public society. elementary and secondary school Congress in the Ordinances of expenditures, with states picking 1785 and 1787 set aside land for up 16.5 percent, the federal schools in the Northwest Territory. government a miniscule 0.3 In 1862, with the Civil War dividing percent. After World War II, both the nation, Congress nevertheless state and federal support for public looked to the future by providing schools began to increase public lands that states could use or 33 UNIQUE SYSTEM 22sell to support land-grant colleges. billions of dollars into schools for These colleges offered research and remedial and enrichment activities training in new agricultural focused on disadvantaged, practices to help the nation's handicapped, Indian, non-English- agrarian economy prosper. speaking, and other children with Federal aid to improve the school special needs. curriculum began in 1917 with Congress has also enacted laws programs to upgrade high school prohibiting discrimination in vocational training. In the late schools and other federally assisted 1960s President Lyndon Johnson's institutions on the basis of race, Great Society programs opened the sex, national origin, or handicap. flood gates of federal aid to School districts found to be education. Today well over a discriminating against students risk hundred federal programs channel losing federal aid.

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34 A Brief History of 23 American Education

ublic education multiethnic population; and they began in New include youngsters whose learning England less than a potential can be impeded by generation after the physical or mental handicaps or Pilgrims landed on propelled by exceptional intellectual Plymouth Rock in 1620. The gifts. America's schools serve all. Pilgrims viewed education as an Public education has been largely 'nstrument of their strong Puritan responsible for the intellectual and faith to save the immortal souls of technical training that enables children. Americans to enjoy the world's In three centuries, long since highest standard of living. severed from religious aims and influence, public education in the New England Pioneers Public United States has evolved as the free Education world's largest and most democratic America's public school and college social institution. systems are the direct outgrowth of Employing 2.4 million teachers citizen commitment to education and 300,000 administrators and that surfaced in New England other professional staff in 1984-85, almost as soon as the initial needs public schools spend $134.5 billion of food and shelter.had been met. annually to educate some 39 The Boston Latin School (1635) was million children. Another 5 million created by local initiative as British children attend private schools. America's first tax-supported These students have backgrounds school, offering boys seven years of and interests as diverse as America's instruction in Latin and Greek. It , ..35 BRIEF HISTORY

24remained for the Massachusetts Bay charity. Colony to establish the principle, By the mid-1700s, a growing unique among English-speaking mercantile society disavowed people, that the state could require classical grammar schools and towns to build and maintain schools demanded a more practical at public expense. A 1642 law made education for boys. The result was parents and masters of young the priitate tuition-charging apprentices responsible for an academy. As a founder of the education sufficient to enable Philadelphia Academy (1751), children to understand the tenets of Benjamin Franklin expressed the Puritanism and colonial law. new concern for practicality, Finding that some parents and asking: "While they (students) are masters were unwilling or too reading natural history, might not a unskilled to take on this task, the little gardening, grafting, colony in 1647 ordered towns of 50 inoculating, etc., be taught and households to hire a teacher to practiced?" instruct pupils in reading the scriptures and thus be able to National Support for Schools thwart "Ye old deluder Satan." After the Revolution, the new Towns of 100 households were national government under the required to establish a school so Articles of Confederation made a that youth might be "fitted for the precedent-setting commitment to university," either in England or at public education. Congress, in the Harvard College (1636), then 1785 Ordinance setting forth America's only institution of higher governance procedures for the education. public domains beyond the Other New England colonies Alleghenies, set aside land in each passed similar laws. Religious and township for a public school. The classical instruction dominated to Northwest Ordinance (1787) the end of the 17th century, reaffirmed federal support, directing teachers being selected not for their that "schools and the means of pedagogical skills but for the education shall be forever firmness of their Puritan faith. encouraged" in the vast territory The middle colonies assumed no that subsequently formed the Ohio responsibility for education, leaving Valley and Great Lakes states. various religious sects to develop When the Constitution replaced whatever schooling was offered. the Articles of Confederation in That policy impeded development of 1789, it made no mention of free public schools for generations, education as a federal charge, by from New York to Delaware. inference leaving the schooling of A similar hands-off attitude the population to states and, prevailed among government through delegation by the states, to leaders in the southern colonies, localities. Thus, the United States where wealthy plantation owners departed from the European hired tutors or had their children systems of nationally controlled educated in England, though some public schools. Local control of effort was made to teach poor and public schools still sets us apart orphaned children as a form of from most other nations. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Common School Movement in Boston in 1821, the smneyear 25 From the 1820s onward, as Emma Willard founded the Troy immigrants from Europe increased (N.Y.) Female Seminary, the first the population and the young women's college. republic grew and prospered, a The Boston high school offered society long dominated by landed three years of free instruction in gentry and prosperous merchants English, mathematics, navigation, became a society concerned with history, logic, civics, and other the rights of the common man. subjects=for boys only. Boston's Pressure built for common schools effort to establish a high school for to replace the costly private girls failed to gain public support. academies and provide a free, Other New England townssoon nonsectarian education for rich and had high schools, but it was again poor alike. The common school Massachusetts that tried to legisidte movement was nonetheless opposed progress statewide. Although its by many who still favored a 1827 law mandating public high religious orientation and feared the schools was ignored by most rise in taxes that free schools would communities for many years, it surely bring. spurred other states to pass similar Common schools found a laws. In the 1874 Kalamazoo persuasive champion in Horace Decision, the Michigan Supreme Mann, a lawyer and member of the Court upheld the community's Massachusetts legislature who in right to tax residents for the 1837 became the first secretary of support of high schools, declaring the Commonwealth's state board of them a logical bridge between the education. In his 11-year tenure, he common school and the state pushed for reforms that increased university. state and local support for schools, German immigrants, fleeing the brought better pay and higher 1848 revolution in their homeland, professional standards for teachers, founded the first U.S. kindergartens introduced compulsory school based on the technique of Friedrich attendance, unified curriculums Froebel, the movement's founder. and textbooks among schools, and German was the language of created the precedent and instruction. Elizabeth Palmer foundation for statewide school Peabody established the first systems. Henry Barnard, later the kindergarten for English-speaking first U.S. Commissioner of children in Boston in 1860. Its Education, worked concurrently to success stimulated the national institute similar reforms in kindergarten movement. In 1873, Connecticut. By 1848, when Mann St. Louis became the first city to left the Massachusetts state board, add kindergartens to its public 24 of the 30 states in the Union had school system. By the century's named chief school officers asa end, kindergartens were an integral prelude to establishing statewide part of public education in many public school systems. communities. State-supported colleges, Expanding the Years of Schooling beginning in 1795 with the The first public high school opened University of North Carolina,were BRIEF HISTORY 26 augmented by federal support for a University of Chicago and later at special kind of college under the Columbia Universityhe held that First Morrill Act (1862). Sponsored education must build on children's by Justin Morrill of Vermont, the interests and abilities and offer a law gave public lands to states to flexible classroom environment use or sell for the establishment of where they could do their own colleges devoted to research and thinking and where the teacher training in modern agricultural would be able to be guide and methods and mechanical arts. helper rather than taskmaster. Morrill sponsored a second act in Education, he said, should foster all 1890 to provide annual support for the facets of the child's growth. these land-grant colleges. Almost a Virtually all subsequent innovations century later, in 1983, there were in teaching are refinements of 72 land-grant colleges receiving Dewey's ideas. federal support. Increasing Federal Aid Serving, the Immigrant Tide Just as public schools were the America's role as the "melting pot" ladder of opportunity for reached a peak between 1880 and immigrants at the turn of the World War I as 20 million people century, the Servicemen's fled hunger and.political oppression Readjustment Act (G.I. Bill) enacted in Europe to start over in the New by Congress in 1944 gave two World. The task of Americanizing million World War II veterans the them fell to the schools. Public funds to go to college or get education gave them proficiency in technical training, enabling many using English, job skills, and the to enter America's professional and citizenship training necessary to entrepreneurial middle class. compete in an increasingly Counting similar benefits for industrialized society. Congress veterans of the wars in Korea and assisted by providing high school Vietnam, 27 million ex-servicemen vocational training under the and women received college or Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. The new technical training at federal citizens provided labor for factories, expense. mines, and railroad construction as The quality of American the nation pursued its Manifest education was seriously questioned Destinythe belief that the United in 1957 when the Soviets launched States had an obligation to expand Sputnik, the first earth-orbiting its territory and economic base. satellite. How, Americans asked, could such a remarkable Dewey's Revolution breakthrough have been' possible by Meanwhile, John Dewey was another nation when the United revolutionizing pedagogy. The States was supposed to be the greatest educational philosopher of world's scientific and technological the 20th century, he sought to end leader? The public outer led the routine drill and rote Congress in 1958 to pass the memorization that had dominated National Defense Education Act. education from the start. In The act funded a crash program to lectures and writingfirst at the give students intensive preparation 38 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

in mathematics, physical science, children from low-income families 27 and certain infrequently taught who were achieving below national foreign languages. Both the public norms. As part of his Great Society furor and support for the program program, President Lyndon dwindled after the United States Johnson supported major new landed the first man on the moon education initiatives. The in 1969, and school achievement in Elementary and Secondary these areas similarly suffered a Education Act of 1965 was long-lasting setback. watershed legislation. It acknowledged a federal Serving the Most Needy responsibility to help states and Addressing an inequity dating back communities provide catch-up to Reconstruction, the U.S. programs for children in poor Supreme Court in Brown v. Board neighborhoods. Title I of the act of Education (1954) found (now called Chapter I) provided up inherently unequal the separate to $3 billion annually to serve more school systems operated for black than 5 million children. The Head and white children in many states. Start program, authorized by the Ordering desegregation, the Court Economic Opportunity Act, also was held that dual schools violated the launched in the mid-1960s to serve rights of blacks to equal protection low-income preschool children. under the Constitution's Congress in the Rehabilitation Fourteenth Amendment. Massive Act of 1973 provided equal rights southern resistance to school protections for handicapped desegregation resulted. In 1957, individuals, including school Governor Orval Faubus used the children. The Education for All Arkansas national guard to deny Handicapped Children Act of 1975, admittance of blacks to Little Rock's known as Public Law 94-142, Central High School. spelled, out the educational Most southern school districts in entitlements of these children. It the ensuing quarter century directed all school systems achieved greater school integration receiving federal, aid to locate, test, than many larger cities in other and evaluate handicapped children parts of the nation where de facto and educate them in the least segregation (based on economic restrictive environment, preferably conditions rather than on law of in a regular classroom with social prejudice) was the rule. nonhandicapped pupils. By the end Southern school districts did th'S by of the 1970s, public schools had closing many small rural schools located and enrolled four million and busing children to larger, disabled children. integrated schools, often some Bilingual education became an distance from their homes. issue in the mid-1970s as thousands Nevertheless, busing to achieve of Mexican, Southeast Asian, and desegregation remains an issue. other non-English-speaking The struggle for school children flooded the nation's integration raised larger questions classrooms. In Lau v. Nichols, a about the obligation of government case argued on behalf of Oriental to provide special assistance for children in California, the Supreme i:39 BRIEF HISTORY

28Court ruled that school districts a thorough reassessment of its must provide appropriate programs educational system, especially at the to help these children take full elementary and secondary levels. advantage of their schooling. The Finding aasons for the persistent Carter Administration proposed decline in academic standards and regulations requiring schools to student achievement was not at begin educating the children in issue. Rather, the challenge was to their native language until they determine how to get the country's achieved English proficiency. The schools and colleges back on track, Reagan Administration withdrew to return to the academic rigor that the proposed regulations in 1981. had marked education's earlier years. At the same time, updated Crisis in Public Confidence curriculums and teaching Confidence in public schools fell approaches, were needed to prepare significantly in the 1970s. Lack of students to live and work in a discipline topped the list of public society where the computer, concerns through the decade. Polls information processing, and a showed that discipline, drug use, service-oriented economy were poor curriculums, and integration rapidly replacing traditional (including busing) continued to be industries. major concerns into the 1980s. In 1983 the various imperatives More subtle challenges included for improvement formed a critical declining enrollments, tighter mass that resulted in an explosion financing, and a rising demand for of reports on the theme expressed services to special students. by the National Commission on Drop-offs in student achievement Excellence in Education, formed by scores in reading, writing, and Secretary of Education Terrel H. mathematics contributed to the Bell. Its report (titled A Nation At public's view that schools rated only Risk: The Imperative fo: a "C" grade on quality of Educational Reform) was soon performance. Parents demanded followed by several others of and got greater school emphasis on similarly impressive stature basic skills. By 1980 reading and notably the report of a Task Force writing scores of 9-year-olds had on Education for Economic Growth climbed somewhat, though high formed by the Education school students failed to gain. Other Commission of the States (Action research in 1982 showed that for Excellence), and that of the minority students' scores in math Twentieth Century Fund (Making were rising at a faster rate than test the Grade). scores of their white counterparts, narrowing a long-standing gap Education Responds between black-white achievement. Public debate sparked by these Nevertheless, public concern various statements projected about the general quality of education into the national education American students were limelight to a degree reminiscent of receiving continued to grow. the days of Sputnik. Education With the onset of the 1980s it became a major political issue, at became clear that the nation needed the state and national levels alike. 4.0' EDUCATION ALMANAC1985-1986 By 1984, only a year after the In addition, 29 states employing 29 national debate began, the Reagan almost two-thirds of the nation's Administration announced thata teachers now require competency tidal wave of reform was underway. tests as well as regular certification Many reforms, as the for new teachers entering the Administration readily conceded, classroom. Since 1981, 42 states had been initiated some years have raised teacher certification earlier by state legislatures, local requirements, added courses for governments, and teacher training recertification, begun teacher institutions already concerned evaluations and internships fornew about the decline in academic rigor teachers, and improved programs in and student achievement. colleges of education for teacher Perhaps the Administration's trainees. most important contribution was to Higher pay for better teachers provide a national scoreboard, to was high on the list of reforms count and publicize the efforts of recommended in most of the 1983 individual states, communities, and studies detailing education'smany schools of education. The weaknesses. Most states are trying cumulative effect was indeed hard to address the issue. About 1 impressive, as the Department of million of the 2.1 million public Education reported early in 1984 in elementary and secondary school The Nation Responds: Recent teachers work in states that have Efforts t) Improve Education. enacted or allowed local school As th- 1984-85 school year districts to adopt master teacher began, Secretary Bell reported that programs, merit pay, or career 41 states and the District of ladder plans. However, not all these Columbia have raised their high plans were slated to go into effect in school graduation requirements in the 1984 -85 school year. the last three years. Their schools Finally, Secretary Bell reported serve 35 million of the 39 million that 29 states now offer college children enrolled in public students special loan and elementary and secondary schools scholarship incentives -to become nationwide. Moreover, states that teachers of science and set graduation requirements for mathematics. He cited the need for their schools now require an 15,000 more high school science average of 19.3 Carnegie Units and mathematics teachers just to compared with 17.3 in 1980. meet the higher state course Secretary Bell also announced requirements for graduation added that 24 states and the District of in'the past year. Federal aidwas Columbia have recently lengthened added in 1984 when Congress the school day or year or made passed the Science and Mathematics schedule changes that devotemore Teacher Development Act. The act of the standard school day to provides a modest pool of federal teaching rather than to field trips money$50 million ayear for five and similar activities. Thismeans yearsto help states increase some 30 millie- students spend scholarship incentives to' more time actively engaged in the prospective high school science and learning process. 'mathematics teachers. iri41 BRIEF HISTORY

30Public Confidence Crows Federal Aid Lags All this activity appears to have However, the spirit of generally penetrated the public constructive change that swept the consciousness. The sixteenth nation during 1983 and 1984 was annual Gallup Poll of the Public's mixed with some cold realities. The Attitudes Toward the Public Reagan Administration proposed Schools, released by Phi Delta reductions or no funding increases Kappa in September 1984, shows in many program areas, from that Americans now have more compensatory education for confidence in public education than disadvantaged children to special at any time since 1976. The poll education for handicapped children, found that 42 percent of its as part of an overall domestic respondents graded their local program reduction to help pay for public schools "A" or "B." This was large increases in defense spending. a 35 percent increase in the number Congress, however, elected not to of people awarding such high reduce but to increase total grades compared with 1983. (See spending for education. In fiscal page 126.) 1982, the Administration requested Aside from the Gallup Poll $13.1 billion for Department of findings, there are other Education programs; Congress encouraging indicators of growing approved $14.2 billion. In fiscal public confidence in education. The 1983, the Administration asked for National Congress of Parents and a major cut, to $10.3 billion; Teachers reports 70,000 new Congress voted $15.1 billion. members in the last year after a The trend continued in 1984 and 20-year membership decline. The 1985, with Congress increasing the Education Commission of the President's budget request in both States counts 275 state-level task years. For fiscal 1985, the forces working to improve Administration asked for $15.5 education. In addition to thousands billion. The House and Senate of partnerships between school passed appropriation bills in excess districts and local businesses, the of $17 billion. Council on Financial Aid to Nonetheless, federal aid failed to Education points to impressive keep pace either with inflation, even contributions at the national level at its reduced level, or the need for by individual corporations and federal assistance to fund the entire industries. reforms called for by the National For example, the publishing Commission on Excellence in industry has made a $3 million Education and other study groups. commitment to improve literacy. A At $15.4 billion, the federal major oil company has contributed education budget for 1984 was just $6.7 million for films and related $600 million more than that in materials to improve mathematics 1981 when the Reagan instruction. A number of computer Administration took office. firms have donated computers to Thus, with sharp disagreement schools, one firm alone giving $12 marking the federal stance in million in computers to schools in education, and with the challenges 26 cities. 42emerging from the various studies, E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 American education at the sources, particularly at the college 31 mid-1980s remains in the state of level. ferment that has marked its Education occupies the full-time evolution from the nation's earliest attention of 25 percent of the total days. population, including 44 million Still, education remains a students and 2.4 million teachers, powerful force for enlightenment counting private as well as public and progress, and a huge one. The schools. Three-fourths of all national investment in our students will receive high school educational institutions, from diplomas, as compared with only kindergarten through graduate half of the school-aged children school, amounts in 1985 to $240 who did so 20 years ago. Similarly, billion, a 6 percent increase over three times as many will attend 1984. As in past years, federal funds college. pay only 8 percent of the total bill. Even with its problems, States pay 40 percent, local school education remains our strongest districts pay 24 percent. The and most important public remainder comes from private gifts institution. and endowments, tuition, and other

1

to°

"04 ,4y; e

r.

"14 Some Vital Education Statistics

he federal government has been assembles data from state agencies, collecting national such entities as the National information bearing Assessment of Educational on education for Progress, its own surveys, and other nearly 150 years now, beginning in federal agencies. 1840, when the Bureau of the Besides Census, the other federal Census started tracking illiteracy agencies that gather facts about rates. education most prominently The chief effort was not include the National Science launched, however, until 1870. That Foundation, the Interior is the year in which the Congress Derartment's Bureau of Indian created a Department of Education Affairs, the Department of (which a few later became a Bureau Agriculture, the Labor and then an Office and in 1980 a Department's Bureau of Labor Department again). Although the Statistics, and the Department of present Department of Education Defense. has Cabinet rank, the tiny original Next to the Department of existed only to collect, evaluate, and Education the most turned-to disseminate information concerning source of education statistics is the the condition of public and private Census Bureau, and this section of education in the United States. the 1984-85 Almanac begins with The present Department the latest Census data and continues to carry out that mission, regarding enrollmentsfrom through its National Center for pre-kindergarten through college. Education Statistics. NCES Then turning back to the 4 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986 Department of Education, a second personsas students, teachers, section features a group of tables administrators, or other staff and charts adapted from NCES's members. most recent assessment of The According to the Department of Condition of gducation. With a Education's annual forecast, focus on elementary and secondary expenditures by public and private education, the charts and tables schools and colleges for 1984-85 deal primarily with current and will reach a record high of some future school enrollments and $240 billion. Of this total an availability of classroom teachers, estimated $144.5 billion is going for plus some interesting miscellaneous public elementary and secondary matters. education, with public school Taken in the aggregate the expenditures translating into $3,400 information contained in this per pupil. section underscores the importance Both in expenditures and in that Americans place on education. numbers of people involved, as In a nation of some 236 million learner or as teacher, education people, education is the primary clearly is one of the nation's largest activity of one out of every four enterprises.

The following data, presented both in narrative and tabularform, cast further light on the operation of that enterprise.

Analysis Enrollment trendsnursery school.. . kindergarten ... elementary school... high school .. . college 35

Tables and Charts Table1.Trends in School Enrollment, 1970-1992 37 Chart 1.School Enrollment Trends to 1992 38 Table2.School Enrollment, 1970 and 1982 39 Table3.Racial/Ethnic Dist.;bution of Enrollment and Change From 1970 to 1980 40 Table4.Trends in Preprimary Enrollment, 1970 to 1992 41 Table5.Young People Served in Educational Programs for the Handicapped, 1976-77 to 1982-83 42 Table6.Trends in Estimated Demand and Supply of Classroom Teachers to 1992 43 45 VITAL STATISTICS

34Chart 2.Estimated Teacher Supply and Demand to 1992 44 Table7.Trends in Number of Preprimary to 12th Grade Teachers, 1970 to 1992 45 Chart 3.Trends in Number of Elementary/Secondary Teachers to 1992 46 Chart 4.Classroom Teachers Per 1,000 Students, 1970-1992 47 Table 8.Number of Classroom Teachers by State, 1970 and 1981 48 Table9.Trends in Teacher Salaries, 1970-71 to 1981-82 49 Table iC..Job Opportunities by Occupational Group, 1982 and Projections for 1995 50 Chart 5.Classroom Use of Microcomputers 51 Table 11.States Using Minimum-Competency Testing 52 Chart 6.States with Minimum-Competency Testing for High School Graduation 53 Table 12.Federal, State, and Local Revenues for Public Education: 1974-75 to 1981-82 54

46 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 Enrollments

The latest available figures show children 3 to 4 years old were that as of October 1983, some enrolled in nursery school; by the 57,745,000 persons aged 3 to 34 fall of 1983, this figure had risen to were enrolled in schools ranging 30.9 percent. from nursery and kindergarten to While over 70 percent of white college. Despite the large size of the nursery-school students were in enrolled population, total private schools, only a third of black attendance has decreased by 3.2 nursery schoolers were, indicating million students since 1975 (one of that cost and public availability may the years of highest enrollments). be serious limiting factors in usage Current population projections of this still-growing type of by the Census Bureau do not schooling. foresee much additional shrinkage Increases in the number of in the near future in the 5-to-17 age kindergarten students are not. as cohort's size, and in fact, anticipate substantial as those at the nursery slow growth beginning in the next school level. Roughly 3.4 million two to three years. Nevertheless, children were enrolled in even under these assumptions, it is kindergarten in October 1983, not expected that the 5-to-17 age compared with 3.1 million in 1973. category will return to its 1975 size Unlike nursery school,,enrollment any time in the next 50 years. rates for children of kindergarten Enrollment numbers at different age (and elementary and high levels of schooling were distributed school ages) have been relatively in the following way: 2.3 million high for at least the last 10 years. nursery schoolers, 3.4 million (That is, generally 90 percent or kindergarten students, 27.2 million more of the eligible population is children in elementary school, 14.0 enrolled in school.) million persons in high school, and 10.8 million college students. Elementary School Enrollments Comparison of these figures with With 27.2 million students, the previous year's indicates elementary school enrollments are increases at the nursery and approaching the point at. which they kindergarten levels and decreases at will stop decreasing anctbegin all other levels, although none of rising. Elementary. school students these year-to-year changes were decreased numerically by over 4.2 statistically significant. million in the past 10,ye,ars, even though the rates of enrollment Nursery School Enrollments remained essentially the same. With nursery school enrollment at Shrinking cohort size has been the 2.3 million persons the size of this main force in enrollment declines category has now increased by 75 at the elementary school level. percent in the past 10 years. This Declines in both white and black increase is principally due to an enrollments have been substantial, increase in rates of nursery school and only. an increase of over a attendance. In 1973, 17.7 percent of half-million elementary school 47 VITAL STATISTICS la 36students of other races (principally College Enrollments Asian because of increased There were 10.8 million persons immigration) kept this decrease ages 14 to 34 enrolled in college in from approaching 5 million October 1983. This figure, while net students. Based on the age significantly different from the structure of children 5 years and estimated 10.9 million persons in younger, increases in the numbers October 1982, was substantially of elementary school students are larger than the 8.2 million students still at least three years away. enrolled in 1973. The increase in the enrolled population is a 'product High School Enrollments of many different factors, the High school enrollments of 14 principal one being the size of the million persons also represented a 18-to-21 age group. Individuals of large drop from the level in 1973, these ages are commonly referred when 15.3 million students to as the "traditional" college-age attended high school. This decline population, and in 1983 about 34 is even more severe when one percent of all civilian persons of considers that in 1977 there were these ages were, in fact, enrolled in 15.8 million high school students. college. Despite this overall fall in the Increases in college enrollment number of high school students, have occurred in part because of enrollments in private high schools rising participation rates of women. in 1983 were about the same as An estimated 28.2 percent of all they were in 1973. Whites women 18 to 21 years old were in accounted for 81.5 percent of all college in 1973; by 1983 this figure high school students and 89.2 had risen to 34.5 percent. percent of all private high schoolers Increases were apparent not only in 1983. In comparison, nearly 95 at traditional college ages, but at percent of all private high school other ages as well. The attendance students in 1973 were white, rate for women 22 to 34 years old perhaps indicating that private high rose from 5.8 to 8.9 percent in the schools have become slightly more 1973-83 period. The combined accessible to nonwhite students effect of higher rates and larger over time. cohort size yielded an additional 1.2 By 1990, the 14-to-17 age group million women students aged 22-to is projected to shrink in size by 34, and over 40 percent of the total about 1.5 million persons from the increase in college students ages 1983 estimate. At prevailing 18-34 that occurred during the enrollment rates this implies a loss 10-year period. between 1983 and 1990 of well over U.S. Department of Commerce one million high school students. Bureau of the Census

48 EDUCATION ALMANAC1985-1986alaw Table 1.Trends in school Enrollment, 1970-1992 37

(In Thousands)

Total Public School Private School Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment

Preprimary 9th to Preprimary 9th to Preprimary 9th to to 8th 12th to 8th 12th to 8th 12th Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade

1970 36,629 14,643 32.577 13,332 4.052 1.311 1971 36,165 15,116 32.265 13.816 3.900 1.300 1972 35,531 15,213 31.831 13.913 3.700 1.300 1973 35,053 15,377 31.353 14.077 3.700 1,300 1974 34,621 15,432 30.921 14.132 3.700 1.300 1975 34.187 15,604 30.487 14.304 3.700 1.300 1976 33,831 15,653 30.006 14.311 3.825 1.342 1977 33,133 15,583 29.336 14.240 3.797 1.343 1978 32,060 15,576 28.328 14.223 3.732 1.353 1979 31,631 15,014 27.931 13.714 3.700 1.300 1980 31,297 14,652 27.674 13.313 3.623 1.339 1981 30,945 14,255 27.245 12.855 3.700 1.400 1982 30,843 13,901 27.143 12.501 3.700 1.400 Projected 1983 30,610 13,621 26.910 12.221 3.700 1.400 1984 30,246 13,679 26.646 12.279 3.600 1.400 1985 . 30,236 13,741 26.636 12.341 3.600 1.400 1986 30,587 13,5U 26.887 12.188 3.700 1.400 1987 30,993 13,180 27.293 11.880 3.700 1.300 1988 31,583 12,761 27.783 11.461 3.800 1.300 1989 32,209 12,435 28.309 11.135 3.900 1.300 1990 32,925 12,144 28,925 10.944 4.000 1.200 1991 33,457 12,184 29.457 10.984 4.000 1.200 1992. 34,125 12,253 30.025 11,053 4.100 1,200

NOTE: Wads may not add to totals because of rounding. SOURCE. U S Department of Education, National Cantor for Education Statistics Statistics of Public Elementary and Salutary Div Schools, various years, Statistics of Nonpublic Elementary and SecondarySchools various years, and Protections of Education Statistics to 199243, forthcoming.

49 VITAL STATISTICS 38 Chart 1.School Enrollment Trends to 1992

Enrollment, in thousands 60,000 Projected

50,000 Total enrollment

40 000

30 000

,)0 000

10 000

u 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992

NOit. t nrollment at the elementary Ical rs prowled to Increase, *hes In the upper grades It Is welled 10 encIOnno deelininGIM0 1990

50 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986 Table 2.-=School Enrollment, 1970 and 1982 39

(Numbers in Thousands)

Prepnmary to 6th 9th to 12th Total Enrollment Grade Enrollment Grade Enrollment

Fall Fall Percent Fall Fall Percent Fall Fall Percent 1970 1982 Change 1970 1982 Change 1970 1982 Change

United States 45.909 39.643 -13.6 32.577 27.143 - 16.7 13.332 12,501 - 6 2 Alabama 805 724 -10.1 570 510 -10 5 235 214 -8.9 Alaska 60 89 11.3 61 63 3.3 19 26 36.8 Arizona 440 510 15.9 314 359 14.3 126 151 19.8 Arkansas 463 433 - 6.5 330 304 7 9 133 128 -3.8 California 4.633 4,065 12.3 3.231 2.802 13 3 1.402 1.264 9.8 Colorado 550 545 0.9 391 380 2.8 159 166 4,4 Connecticut 662 486 .25.5 487 336 31.0 175 150 14.3 IMVIVV 173 93 50.1 5S 60 36 2 39 33 15,4 District of Columbia 146 91 37.7 113 65 42 5 33 26 21.2 Florida 1.428 1.485 4.0 1,016 1.039 2 3 412 446 8.3 Georgia 1.099 1,054 4.1 600 739 7.6 299 315 5.4 Hawaii 181 162 10.5 129 110 14 7 52 52 0 Idaho t82 203 11.5 124 145 16 9 56 56 0 Minas 2.357 1.880 20.2 1.688 1.287 23 8 669 593 11.4 Indiana 1.231 1,000 11.1 876 664 24 2 355 336 5,4 . Ion 660 505 23.5 465 338 27.3 195 167 14.4 Kansas 512 407 20.5 357 283 20 7 155 124 20.0 Kentucky 717 651 9.2 513 456 10 7 204 194 4 9 Louisiana 542 776 7.1 615 556 9 6 227 220 3.1 Maine 245 212 13.5 177 147 16.9 68 65 4.4 Maryland 916 699 23.7 664 462 30 4 252 237 6.0 Massachusetts 1.168 909 22.2 833 597 283 335 312 6,9 Michigan 2.181 1.761 19.3 1.605 1.157 27.9 576 605 5 0, Minnesota 921 715 22.4 631 472 25.2 290 244 15.9 Mississippi 5.14 468 12.4 388 327 15,7 146 141 3,4 Missouri 1,039 803 22.7 748 547 26 9 291 256 12 0 Montana 177 152 14.1 121 107 11.6 56 45 19.6 Nebraska 329 269 11.2 230 186 19 1 99 83 16.2 Nevada 128 151 11.0 93 97 4 3 35 54 543 New Hampshire 159 160 0.6 114 107 6 1 45 53 17.8 New Jersey 1.482 1.173 20.9 1.063 777 26.9 419 396 5 5 New Mexico 281 269 4.3 199 190 4.5 82 79 3.7 New York 3.477 2,719 21,1 2.448 1.761 28.1 1.029 957 7.0 North Carolina 1.192 1.097 1.0 836 769 8 0 356 328 7.9 North Dakota 147 117 20,4 100 el 19.0 47 36 23.4 Ohio 2.426 1,860 23.3 1.698 1.259 25.9 728 602 17.3 Oklahoma 627 594 5.3 437 423 3 2 190 171 10.0 Oregon 480 448 L7 325 309 4.9 155 139 10 3 Pennsylvania 2.364 1.754 -24.5 1.635 1.157 29.2 728 627 13,9 Rhode Island 188 139 25.1 135 89 -34 1 53 50 5,7 South Carolina 638 609 - 4.5 459 424 7.6 179 184 2.8 South Dakota 166 124 25.3 114 86 -24.6 52 38 - 26 9 Tennessee 900 828 1.0 649 591 - 8.9 251 237 - 5.6 Texas 2.540 2,986 5.1 2,046 2.150 5,1 794 836 5.3 Utah 304 370 21.7 213 275 29.1 91 95 4.4 Vermont 103 91 -11.7 74 64 13 5 29 27 - 6.9 Virginia 1.,,:, 976 -9.5 776 683 - 12.0 303 293 -3.3 Washington 818 739 -9.7 573 508 -11,3 245 232 -5.3 - West Virginia 400 375 -.5.3 281 267 -50 119 108 -9,2 Wisconsin 994 785 - 21.0 679 504 - 25 8 315 281 10.8 Wyoming 87 107 23.0 60 74 23.3 27 27 0

NOTE: Wills may not IOW totals boom ol rooting. SOURCE U S *art:runt of Edutabca. Ration, Canto to Educattn Steam StrOsilcs el heft &Moots. NI 1170, r971. and topulAstakl mikes, and Comm Cal ol Deb, Part Pi-Enroamant, Fall 1112. unotRistod tabulations (Nora tot 1153).

51 VITAL STATISTICS

40 tibia 3.-Racial/Ethnic Distribution of Enrollment and Change From 1970 to 1980

Percentage Distribution in 1980 Change from American 1970 to White Black Indian/ Asian or Percent 1980, in Non. Total Non. Alaskan Pacific MinorityPercentage HispanicMinority Hispanic Hispanic Native Islander in 1970 Points

United States.. 73.3 26.7 16.1 8.0 0.8 1.9 20.7 6.0

Alabama ...... 66.4 33.6 33.1 .1 .2 .2 34.3 -.7 Alaska 71.6 28.4 3.9 1.6 20.6 2.3 17.5 10.9

Arizona. . . 66.3 33.7 4.2 24.2 4.1 1.1 28.8 4.9 Arkansas . 76.5 23.5 22.5 .3 .4 .3 25.1 -1.6 California . . 57.1 42.9 10.1 25.3 .8 6.6 27.3 15.6

Colorado 77.9 22.1 4.6 15.3 .5 1.7 18.8 3.3 A Cunisatinut 03.0 .,.v 10.2 5.8 .1 .0 12.2 ....., Delaware 71.2 21.8 25.9 1.8 .1 .9 21.4 7.4 District of Columbia 3.6 96.4 93.4 2.0 0 1.0 (') (1 Florida .. 67.8 32.2 23.4 7.9 .1 .8 27.9 4.3

Georgia 65.7 34.3 33.5 .3 0 .5 33.5 .8 Hawaii 24.8 75.2 1.4 2.0 .2 71.4 (') (1 Idaho 91.8 8.2 .5 4.6 2.1 1.0 4.3 3.9 Illinois 71.4 28.6 20.9 6.1 .1 1.5 22.0 6.6 Indiana 88.0 12.0 9.9 1.5 .1 .5 10.3 1.7

Iowa 95.9 4.1 2.2 .8 .2 .9 2.2 1.9 Kansas 87.3 12.7 7.8 3.0 .6 1.2 8.8 3.9 Kentucky 90.9 9.1 8.7 .1 0 .3 9.3 -.2 Louisiana 56.6 43.4 41.5 .8 .4 .8 41.0 2.4 Maine 99.1 .9 .3 .1 .2 .3 .8 .1

Maryland . 66.5 33.5 30.6 .9 .2 1.8 24.9 8.6 Massachusetts 89.3 10.7 6.2 3.3 .1 1,1 6.0 4.7 Michigan , , 78.7 21.3 17.9 1.8 .8 .8 15.1 6.2 Minnesota 94.1 5.9 2.1 .7 1.6 1.5 2.6 3.3

Mississippi . 48.4 51.6 51.0 .1 .1 .4 51.0 .6

Missouri 85.2 14.8 13.6 .5 .1 .5 15.1 -.3 Montana 87.9 15.3 .3 1.1 13.0 .8 7.3 8.0 Nebraska 89.5 10.5 5.6 1.9 2.2 .8 7.1 3.4 Nevada 81.1 18.4 9.5 5.2 2.0 2.2 14.3 4.6 New Hampshire 98.7 1.3 .5 .4 0 .4 .8 .5

New Jersey 71.6 28.4 18.5 8.0 .1 1.7 20.0 8.4 New Mexico 43.0 57.0 2.2 46.5 7.8 .6 48.1 8.9 New York 68.0 32.0 17.9 12.0 .2 2.0 25.3 6.7 North Carolina 68.1 31.9 29.6 .2 1.6 .4 30.7 1.2 North Dakota 96.5 3.5 .5 .5 1.8 .7 2.0 1.5

Ohio . . 85.3 14.7 13.1 1.0 .1 .6 13.0 1.7 Oklahoma 79.2 20.8 9.3 1.6 9.1 .8 16.0 4.8

Oregon . 91.5 8.5 2,1 2.6 1.7 2.2 4.5 4.0 Pennsylvania 85.1 14.9 12.4 1.5 ,2 .7 12.6 2.3 Rhode Island 91.8 8.2 4.7 2.1 .3 1.1 4.0 3.3

South Carolina 56.5 43.5 42.8 .2 .1 .4 41.2 2.3 South Dakota 92.1 7.9 .2 .2 7.2 .3 5.7 2.2 Tennessee 75.5 24.5 24.0 .1 0 .4 21.2 3.3

Texas . 54.1 45.9 14.4 30.4 .2 .1.1 37.1 8.8 Utah 92.7 7.3 .5 3.5 1.8 1.5 6.2 1.1

Vermont 99.0 1.0 .3 .1 .1 .5 .4 .6 Virginia 72.5 27.5 25.5 .5 .1 1.4 24.7 2.8

Washington . 85.9 14.1 3.4 4.0 3.0 3.7 7.0 7.1 West Virginia 95.7 4.3 3.9 .1 0 ,3 4.9 -.6 Wisconsin 90.7 9.3 6.2 1.5 .9 .7 6.0 3.3

Wyoming ,, .. 92.5 7.5 .7 5.3 1.0 .4 8.9 -1.4 Not avtillible. 52 SOURCE. U S. Departmein of Educate)°, Nice for Ctal Raps. 1960 Elpnentary and Secondary Chi Reps Sunny. Ifemkatamil, 1962, and lidamajpi, 1962, prolnisd data, and unpublished tabulations (0Cemba 1913). Table 4.-Trends In Preprimary Enrollment, 1970 to 1992

(In Thousands)

Public School Enrollment Private School Enrollment

3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 6 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 6 Years Total Old Old Old Old Total Old Old Old Old

1970 2,981 123 494 2,214 150 1,298 332 512 429 25 1971 3,007 107 486 2,254 160 1,323 323 562 417 21 1972 3,036 150 532 2,188 166 1,381 385 588 387 21 1973 2,982 137 518 2,175 152 1,417 378 659 368 12 1974 3,149 178 543 2,280 148 1,709 506 778 413 12 1975 3,425 191 645 2,417 172 1,716 492 773 437 14 1976 3,418 180 608 2,451 179 1,578 422 740 389 27 1977. 3,225 198 591 2,242 194 1,581 447 699 400 35 1978 3,161 233 601 2,132 195 1,652 526 712 379 35 1979 3,230 232 606 2,177 215 1,665 514 787 348 16 1900 3,322 237 602 2,227 256 1,840 620 821 370 29 1981 3,279 268 588 2,176 247 1,939 623 853 427 36 1982 3,476 340 602 2,247 287 1,975 588 894 434 59 Projected 1983 3,485 330 642 2,248 265 1,987 625 903 414 45 1984 3,650 345 697 2,344 264 2,098 640 980 433 45 1985 3,844 362 718 2,489 275 2,174 660 1,010 459 45 1986 3,925 378 743 2.512 292 2,246 690 1,046 463 47 1987 4,007 395 768 2,549 295 2,320 727 1,080 470 48 1988 4,084 412 794 2,579 299 2,392 752 1,116 476 48 1989 4,162 428 819 2,612 303 2,483 781 1,151 482 49 1990 4,238 444 842 2,643 307 2,531 809 1,184 408 50 1991 4,297 457 864 2,665 311 2,591 836 1,213 492 50 1992 4,349 470 882 2,683 314 2,642 858 1,240 494 50

NOTES' 1 Indudas preldndsrgartan and kindergarten onrollmenty In nigulu public ullools an4 semi:mints In Independintly °perm pubicand pants nursery schools and Idrxhrputtons. 2. Walls may not add to totals because of rounding. SOURCE U.S Department of Comma, Bum of nu Census, Current Population Reports, Nursery School and landaroartan Enroltront.*its P-20; and U.S. Department of Education. National Canter for Education Statistics.

1/45-s VITAL STATISTICS

42 Table 5. -Young People Served in Educational Programs for the Handicapped, 1976-77 to 1982-83

Type of Handicap 1976.77 1978-79 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

Number Served, in Thousands

All conditions . 3,692 3,889 4,142 4,198 4,255 Learning disabled 796 1,130 1,462 1,622 1,741 Speech impaired 1,302 4,214 1,168 1,135 1,131 Mentally retarded 959 901 829 786 757 Emotionally disturbed... . 283 300 346 339 352 Hard of hearing and deaf 87 85 79 75 73 Orthopedically handicapped.. 87 70 58 58 57 Other health impaired...... 141 105 98 79 50 Visually handicapped.... 38 32 31 29 28 Multihandicapped * 50 68 71 63 Deafblind .... 2 3 2 2

Percentage Distribution of Persons Served

All conditions 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Learning disabled 21.5 29.1 35.3 38.6 40.9 Speech impaired 35.3 31.2 28.2 27.0 26.6 Mentally retarded 26.0 23.2 20.0 18.7 17.8 Emotionally disturbed 7.6 7.7 8.4 8.1 8.3 Hard of hearing and deaf. . 2.4 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.7 Orthopedically handicapped 2.3 1.8 1.4 1.4 1.3 Other health impaired..... 3.8 2.7 2.4 1.9 1.2 Visually handicapped.. 1.0 .8 .8 .7 .7 Multihandicapped. - 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.5 Deafblind...... - .1 .1 .1 .1

As Percent of Total Enrollment

All conditions. 8.33 9.14 10.11 10.47 10.73 Learning disabled , 1.80 2.66 3.57 4.05 4.39 Speech impaired... 2.94 2.85 2.85 2.83 2.85 Mentally retarded 2.16 2.12 2.02 1.96 1.91 Emotionally disturbed...... 64 .71 .85 .85 .89 Hard of hearing and deaf.. . 20 .20 .19 .19 .18 Orthopedically handicapped.... .20 .16 .14 .14 .14 Other health impaired .32 .25 .24 .20 .13 Visually handicapped. . . .09 .08 .08 .07 .07 Multihandicapped. . - .12 .17 .18 .16 Deafblind - .01 .01 .01 .01

'Hot available. -Not applicable. NOTE ChM counts ars based on reports hem the 50 States and District ot Columbia only u.s., figures from U.S. tenttones are not Included) P-centages of total enrollment are based on the total annual enrollment 0141.5. public scrums, preprimary through 12th grade. Deta2s may not add to totals because of rounding. SOURCE Calculated from U S Department of Education. Office of Spinal Education and Rettabletatrre SWIMS filLtMntal Ftwort to Conoress on the Implementation of Public Law 94-142.

54 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Table 6.-Trends in Estimated Demand and Supply of Classroom Teachersto 1992 43 (Numbers in Thousands)

Totai Estimated Estimated Demand for Additional Teachers Supply of Supply as Teachr New TeacherPercent of Demand Public Private Elementary Secondary Graduates Demand

1970 ... 2,288 192 16 115 93 284 136.5 1971 .... 2,293 152 11 71 92 314 192.6 1972 , ... 2,334 164 15 107 72 317 177.1 1973 2,369 156 19 89 86 313 178.9 1974. . .. 2,410 160 23 103 80 279 152.5 1975. 2,451 161 25 101 85 238 128.0 1976 .. 2,454 122 28 78 72 222 148.0 1977 . 2,488 154 27 107 74 194 107.2

1973-77 12,172 753 122 478 397 1,246 142.4 1978 2,478 129 9 82 56 181 131.2 1979 2,459 109 20 85 44 163 126.4 1980 . . 2,439 110 17 69 58 144 113.4 1981 2,403 85 25 66 44 141 128.2 1982 2,401 120 23 94 49 143 100.0

1978.82 12,180 553 94 396 251 772 119.3 Projected

1983 . 2,404 125 23 82 66 146 98.6 1984 . 2,401 127 15 78 64 146 102.6 1985 2,413 138 19 95 62 146 93.0 1986 . 2,438 143 27 114 56 144 84.7 1987 , .. 2,452 144 16 114 46 142 88.8 1983.87. 12,108 677 100 483 294 724 93.2

1988 . . 2,468 140 24 126 38 139 84.8 1989. 2,493 146 27 126 47 139 80.3 1990 .... 2,527 160 23 131 52 139 76.0 1991 .. 2,569 176 19 129 66 138 70.8 1992 . .. 2,624 181 28 129 80 137 65.6 1988.92 12,681 803 121 641 283 692 74.9

SOURCE U S Department of Education, National Centel rot Education Statistics, A-Diatom of EducationStatistics to 1992-93, forthcoming utd Nabo.ial :Clutabon Association Teachei Suppiy and Demand in Public Scridos, 1980-81, 1901,copyrighted,

55 VITAL STATISTICS

44 Chart 2. Estimated Teacher Supply and Demand to 1992

Number, in thousands 1,600-

1,400-

1,200- Projected

1,000-

800-

600-

400 -

200-

0- 1972.77 1978.82 1983.87 1938.92

0 Supply of new teacher graduates

IIDemand for additional elementary teachers

laDemand for additional secondary teachers

NOTE. The current imbalance Woo the nod for additional truchos and the supply of new teacher graduates Is proloted to continue through 1912, with most of that demand coming from elementary schools. 56 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Table 7.-Trends In Number of Preprimary to 12thGrade Teachers, 1970 to 1992

(In Thousands)

Total Public Private Teachers School Teachers School Teachers

Elementary Secondary Elementary Secondary ElementarySecondary

1970 1,281 1,007 1,128 927 153 80 1971 1,263 1,030 1.111 952 152 78 1972 1,294 1,040 1,140 963 154 77 1973 1,306 1,063 1.149 984 157 79 1974 1,331 1,079 1,167 998 164 81 1975 1,352 1,099 1,180 1,016 172 83 1976 1,349 1,105 1,166 1,020 183 85 1977 1,375 1,113 1.185 1.024 190 89 1978 1,375 1,103 1.190 1,016 185 87 1979 1,378 1,081 1,190 993 188 88 1980' 1,365 1,074 1,177 985 188 89 1981 1,349 1,054 1,155 962 194 92 1982 1,362 1,039 1,165 945 197 94 Projected 1983 1,352 1,042 1.163 945 199 97 1984 1,358 1,043 1,162 946 196 97 1985 1,371 1,042 1.174 945 197 97 1986 1,403 1,035 1,198 937 205 . 98 1987 1,433 1,019 1,227 924 206 95 1988 1,472 996 1,258 904 214 92 1989 1,510 983 1.288 891 222 92 1990 1,550 977 1.321 888 229 89 1991 1,584 985 1.353 900 231 85 1992 1,618 1,006 1.379 920 239 86

NOTE: Details may not add to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE U S Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Statisticsof PubOc Elementary and Secondary Day Schools, various year. Statistics of Nonpublic Elementary and SecondarySchools, rufous ysars, and Protections of Education Statistics to 1992.93, forthcoming,

57 VITAL STATISTICS

46 Chart 3.Trends In Number of Elementary, Secondary Teachers to 1992

Teachers, in thousands

NOI L. Ina numbai 01 rublic and pnyata &mooted), scrod teachoisptointad to 'nowt, atmdity, while ine numbs w secodary school taachers Is expitttd to diclina. EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Chart 4..Massroom Teachers Per 1,000 Students, 1970-1992 47

Public Schools

1982 1986 1990 1992 Fall of year

Number Private Schools 80 4

Secondary

60 Elementary

40

20

0 i i 1 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 Fall of year

NOTE The ratio of teachers to students Is projected to du somewhat tn public and Waiteschools et both elementary and secondary levels. #59 VITAL STATISTICS

48 Table 8.-Number of Classroom Teachers by State, 1970 and 1981

Classroom Teachers, in FullTime Equivalents

State Fall 1970 Fall 1981 Percent Change

United States 2.055.218 2.116.664 3.0 33.026 34.224 3.6 Alabama . Alaska . 3.821 5.665 48.3 Arizona . 18.772 25.601 36.4 Arkansas 21.122 23.497 11.2 California 193.000 170.007 11.9 Colorado 23.617 29.119 23.3 31.323 33.723 7.7 Connecticut . . Delaware 6.034 5.331 11.7 District of Columbia 7.486 5.132 31.4 Florida 62.419 74.872 20.0 Georgia 44.307 56.217 27.7 Hawaii 7.985 7.165 10.3 Idaho 8.047 9.798 21.8 Illinois 111.827 103.793 7.2 Indiana 50.421 51.303 1.7 Iowa 32.659 11.244 4.3 Kansas 25.884 26.179 1.1 Kentucky 30.180 31.666 4.9 Louisiana 36.469 39.967 9.6 Maine 11.170 10.736 3.9 Maryland 40.810 39.120 4.1 Massachusetts 55.300 62.227 12.5 Michigan 93.000 78.768 15.3 Minnesota 43.809 42.836 2.2 Mississippi 22.533 24.430 8.4 Missouri 48.286 48.135 0.3 Montana 8.406 9.310 10.8 Nebraska 17.230 17.410 1.0 Nevada . 4.967 7.180 44.6 New Hampshire '7.441 9.729 30.7 New Jersey 72.140 75.231 4.3 New Mexico 11.620 14.296 23.0 177.066 157.201 11.2 New York . North Carolina 49.565 55.833 12.6 North Dakota 7.659 6.955 8.7 Ohio 104.680 96.449 7.9 Oklahoma 28.184 33.904 20.3 21.641 22.480 3.9 Oregon . Pennsylvania 106.465 106.221 0.2 Rhode Island 8.988 8.895 1.0 South Carolina 28.578 32.007 12.0 South Dakota 8.698 7.964 8.4 Tennessee 35.450 40.875 15.3 Texas 129.440 159.640 23.3 Utah 11.350 12.983 14.4 Vermont 5.750 6.103 6.1 Virginia 47.903 55.471 15.8 Washington '33.380 34.576 3.6 West Virginia 16.582 21.870 31.9 Wisconsin '44.460 46.652 4.9 Wyoming 4.568 6.634 45.2

'EStImattd. SOURCE. U S Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics Statistics ur Pubhc Clemantary and Secondary Dry Schools, fail 1971 1971 and rifoloSomille4, unpublished tabulations (November 1963), 60 EDUCATION ALMANAC1 985- 1 986

Table 9.-Trends In Teacher Salaries, 1970-71 to 1981-82 49

Salaries of Classroom Teachers

Average Annual Salary Total, in Billions Number of Classroom Constant Constant Teachers, Current (1981.82) Current (1981.82) in Thousands Dollars Dollars* Dollars Dollars*

1970-71 2,055 $9,269 $21,966 $19.0 $45.0 1971-72 ..... 2,063 9,705 22,197 20.0 45.7 1972.73 2,103 10,176 22,372 21.4 47.0 1973.74 2,133 10,778 21,770 23.0 46.4 1974.75 ... 2,166 11,690 21,242 25.3 46.0 1975.76 2,196 12,591 21,363 27.6 46.8 1976.77. 2,186 13,352 21,414 29.2 46.8 1977-78...... 2,209 14,207 21,350 31.4 47.2 1978.79 2,207 15,022 20,637 33.1 45.5 1979.80.. ... 2,183 15,951 19,339 34.8 42.2 1980-81 2,162 17,601 19,127 38.1 41.4 1981.82 2,117 19,157 19,157 40.6 40.6

'Adjusted for Inflation, using the Consumer Prim Index. SOURCE i S Department of Education, Nationai Center foi Education Scathes. Protections of Education Statishcs to 1990-s, 1982and Common Coriof Dataunpublished tabulations (November 1963), Nationai Education Association, Estimates of School Statistics, 196263,1963, copyrighted, and unpublished tabulations.

61 VITAL STATISTICS

50Table 10.-Job Opportunities by Occupational Group, 1982 and Projections for 1995

1995

Occupational Group 1982 Low Trend Moderate TrendHigh Trend

Number, in'Thousands All occupations 101,510 124,846 127,110 129,902 White-collar workers 52,132 65,621 66,756 68,241 Professional and technical workers 16,584 21,545 21,775 22,325 Managers and administrators 9,532 12,008 12,212 12,467 Sales workers 6,967 8,535 8,771 8,911 Clerical workers 19,049 23,533 23,998 29,538 Blue-collar workers 30,447 36,404 37,240 38,123 Craft and related workers 11,591 14,476 14,769 15,099 Operatives 12,995 15,044 15,419 15,809 Laborers, except farm 5,861 6,884 7,052 7,215 Service workers 16,241 20,416 20,706 21,113 Farm workers 2,691 2,404 2,40? 2,424 Percent Change in Employment, 1982 to 1995

All occupations 23 25 28

White-collar workers 26 28 31 Professional and technical workers 30 31 35 Managers and administrators 26 28 31 Sales workers 23 26 28 Clerical workers 24 26 29 Blue-collar workers 20 22 25 Craft and related workers 25 27 30 Operatives 16 19 22 Laborers, except farm 17 20 23 Service workers 26 27 30 Farm workers -11 -11 -10

NOTE: Details may not add to toWs because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Buruu of Labor Statistics.

62 .111111WEDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986 Chart 5.Classroom Use of Microcomputers 51

Percent of Schools Using Microcomputers

Elementary

Junior high

Senior high

1 0 20 40 60 80 Percent

Ei1982 1983

TimePerUser During an Averne Week Elementary

Programming. computer literacy

Drills, remedial work. math, language

Learning games. recreational games

Secondary

PrIN,7,1'111111() I,,,,puter htf y

Drills, remedial work, math, language

Learning games. recreational games

Word processing, data processing. lab, other

1c 0 10 20 310 4 50 60 Median minutesperuser

NOTE Bellew 198? and 1983 the percentage of schools usIng microcomputers tripied at the elementary school 1mi, more than doubted at the junior high level, and increased by 61 percent at the senior high level.

63 VITAL STATISTICS

52 Table 11.States Using MinimumCompetency Testing

Expected Uses States Using Government First Minimum Level Grade High Graduating Competency Setting Levels Grade School Early Remedia- Class Testing Standards Assessed Promotion Graduation Exit tion Assessed

Alabama ...... _ ... State 3,6,9+ X X 1985 Arizona' State/local 8,12 X X 1976 Arkansas State 3.4,6.8 X California State/local 4-11.16 yr. old + X X X X 1979 Colorado Local 9,12 Local option Connecticut . State/local 3,5,7.9 X Delaware State 11 X 1981 Florida...... State/local 3,5,8,11 X X X 1983 Georgia State 4,8,10+ X X 1985 Hawaii State 9.12 X X 1983 Idaho State 9.12 Local option 1982 Illinois Local Local option

Indiana ...... Local 3,6,8,10 X Kansas State 2-4,6.8,9,11.12 Kentucky State/local 3.5,7.8,10,11 Louisiana State 4.8,11 X X 1992 Maine State 8,11 Maryland State 3,7,9.11 X X X 1982 Massachusetts Local Local option Michigan State 4,7,10

Missouri . State 8 Nebraska .... Local 5 + Nevada State 3,6,9,12 X X 1982

New Hampshire . State 4,8,12 New Jersey .. . State 9.12 X X 1989

New Mexico. .. State Local option. 10 1981 New York ...... State 3,6.8-12 X X 1979 North Carolina State 1. 3,6,9,11 X 1980 Ohio Local Local option X Oklahoma None 3,6,9,12

Oregon. Local Local option X 1978 Rhode Island State 4.8.10 South Carolina State 1. 3,6,8,11 X 1989 Tennessee State/local 4. 6,8.11.12 X X 1983 Texas Not reported 3,5,9+ X Utah ... Local Local option X 1980

Vermont , , State K-12 X 1981

Virginia. ., , Stale local K6.9-12 X 1981 Washington ,,, Local 4.8 Wisconsin Local 1.4.5.8,9.10 Local option X

'i,urrent iegislanon (1983) calls for the State to dialog a minimum wurse of studies, uiteria for high school graduation standards, and guidelines for grads-t0-grad promotion, SUUNC,E. education lommission id the mates, oepartmen1 of Ressaich and Information. unpublished tabulations (November 1983) Chad 6.States with MinimumCompetency Testing for High SchoolGraduation

III Testing used for high school graduation

Testing used for all other purposes

NOTE: In 1983, 22 Sintos owl rnInlmom compoNocy listing for tioh school graduation: another11 Sts* owl It for eat PufP099. 65 W VITAL STATISTICS

54 Table 12.-Federal, State, and Local Revenues for Public Education: 1974-15 to 198142

1974.75 1979-80 1981.82

Federal StateLocal FederalState Local FederalState Local

Percentage Distnbution

United States 7.7 41.2 51.1 6A 46.7 44.5 7A 47.2 45.4

Alabama 17.6 58.7 23.7 12.2 669 20.9 14.6 62.0 23.4 Alaska 17.2 61.6 21.2 12.4 67.3 20.3 4.0 77.3 18.7 Anzona 9 4 42.2 48.4 10.5 39.4 50.1 8.7 50.0 41.2 Arkansas 16 2 45.6 36 2 13 6 49.8 36.6 13.7 51.3 35.0 California 9.3 39.1 51.6 9.4 69.4 212 8.6 65.2 25.2

Colorado 6.9 40.0 53.1 5.9 39 4 54.7 5.5 36.2 58.3 Connecticut 2.9 24.6 72.5 6.0 31.1 62.9 5.6 34.1 60.3 Delaware 81 67.1 24.8 . 12.8 63.6 23.6 10.5 65.6 23.9 District of Columbia 18.2 . - 81,8 15.8 - 84.2 15.1 - 84.9 Florida 8 2 56.6 35.2 10.7 53 3 36.0 6.2 51.5 40.3

Georgia 11.9 52.3 35.6 11 5 56.4 32.1 9.4 54.1 36.5 Hawaii 9.0 MI 5.9 12.5 85.2 2.3 9.9 69.7 0.4 Idaho 9.7 42.1 48.2 8 8 50.9 40.3 7.2 60.3 32.5 Illinois 5 4 40.1 54.5 11 4 36.7 51.9 6.1 36.5 55.4 Indiana 5.9 33.5 60.6 6.7 54.4 36 9 5.2 53.4 41.3 Iowa 5 6 41.1 53.3 6.6 41.5 51.9 5.5 39.4 55.1 Kansas 7.2 36 0 56.8 6.7 41.6 51.7 5.0 41.2 53.7 Kentucky 14 3 49.3 36.4 11.9 66.1 22.0 10.7 65.5 23.5 Louisiana 15.5 49.7 34 6 14.1 52.0 33.9 9.6 55.0 35.4 Maine 7.8 43.4 48.6 9.3 47.1 43.6 9.7 41.0 42.3 Maryland 6 6 44 5 48.9 8 0 40.0 52.0 6.7 40.5 52.8 Massachusetts 4.0 24 0 72.0 6,5 36 3 57.2 5.1 39.6 55.3 Michigan 3.4 45 2 51.4 71 40.7 52.2 7.6 35.3 57.1 Minnesota 4.3 53.5 42.2 5.7 531 41.2 4.7 61.5 33.8 Mississippi 22.5 51.1 26 4 23.4 51 6 25.0 19.5 53.6 26.7

Missoun 7.6 33 4 58.8 9 4 35.5 55.1 7.6 36.4 53.7 Montana 8.2 36.6 53.2 8.1 47.3 44.6 e.0 47.0 45.0 Nebraska 8 2 25.1 66 7 7.2 16 7 76.1 6.8 26.2 671 Nevada 5.5 33.7 60 8 82 56.1 35.7 7.6 52.6 39.9 New Hampshire 2 6 6.9 90.5 4 9 6.4 68.7 4.0 6.9 89.1

New Jersey 5 2 30.2 64.6 4.0 39.9 56.1 3.5 38.9 57.6 New Mexico 17 2 56 0 26.8 15.6 59.6 24 6 11.1 61.4 20.5 New York 4.6 38.2 57.2 4.9 39.3 55.8 3.7 40.1 56.1 North Carolina 13 3 65 3 21.4 15 0 61.4 23.6 15.4 61.9 22.7 North Dakota 8 4 40 4 51.2 7.2 43.1 49 7 6 8 54.6 36 6 Ohio 5 4 33 8 me 7.2 37.5 55 3 5.9 33.9 60.3 Oklahoma 11.2 45.6 43 2 10 8 54.4 34.6 8 0 60.1 32.0 Oregon 5.7 24.8 69.5 9.4 33 8 56.8 8.7 32.7 58.6 Pennsylvania 8 5 47.1 44.4 8.2 43 6 48.2 7.3 42.7 49.9 Rhode Island 8 5 34.3 57.2 5 6 36 7 55 5 4.9 36.6 58 3

South Carolina 14 4 55.7 29 9 14 4 55 2 30.4 13 4 53.6 33 0 South Dakota 14 7 12 3 73 0 13.5 20.3 66.2 9.4 21.2 62.4 Tennessee 10 5 50.1 39.4 12.9 44.6 42.5 12.5 45.0 42.5 Texas 10.6 41.7 47.7 10.3 46.8 42.9 6.1 46.0 45.9 Utah 8 0 49 8 42.2 6 9 47.5 45.6 6.1 50.2 43.7 Vermont 5 8 28 4 65.8 7.5 27.2 65.3 6.7 27.2 66.0 Virginia 9.9 29.9 60.2 9.2 39.9 50.9 7 7 40.0 52.3 Washington 7.8 48 4 43.8 8.4 69.3 22.3 5.4 76.5 18.2 West Virginia 10.9 48.9 40.2 9.7 55.1 35 2 9.6 62.5 27.9 Wisconsin 4.1 35 8 60.1 5 0 33.7 61.3 4.8 36.5 58.7 Wyoming 6.9 32.9 60 2 5.9 26 6 67.3 3.0 26.4 70 6

-Not applicable SOURCE Nayonai Education Associabon. Estenitys or Savo Statistic} Idioms lot 1973.74, 1976. 77 .196142. nopyrninto, and unpubkshed Wised data for 1961 426 Education Profiles 55 of the States

ALABAMA schools for blacks and whites. The Chief state school officerWayne U.S. Supreme Court ruled Teague, Superintendent of segregation unconstitutional in 1954; Alabama began its Education, State Department of desegregation effort in 1963. Education, Montgomery 36130. (205) 261-5156. State mandatesCompulsory Education historyFirst school attendance for students aged constitution (1819) echoed the 7-16; provision for home wording of the U.S. Congress in its instruction by parents who want to 1787 Northwest Ordinance: educate their own children. "Schools and the means of education shall foreVer be encouraged." The state's public Number of schools-129 school school system was established in districts with 681 elementary 1854. The Civil War and schools, 130 middle, 85 junior high, Reconstruction slowed school 405 senior high (grades 10-12), and growth and educational standards 94 vocational-technical schools suffered. The county high school (1983-84). system was created in 1907. A 1919 state education survey resulted in Student enrollment-708,180 laws governing the state's basic elementary and secondary; 384,528 school code. Like most southern kindergarten-grade 6; 323,652 states, Alabama long had separate grades 7-12 (1983-84). t:67 STATE PROFILES 56Per pupil expenditures$2,102 States purchased the land from elementary and secondary Russia in 1867, education was (1983-84). provided by various religious bodies. Although public schools Staff-41,000 total instructional; were mandated under the 1884 19,950 elementary teachers, 19,250 Organic Act, parochial schools secondary teachers, 1,800 principals continued to play the prime role and supervisors. Average salary of because of limited public funds. In instructional staff, $18,500; 1900, Congress passed laws elementary teachers, $18,000; establishing schools for white and secondary teachers, $18,000; mixed-blood children within elementary principals, $26,233; incorporated towns. When Alaska junior high/middle school became a territory in 1912, the principals, $27,607; senior high federal government assumed principals, $31,465 (1983-84). responsibility for native education, leaving education of white children State profilePopulation (1983): to the territorial government. After 3,959,000. Per capita income statehood in 1959, the U.S. Bureau (1983): $9,235. Entered statehood of Indian Affairs continued to Det,ember 14, 1816. Motto: We operate many schools for natives. In Dare Defend Our Rights. 1976, state control of education was Nicknames; "Heart of Dixie," regionalized with regional boards of "Cotton State." Flower: Camellia. elected officials. The BIA is Bird: Yellowhammer. Tree: scheduled to transfer responsibility Southern I Ine. Song: "Alabama." for the final ten schools it operates in Alaska to the state after the Excellence activities: A school 1984-85 year. reform plan is being implemented by the State Board of Education and State mandatesCompulsory the legislature, including school attendance for students aged mandatory kindergarten, more 7-16; kindergarten; provision for student testing, tougher standards home instruction by parents who to enter teacher-training programs, want to educate their own children. and temporary certification of non-education majors. The state board has already increased Number of schools-53 school graduation requirements and districts, with 159 elementary created an honors diploma. schools, 17 junior high, 54 senior high, and 168 schools with kindergarten-grade 12. ALASKA Chief state school officer Harold Student enrollment-94,767 Raynolds, Jr., Commissioner of elementary and secondary; 55,304 Education, State Department of kindergarten-grade 6; 39,463 grades Education, Alaska Office Building, 7-12 (1983-84). Juneau 99811. (907) 465-2800. Per pupil expenditures-56,688 Education historyAfter the United elementary and secondary (1983-84) 8 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Staff-5,954 total instructional; Education historyOnly parochial 57 3,491 elementary teachers, 2,465 schooling was available before 1863, secondary teachers, 660 other reflecting the region's strong nonsupervisory instructional, 396 Catholic influence. Building of an principals and supervisors. Average effective education system began salary of instructional staff, under Governor A. P. K. Safford's $35,477; elementary teachers, administration (1869-77). The first $36,292; secondary teachers, public schools opened in Tucson in $36,841; elementary principals, 1871. In 1885, a uniform course of $51,912; junior high/middle school study was adopted for public principals, $55,114; senior high schools. In 1899, Northern Arizona principals, $56,827 (1983-84). Normal School was created at Flagstaff. Manual arts training was State profilePopulation (1983): added to the curriculum in 1905. In 479,000. Per capita income (1983): 1907, measures were taken to $16,820. Entered statehood January consolidate schools for more 3, 1959. Motto: North to the efficient system operations. Future. Flower: Forget-me-not. Bird: Willow Ptarmigan. Tree: Sitka State mandatesCompulsory Spruce. Song: "Alaska's Flag." school attendance for students aged 8-16; kindergarten; provision for Excellence activities: In 1984, home instruction by parents who Alaska increased high school want to educate their own children. graduation credit requirements to 21, including four years of English, Number of schools-225 school three of social studies, two each of districts with 726 elementary mathematics and science and one of schools, 145 secondary, and 17 physical education. In addition, all otherspecial education and districts are now .?quired to alternative schools (1982-83). develop a curriculum for each school grade. In 1983, the Public Student enrollment-545,760 School Foundat:in Program was elementary and secondary; 387,175 temporarily suspended to reval:,,) kindergarten-grade 6; 158,585 the program to distribute more grades 7-12 (1983-84). equitably the state's wealth among school districts. The Department of Per pupil expenditures$2,738 Education was expected to submit elementary and secondary its new plan to the Governor for (1983-84). consideration by the legislature. Staff-33,251 total instructional; 18,343 elementary teachers, 7,319 AIVZONA secondary teachers, 6,297 other nonsupervisory instructional, 1,292 1.7hief state school officer-- Carolyn principals and supervisors. Average Warner, Superintendent of Public salary of instructional staff, Instructi )n, State Department of $23,662; elementary teachers, Education, 1535 West Jefferson, $21,546; secondary teachers, Phoenix 85007. (602) 255-4361. $21,753; elementary principals, STATE PROFILES

58$35,159; junior high/middle school textbooks (1937). In 1958, a state principals, $37,119; senior high law permitted closing of any school principals $38,925 (1983-84). threatened with forced integration. its a result, all Little Rock schools State profilePopulation (1983): were closed during the 1958-59 2,963,000. Per capita income scho9I year. A federal court (1983): $10,719. Entered statehood invaiidated the state law and in February 14, 1912. Motto: Ditat 1960 voters rejected a state Deus (God Enriches . Nickname: constitutional amendment for local Grand Canyon State. Flower: option as regards closing of schools Blossom of Seguaro Cactus. Bird: facing integration. Cactus Wren. Tree: Paloverde. Song: "Arizona." State mandatesCompulsory school attendance for students aged Excellence activities: Arizona has 7-16. for years been making a systematic review of state educational Number of schools -367 school leadership and servicea districts with 654 elementary comprehensive assessment of schools, 524 secondary, and 2 curriculum, certification of teachers alternative schools (Fall 1984). and administrators, testing of pupils and teachers, and staff development Student enrollment-456,035 for educational personnel. Special elementary and secondary; 243,601 projects that have encouraged kindergarten-grade 6; 207,034 excellence include recognition grades 7-12 (1983-84). programs, career ladders, teacher incentive programs, 41.rincipals' Per pupil expenditures$1,666 academy, and vocational-technical elementary and secondary (1983-84). education. Staff-23,669 total instructional; 11,592 elementary teachers, 12,107 ARKANSAS secondary teachers, 1,408 other Chief state school officer Tommy nonsupervisory instructional, 1,354 R. Venters, Director of the principals and supervisors. Average Department of Education, General salary of instructional staff, Education Division, Little Rock $17,503; elementary teachers, 72201. (501) 371-1464. $16,436; secondary teachers, $17,396; elementary principals, Education historyLegislation to $21,022; junior high/middle school establish a public school system was principals, $27,207; senior high enacted in 1843. Public schools principals, $29,379 (1983-84). received meager support until the agrarian revolt of the early 1900s State profilePopulation (1983): brought a demand for better 2,328,000. Per capita income schools, Education improvements (1983): $9,040. Entered statehood resulted from laws on school June 15, 1836. Motto: Regnat attendance (1909), a school Populus (The People Rule). equalization fund (1929), and free Nickname: "Land of Opportunity." 70 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Flower: Apple Blossom. Bird: all children until 1867. High 59 Mockingbird: Tree: Pine. Song: schools were added in 1856. In "Arkansas." 1890, the Union Public High School Act allowed elementary school Excellence activities: The State districts to combine funds to Board of Education adopted new maintain high schools. The state accreditation standards in February established a tax for high school 1984 which go into effect in June funding in 1903. 1987. These standards increase the number of credits required for high State mandatesCompulsory school graduation; require school attendance for students aged additional courses to be offered by 6-16; kindergarten; provision for all schools; strengthen the home instruction by parents who involvement of administrators, want to educate their own children. teachers, parents, and the community in planning; require Number of schools-1,029 school students to pass a test before districts with 5,495 elementary entering the ninth grade; and schools, 1,263 secondary, and 480 reduce the size of classes. Also, the otherelementary-secondary, state legislature, in a special 1983 special education, and alternative session dedicated solely to schools (Fall 1983). education, passed an additional one-cent sales tax for education, a Student enrollment-4,089,017 new funding formula, and a package elementary and secondary; of reform legislation covering 2,813,524 kindergarten-grade 8; teacher and administrator testing. 1,275,493 grades 9-12 (1983-84).

CALIFORNIA Per pupil expenditures $2,416 elementary and secondary (Fall Chief state school officerBill 1983). Honig, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Department of Staff-202,367 total instructional; Education, 721 Capitol Mall, 106,940 elementary teachers, Sacramento 95814. (916) 4454338. 68,084 secondary teachers, 12,457 other nonsupervisory instructional, Education history In the 1700s 14,886 principals and supervisors. and early 19A0s, Franciscan friars Average salary of instructional staff, taught farming, weaving, and other $25,960; elementary teachers, crafts to Indians, while most $24,696; secondary teachers, children of early white settlers $26,314; elementary principals, received private instruction. The, $38,476; junior high principals, first tax-supported school, financed $40,386; senior high principals, by the city, was founded in San $44,746 (1983-84). Francisco in 1850. The California Constitution provided for a public S4ate profilePopulation (1983): school system in 1849; a tax law to 25,174,000. Per capita income support this system passed in 1852. (1983): $13,239. Entered statehood Schools were not completely free to Sekember 9, 1850. Motto: Eureka STATEPROFILES

60(I Have Found It). Nickname: Number of schools-181 school "Golden State." Flower: Golden districts with 785 elementary Poppy. Bird: California Valley Quail. schools, 71 middle, 152 junior high, Tree: California Redwood. Song: "I and 397 secondary (1982). Love You, California." Student enrollment-542,175 Excellence activities: In 1983, the elementary and secondary; 319,064 state legislature passed a major kindergarten-grade 6; 223,111 school reform bill. Elements of the grades 7-12 (1982-83). package included raises for teachers, a longer school day and Per pupil expenditures$3,261 year, expansion of the elementary and secondary teacher-mentor program and (1983-84). increased graduation requirements. A ballot initiative was passed in Staff-32,989 total instructional; November creating a state lottery 15,287 elementary teachers, 14,160 that provides $54C million in school secondary teachers, 1,920 other funds. nonsupervisory instructional, 1,622 principals and supervisors. Average salary of instructional staff, $23,779; elementary teachers, COLORADO $22,452; secondary teachers, Chief state school officerCalvin $23,789; eleme,,tary principals, M. Frazier, Commissioner of $39,600; junior high/middle school Education, State Department of principals, $37,642; senior high Education, 300 W. Colfax Ave., principals, $40,312 (1983-84). Denver 80204. (303) 573-3201. State profilePopulation (1983): Education historyIn 1859/0. J. 3,139,000. Per capita income: Goldrick rented a cabin in Denver (1983) $12,580. Entered statehood to open Colorado's first school for August 1, 1876. Motto: Colorado the children of gold miners. A log Above Alt Nickname: "Centennial house in Boulder became the first State." Flower: Rocky Mountain formal school structure, in 1860. Columbine. Bird: Lark Bunting. High schools appeared in the 1870s. Tree. Colorado Blue Spruce. Song: An Opportunity School in Denver "Where the Columbines Grow." became nationally famous for the character and scope of its offerings Excellence activities: Based on to adults. Since the 1950s the state reports from task forces established has been consolidating public by the State Board of Education schools, and the rural schoolhouse following the 1983 publication of has all but vanished. the U.S. Department of Education's A Nation At Risk, the state State mandatesCompulsory Department of Education attendance for students aged 7 16, established a new Office of Federal provision. for home instruction by Relations and Instructional parents who want to educate their Services. To address specific task own children. force recommendations, three 72 1

E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

curriculum specialists on loan from evaluation and remedial assistance 61 school districtsoutstanding involves grades 4, 6, and 8. teachers of English, mathematics Minimum 900 hours instructional and scienceare visiting districts, time grades 1-12, 450 hours for helping with curriculum kindergarten. development and special needs. More of this is scheduled to follow as other task forces submit Number of schools-145 school recommendations. districts with 618 elementary schools, 153 middle and junior high; 141 secondary, and 30 CONNECTICUT othercombined elementary- Chief state school officerGerald secondary, special education, and N. Tirozzi, Commissioner of alternative schools (Fall 1983). Education, State Department of Education, 165 Capitol Ave., Student enrollment-480,492 Hartford 06106. (203) 566-5061. elementary and secondary; 302,944 kindergarten-grade 8; 158,616 Education historyThe state's first grades 9-12 (1983-84). free school was established in 1641 in New Haven. A 1650 law required Per pupil expenditures$4,061 towns of 50 or more families to elementary and secondary establish elementary schools. Towns (1983-84). of 100 or more families were also required to found schools to prepare youth for the university. Staff-38,426 total instructional; School orientation was religious, 18,902 elementary teachers, 13,813 and penalties were imposed on secondary teachers, 3,280 other parents who neglected their nonsupervisory instructional, 2,431 children's education. In 1795, the principals and supervisors. Aven,g7 state created a school fund financed salary of instructional staff, by the sale of state-owned lands. $23,695; elementary teachers, Henry Barnard, the first chief state $22,384; secondary teachers, school officer, sparked public $23,031; elementary principals, interest during the 1840s in school $36,700; junior high/middle school reform and improvement. Today the principals, $39,413; senior high state has a decentralized system of principals, $41,396 (1983-84). public education, with most decision-making authority vested in State profilePopulation (1983): local school districts. 3,138,000. Per capita income (1983): $14,826. Entered statehood State mandatesCompulsory January 9, 1788. Motto: Qui school attendance for students aged Transtulet Sustinet (He Who 5-16; kindergarten; provision for Transp:anted Still Sustains). home instruction by parents who Nicknames: "Constitution State," want to educate their own children. "Nutmeg State." Flower: Mounts,,, Minimal competency evaluation and Laurel. Bird: American Robin. Tree: remediation at grade 9. Education White Oak. Song: "Yankee Doodle." 3 STATE PROFILES

62Excellence activities: The State Student enrollment-91,406 Board of Education has approved elementary and secondary; 45,545 reforms including all -day kindergarten-grade 6; 45,861 grades kindergarten, a loan-incentive 7-12 (1983-84). program for education majors, tougher teacher-training Per pupil expenditures$4,061 requirements, increased graduation elementary and secondary requirements, and lowering of the (1983-84). compulsory school age to 5. District policies are now required on Staff-6,111 total instructional; professional development, 2,451 elementary teachers, 2,985 homework, attendance, and secondary teachers, 360 other promotion and retention. The state nonsupervisory instructional, 315 is considering revision of its principals and supervisors. Average certification law, and plans to study salary of instructional staff, teacher salaries, vocational $21,648; elementary teachers, education, adult education, and $20,378; secondary teachers, early childhood education. $21,375; elementary principals, $36,028; junior high/middle school DELAWARE principals, $35,812; senior high principals, $38,314 (1983-84). Chief state school officerWilliam B. Keene, Superintendent of Public State profilePopulation (1983): Instruction, State Department of 606,000. Per capita income (1983): Public Instruction, P.O. Box 1402 $12,442. Entered statehood Townsend Building, Dover 19901. December 7, 1787. Motto: Liberty (302) 736-4601. and Independence. Nickname: "First State," Bird: Blue Hen Education historyEarliest schools Chicken. Tree: American Holly. were run by churches of Dutch and Song: "Our Delaware." Swedish colonists and then the English. Public education started Excellence activities: The State after the Revolutionary War; public Board of Education adopted passing school funding by the state began in scores for new Delaware educators 1792. While the legislature taking the Pre-Professional Skills established the public educational Test, not required for certification. system in 1829, it remained under It also changed standards, for high local control until the 1920s. school graduation, doubling State mandatesCompulsory mathematics and science school attendance for students aged requirements beginning with the 5-16; kindergarten; provision for class of 1987. The legislature raised home instruction by parents who school funding by 10 percent, with want to educate their own children. money going to increase teachers' salaries and reduce class sizes in the Number of schools-19 school primary grades. It also required districts with 118 elementary and 5-year-olds to attend kindergarten. middle schools and 46 secondary A governor's task force proposed 75 (1982-83). recommendations for change, '7 4 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 including a 25 percent increase in board with both black and white 63 time spent on core academic members, and a partial unification subjects. The Department of Public of white and black schools Instruction is seeking to add 30 occurred. After the 1954 Supreme minutes to the school day and plans Court decision holding segregated to write standards for all courses of schools unconstitutional, the study and issue guidelines on how District of Columbia moved quickly to allocate elementary instructional to comply, becoming the first major time. city to fully desegregate its school system. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA District mandateCompulsory Chief state school ollicerFloretta school attendance for students aged McKenzie, Superintendent of Public 7-16. Schools, D.C. Public Schools, 415 12th St., N.W., 20004. Number of schools-1 school (202) 724-4222. district with 121 elementary schools, 2 middle, 27 junior high, Education historyD.C. public 15 high and 18 other--special schools originated with an act education and alternative schools passed by the City Council in 1804 (Fall 1984). "to establish and endow a permanent institution for the Student enrollment-89,000 education of youth in the city of elementary and secondary; 45,026 Washington." The board of trustees kindergarten-grade 6; 35,931 grades created by the act, with Thomas 7-12 (Fall 1984). Jefferson as its first president, developed plans for a system of Per pupil expenditures $3,565 public instruction from the elementary and secondary (Fall common school level to a college or 1983). university. Two elementary schools for boys opened in 1805, followed in Staff-5,812 total instructional; 1812 by a school admitting girls as 2,454 elementary teachers, 1,766 well as boys. Between 1812 and secondary teachers, 844 other 1838 Congress passed 14 joint nonsupervisory instructional, 285 resolutions authorizing lotteries for principals and supervisors. Average school financing. A true public salary of instructional staff, school system did not develop until $28,725; elementary teachers, after the Civil War, and it was a $27,659, secondary teachers, segregated system. A high school $27,659; elementary principals, for white girls was established in $41,577, junior high/middle school 1876; a high school for white boys principals, $43,320; senior high opened the following year. A high principals, $43,087 (1984-85). school for blacks (the M Street School) opened in 1891. Separate ProfilePopulation (1983): boards for schools serving black and 623,000. Per capita income (1982). white students were abolished in $14,550. Motto: Justitia Omnibus the early 1900s in favor of a single (Justice for All). Flower: American :75 STATE PROFILES 64Beauty Rose. Bird: Wood Thrush. educate their own children. New Tree: Scarlet Oak. mandates added in 1984 include kindergarten; assessmente,sting in Excellence activities: Prior to the grades 3, 5, 8 and 10; 22 credits for 1983 publication of the U.S. graduation as of 1984-85; five net Department of Education's study of hours of instruction each school education, A Nation At Risk, the day; 150 hours of instruction for District of Cokimbia had increased high schools, 135 of which must be graduation requirements and attended for credit; grade-point established a competency-based average of 1.5 required for curriculum. Since then, a task force graduation beginning in 1986-87; has recommended development of a same average required to take part teacher incentive program that may in extracurricular activities; student include career ladders. The task performance standards and force's study also recommended curriculum frameworks. school and teacher incentive awards, which were implemented. Number of schools-67 school The system also initiated a districts with 1,254 elementary secondary school program plan that schools, 361 middle and junior will be expanded over the next three high, 284 senior high, and 55 years. combined elementary-secondary schools (1984-85). FLORIDA Student enrollment-1,492,366 Chief state school officerRalph D. elementary and secondary; 775.570 Turlington, Commissioner of kindergarten-grade 6; 716,796 Education, State Department of grades 7-12 (1983-84). Education, Capitol Building, Room FL 116, Tallahassee 32301. Per pupil expenditures$3,201 (904) 487-1785. elementary and secondary (1983-84). Education historyThe first schools were begun by Spanish Staff-90,348 total instructional; priests in the 1600s. The focus of 46,352 elementary teachers, 36,576 studies for Spanish and Indian secondary teachers, 7,420 other children was on religion and nonsupervisory instructional, 5,336 Spanish language. In the principals and supervisors. Average mid-1700s, English colonists salary of instructional staff, provided education for children of $20,710; elementary teachers, wealthier families. A formal system $19,871; secondary teachers, of public education was started w!th $19,109; elementary principals, the 1868 constitution and was well $32,283; junior high/middle school established by the early 1900s. principals, $34,476; senior high principals, $37,152 (1983-84). State mandatesCompulsory school attendance for students aged State profilePopulation (1983): 7-16; provision for home 10,680,000. Per capita income instruction by parents who want to (1983): $11,592. Entered statehood 76 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986 March 3, 1845. Motto: In God We by legislation in 1870 under the 65 Trust. Nickname: "Sunshine State." leadership of Gustavus J. Orr. He Flower: Orange Blossom. Bird: became state commissioner of Mockingbird. Tree: Sabal Palmetto schools in 1872 and is considered Palm. Song: "Swanee River." the father of Georgia's public school system. State supported high Excellence activities: An schools came into being in 1912. educational reform package included special attention to grades State mandatesCompulsory 4 and 5 as well as enhancement of school attendance for students aged learning in grades 6-8 and 7-16; kindergarten. strengthened mathematics, science, and computer programs. High Number of schools-187 school school graduation and college districts with 1,286 elementary admissions standards raised, and schools, 380 secondary, and 138 college students required to pass a othercombined elementary- test at the end of their sophomore secondary, special education, and year to be admitted to upper-level alternative schools (1982-83). study. A beginning teacher program being implemented, and a statewide academy for school managers has Student enrollment-1,050,900 developed guidelines for identifying elementary and secondary; 648,500 and rewarding outstanding kindergarten-grade 6; 402,400 principals. Out-of-school learning grades 7-12; 18,343 special activities and academic recognition (1983-84). programs are promoted. Both master-teacher and merit-pay Per pupil expenditures$2,309 programs reward outstanding elementary and secondary teachers, and a merit-school (1983-84). program honors the entire staff at qualified schools. Staff-58,840 total instructional; 33,660 elementary teachers, 22,610 GEORGIA secondary teachers, 2,570 principals and supervisors. Average salary of Chief state school officerCharles instructional staff, $19,429; McDaniel, Superintendent of elementary teachers, $18,184; Schools, Georgia Department of secondary teachers, $18,948; Education, 2066 Twin Towers East, elementary principals, $30,568; Atlanta 30334. (404) 656-2800. junior high/middle school principals, $33,023; senior high Education historyEarly schooling principals, $33,691 (1983-84). occurred in cabins built by farmers and known as "old field" schools. State profilePopulation (1982): Traveling school teachers ran them. 5,732,000. Per capita income Wealthier planters hired private (1983): $10,283. Entered statehood teachers, mostly from New January 2, 1788. Motto: Wisdom, England, for their children. The Justice and Moderation. first public schools were established Nicknames: "Empire State of the

1 i77 STATE PROFILES 66South," "Peach State." Flower: teachers, textbooks, and methods Cherokee Rose. Bird: Brown became common. Reflecting Thrasher. Tree: Live Oak. Song: centralized control under the native "Georgia On My Mind." monarchy and later territorial status, public education today is Excellence activities: Four operated entirely by the state rather improvement efforts were adopted than through local school districts. by the State Board of Education and are now being implemented State mandatesCompulsory statewide: strengthened graduation school attendance for students aged requirements (from 20 to 21 units 6-18; provision for home and additional required courses in instruction by parents who want to English, mathematics, science, and educate their own children. social studies) effective 1985 for ninth graders; a limit of ten days Number of schools-1 school on the number of days a student district with 143 elementary may miss school because of schools, 66 secondary and school-sanctioned activities; a basic combined elementary-secondary; 23 skills promotion test that third otherspecial education and graders must pass to be promoted alternative schools (Fall 1983). to fourth grade; and a basic curriculum content to be used Student enrollment-161,932 statewide to establish uniformity elementary and secondary; 86,920 and consistency in curriculum kindergarten-grade 6; 75,012 grades offerings at each grade level and 7-12 (1983-84). course. Per pupil expenditures$3,982 HAWAII elementary and secondary (1983-84). Chief state school officerFrancis M. Hatanaka, Acting Staff-9,231 total instructional; Superintendent of Education, P.O. 4,005 elementary teachers, 3,201 Box 2360, Honolulu 96804. secondary teachers, 833 special (808) 548-6405. schools teachers, 360 principals and supervisors (1983-84). Average Education historyAmerican salary of instructional staff, missionaries set up Hawaii's $25,539; elementary teachers, education system in the 1820s. $25,539; secondary teachers, Compulsory school attendance was $25,539; elementary principals, no requit4.4 as early as 1824. By 1832, data; junior high/middle school there were 900 schools with 53,000 principals, no data; senior high pupils, mostly adults, who principals, $34,553 (1983-84). comprised 40 percent of the population. Government support of State profilePopulation (1983): public schools began in 1843. 1,023,000. Per capita income Hawaiian was the language of (1983): $12,101. Entered statehood public instruction until 1854 when August 21, 1959. Motto: The Life of English was adopted and American the Land is Perpetuated in 78 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Righteousness. Nickname: "Aloha State mandatesCompulsory 67 State." Flower: Hibiscus. Bird: school attendance for students aged Hawaiian Goose. Tree: Candlenut. 7-16; provision for home Song: "Hawaii Ponoi." instruction by parents who want to educate their own children, if Excellence activities: The State approved by the local Board of Department of Education has Trustees. re-examined its organization, functions, and activities toward Number of scho.ls-116 school upgrading the delivery of services to districts with 348 elementary students and strengthening the schools, 207 secondary, and 3 overall school system. Concerns othercombined elementary- now being addressed include school secondary, special education, and climate, ensuring a safe and secure alternative schools (Fall 1984). environment, quality staffing, and strengthening of graduation requirements. Student enrollment-208,365 elementary and secondary; 116,474 kindergarten-grade 6; 91,891 grades 7-12 (1983-84). IDAHO

Chief state school officerJerry L. Per pupil expenditures$2,198 Evans, Superintendent of Public elementary and secondary Instruction, State Department of (1983-84). Education, 650 W. State St., Boise 83720. (208) 334-3300. Staff-11,710 total instructional; Education historyThe first 5,285 elementary teachers, 4,884 schools were created by secondary teachers, 604 other missionaries for Indian children. nonsupervisory instructional, 624 For example, missionary Henry principals and supervisors. Spalding and his wife opened a Estimated average salary of school at Lapwai Mission in about instructional staff, $18,687; 1836. Later, homesteaders settling elementary teachers, $17,183; in permanent communities joined secondary teachers, $17,993; together to build schools for their elementary principals, $30,141; children. The office of territorial junior high principals, $30,257; superintendent of instruction was senior high principals, $32,417 created by the legislature in 1864 (1983-84). and a common school system was established. By 1890, Idaho had 400 State profilePopulation (1984): public schools. In 1913, the 989,000. Per capita income (1983): legislature established a state board $9,342. Entered statehood July 3, of education to supervise all state 1890. Motto: Esto Perpetua (It Is public education institutions, Perpetual). Nickname: "Gem elementary through university State." Flower: Syringa. Bird: levels, including vocational and Mountain Bluebird. Tree: White correctional schools. Pine. Song: "Here We Have Idaho." it79 STATE PROFILES 68Excellence activities: The State An 1855 law providing for a state Board of Education adopted a school tax was the foundation for six-period day for all secondary the present public education students, beginning in 1985; a system. The state elected its first mandated core curriculum in which chief state school officer in 1856. students must obtain a cumulative The constitution of 1870 required "C" average for credit; 90 percent the legislature to provide a attendance in class for credit for all thorough and efficient system of secondary students; distict absence public schools. Consolidation efforts and tardy policies for elementary begun early in this century reduced students; and requirements for the number of school districts from recertification of teachers. 12,000 in 1945 to 1,300 in the late Statewide proficiency testing has 1960s and even fewer today. been moved from ninth to eighth grade and an eleventh grade testing State mandatesCompulsory program has been initiated. school attendance for students aged Graduation requirements for the 7-16; provision for home class of 1988 were increased in instruction by parents who want to January 1983. In addition, the educate their own children. Idaho School'Improvement Act of 1984 provided locally-developed Number of schools-1,010 school career ladder programs for teachers districts with 3,319 elementary to meet state guidelines; a $20.3 schools, 725 secondary, and 213 million appropriation to raise othercombined elementary- teachers' salaries statewide in the secondary, special education, and first of a two-year proposal; annual alternative schools (1983-84). evaluation of teachers; locally-developed discipline codes; and income tax credits for Student enrollment-1,853,316 charitable contributions to schools elementary and secondary; and libraries. 1,271,525 prekindergarten-grade 8; 581,791 grades 9-12 (1983-84).

ILLINOIS Per pupil expenditures$3,397 Chief state school officerDonald elementary and secondary G. Gill, Superintendent of (1983-84). Education, State Board of Education, 100 N. First St., Staff-112,622 total instructional; Springfield 62777. (217) 782-2221. 66,374 elementary teachers, 34,682 secondary teachers, 5,335 other Education history As part of the =supervisory instructional, 6,231 Northwest Territory, Illinois principals and supervisors. Average benefited from the federal land set salary of instructional staff, aside for educational purposes by $24,236; elementary teachers, the Ordinances of 1785 and 1787. $22,324; secondary teachers, Free schools supported by sale of $25,297; elementary principals, these lands and by local taxation $35,595, junior high/middle school were established as early as 1834. principals, $37,329; senior high 80 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

principals, $40,739 (1983-84). for teachers. In 1825, an 69 experiment in community living State profilePopulation (1983): began in New Harmony; 11,486,000. Per capita income educational concepts generated by (1983): $12,626. Entered statehood this colony are still in use today. December 3, 1818. Motto: State Chief among them was the novel SovereigntyNational Unity. idea of educating boys and girls Nickname: "The Prairie State" together. The first nursery schools Flower: Native Violet. Bird: also grew out of these experiments. Cardinal. Tree: White Oak. Song: In 1900, educator William Wirt "Illinois" started a school system in Bluffton that combined study, play, and Excellence activities: Stricter high work. Gary adopted the approach in school graduation requirements 1906. Many U.S. cities adapted ideas have been implemented; a variety of from the systeili, which came to be other proposed reform initiatives known as the "platoon school" or are yet to be considered. The State Gary School Plan. Board of Education has approveda comprehensive set of State mandates Compuisory recommendations calling for major school attendance for students aged changes in the areas of student 7-16 years; provision for home learning, school finance, and the instruction by parents who want to quality of educational personnel. educate their own children. The legislature created the Commission for the Improvement Number of schools-305 school of Elementary and Secondary districts with 1,140 elementary Education to study the issues and schools, 475 secondary, and 343 make recommendations. othercombined elementary- secondary, special education, and INDIANA alternative schools (Fall 1983). Chief state school officerHarold H. Negley, Superintendent of Public Student enrollment-984,090 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary; 515,914 Education, State House, Room 229, kindergarten-grade 6; 468,176 Indianapolis 46204. (317) 232-6612. grades 7-12 (1983-84).

Education historyIn 1816, Per pupil expenditures$2,730 Indiana became the first state to elementary and secondary provide in its constitution for a (1983-84). statewide system of free public schools, but the legislature did not Stall` 55,961 total instructional; authorize taxes to support the 24,813 elementary teachers, 24,643 schools until 1849. Meanwhile, secondary teachers, 2,978 other nearly every township had nonsupervisory instructional, 3,527 established log schoolhouses built principals and supervisors. Average by parents who paid the salary and salary of instructional staff, took turns providing living quarters $22,459; elementary teachers, 81. STATE PROFILES

70$21,147; secondary teachers, Grimes State Office Bldg., Des $22,031; elementary principals, Moines 50319. (515) 281-5294. $32,048; junior high/middle school principals, $34,953; senior high Education historyThe state's first principals, $38,714 (1983-84). school opened in 1830 in a log cabin built by Dr. Isaac Calland, a State profilePopulation (1983): physician who compensated the 5,479,000. Per capita income teacher by allowing him to read his (1983): $10,567. Entered statehood medical books. The territorial December 11, 1816. Motto: legislature created free public Crossroads of America. Nickname: (primary) schools in 1839; free "Hoosier State." Flower: Peony. public high schools followed in Bird. Cardinal. Tree: Tulip Poplar. 1911. Iowa built one of the first Song: "On the Banks of the public schools for the physically Wabash." handicappedDavis W. Smouse Opportunity Schoolin Des Excellence activities: Indiana has Moines in 1931. tightened graduation requirements, including one more year in State mandatesCompulsory mathematics, science, and English, schuol attendance for students aged required schools to offer computer 7-16; provision for home literacy; increased instructional instruction by parents who want to time in the schools by disallowing educate their own children. non-instructional activities to count toward the minimum instructional Number of schools-438 school school day; established on a districts with 1,007 elementary statewide basis Project PRIME schools, 223 junior high, 471 senior TIME, which reduces the high, and 38 special education and student/teacher ratio to 18 to 1 in alternative schools (1983-84). kindergarten through third grade; initiated a statewide student Student enrollment-494,966 competency testing and elementary and secondary; 262,581 remediation program for three kindergarten-grade 6; 232,385 grade levels, beginning with third grades 7-12 (1983-84). grade students in the spring of 1985; initiated a teacher testing Per pupil expenditures$2,821 program for new and out if-state elementary and secondary teachers using the National Teacher (1983-84). Examinations; increased funding for gifted and talented, summer school, Staff-30,686 total instructional; and adult education programs. 14,264 elementary teachers, 16,422 secondary teachers, 1,669 other nonsupervisory instructional, 1,250 IOWA principals and supervisors. Average Chief state school officer Robert salary of instructional staff, D. Benton, Superintendent of $20,841; elementary teachers, Public Instruction, State $19,366, secondary teachers, Department of Public Instruction, $20,808; elementary principals, 82 E D U L A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 $33,76, junior high/middle school superintendent of common schools principals, $36,848; senior high was created in 1858. The next year principals, $38,104 (1983-84). free education in public schools was extended to all children, including State profile?opulation (1983). Indians. In the early 1960s the state 2,905,000. Per capita income adopted a plan to reduce the (1983): $11,048. Entered statehood number of school districts to make December 28, 184e. Motto: Our better use of facilities and funds. It Liberties We Prize and Our Rights also launched high school job We Will Maintain. Nickname.: training programs to prepare "Hawkeye State." Flower: Wild students for employment in the Rose. Bird: Eastern Goldfinch. Tree: state's major industries. Oak. Song: "The Song of Iowa." State mandatesCompulsory Excellence activities: A legislative Jcht,o1 attendance foi students aged task force recommended that the 7-15; provision for home State Board of Education adopt new instruction by parents who want to standards by mid-1987 and assume educate their own children. control over any school district that fails to meet them. The standards Number of schools-305 school include full-time contracts for districts with 1,053 elementary educators, annual training for schools, 433 secondary, and 12 school board members, a career othercombined elementary- ladder for teachers, private sector secondary, special education, and partnerships and more community alternative schools (Fall 1983). and parent involvement. A "think-tank" should be formed to Student enrollment-405,222 help education by conducting elementary and secondary; 217,272 research, and curriculum kindergarten-grade 6; 187,950 committees should develop model grades 7-12 (1 983-84). curricula for all grades, the task force said. Per pupil expenditures-53,190 elementary and secondary (1983-84). KANSAS Chief state school officerHarold Staff-29,437 total instructional; L. Biaaurn, Commissioner of 14,342 elementary teachers, 11,613 Education, State Department of secondary teachers, 1,856 other Education, 120 E. Tenth Street, nensupervisory instructional, 1,626 Topeka 66612. (913) 296-3201. principals and supervisors (1983-84). Average salary of Educatior. astoryThe first instructional staff, $20,607; Schools were established by elementaty teachers, $19,507; missionaries in the 1830s for Indian secondary teachers, $19,690; children. In 1855, the first elementary principals, $29,953; territorial legislature provided for senior high principals, $33,605; free public schools for white senior high principals, $36,819 children. The office of state (1983-84). 83 STATE PROFILES -1=11111 72State profilePopulation (1983): McAffe's Station (1777), 2,425,000. Per capita income Boonesborough (1779), and (1983): $12,285. Entered statehood Lexington (1783). The statewide January 29, 1861. Motto: Ad Astra public school system was per Aspera (To the Stars Through established by the legislature in Difficulties). Nickname: "Sunflower 1883. The legislature of 1908 State." Flower: Native Sunflower. became known as the "education Bird: Western Meadowlark. Tree: legislature" because of the many Cottonwood. Song: "Home on the school laws it passed. Among other Range." things, state aid to education was increased and a law providing for Excellence activities: Teacher teacher training was passed. In candidates must complete a 1934, the school system was pre-professional basic skills reorganized by the legislature to examination. As of July 1985 improve academic quality and make certified personnel must participate better use of funds. in inservice activities to have their !icenses renewed. Starting in 1987, State mandatesCompulsory beginning teachers will take part in school attendance for students aged an !nternship program. 7-16; kindergarten. High-achieving students will be offered a chance to participate in Number &schools-180 school the Kansas Honors Academy, a districts with 1,053 elementary four-week summer residential schools, 310 secondary, and 18 program in mathematics, science, othercombined elementary- the humanities, and the arts. secondary, special education, and Graduation requirements will be alternative schools (Fall 1983). increased from 17 to 20 units for the class of 1988, including four Student enrollment-547,414 units of English, three of social elementary and secondary; 346,599 studies, and two each of kindergarten-grade 6; 300,815 mathematics and science. grades 7-12 (1983-84).

KENTUCKY Per pupil expenditures$2,550 elementary and secondary Chief state school officerAlice (1983-84). McDonald, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Staff-36,150 total instructional; Department of Education, Capitol 20,778 elementary teachers, 11,222 Plaza Tower, Frankfort 40601. secondary teachers, 2,030 other (502) 564-4770. nonsupervisory instructional, 2,120 principals and supervisors. Average Education history The first school salary of instructional staff, in the Ker ucky region was started $20,690; elementary teachers, in 1775 by a pioneer school teacher $19,340; secondary teachers, named Mrs. William Coomes at $20,680; elementary principals, Harrodsburg, the first permanent $32,329; junior high/middle school settlement. Others followed at principals, $35,596; senior high E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 principals, $38,099 (1983-84). newly adopted constitution created 73 the office of state superintendent of State profilePopulation (1983): education in 1845. Alexander 3,714,000. Per capita income Dimitry, first superintendent, (1983): $9,162. Entered statehood created a statewide system of public June 1, 1792. Motto: United We schools and became known as the Stand, Divided We Fall. Nickname: father of Louisiana's elementary "Bluegrass State." Flower: education. The state provided Goldenrod. Bird. Cardinal. Tree: financial support for schools in Kentucky Coffee Tree. Song: "My 1898. Catholic schools in New Old Kentucky Home." Orleans desegregated in 1962, but public schools resisted Excellence activities: In October desegregation pressures. In 1983, the State Board of Education 1963-67, all public school systems adopted minimum basic skills for came under federal court orders to Kentucky schools as a condition of desegregate. By 1968, all had state accreditation. Graduation substantially complied. requirements were increased to 20 units for freshmen entering high State mandatesCompulsory school in the fall f 1983, including school attendance for students aged four years of English, three of 7-15; provision for home mathematics, and two of social instruction by parents who want to studies. A Governor's Scholars educate their own children. Program enriches instruction in science and technology. Teachers Number of schools-66 school must pass a competency test and districts with 1,036 elementary serve a one-year internship to be schools, 241 secondary, and 245 certified. Beginning in 1985, othercombined elementary- kindergarten is required. secondary, special education, and alternative schools (Fall 1980). LOUISIANA Student enrollment-768,450 Chief state school officerThomas elementary and secondary; 555,390 Clausen, Superintendent of kindergarten-grade 6; 213,060 Education, State Department of grades 7-12 (1983-84). Education, P.O. Box 44064, Baton Rouge 70804. (504) 342-3602. Per pupil expenditures$2,821 elementary and secondary Education historyLouisiana's first (1983-84). schools were established under French rule in the early 1700s. Staff-42,420 total instructional; Ursuline nuns started a school fo: 26,510 elementary teachers, 15,110 girls that still exists. The first public secondary teachers, 1,890 other school opened in 1772 after the nonsupervisory instructional, 2,910 territory's transfer to Spanish rule, principals and supervisors. Average but the rich sent their children to salary of instructional staff, private schools. Progress in public $20,709; elementary teachers, education was substantial after the $18,70('; secondary teachers, 85 STATE PROFILES 74$19,615; elementary principals, schools was rapid after 1940. In $29,235; junior high/middle school 1957, the Sinclair Act was passed by principals, $31,143; senior high the legislature to encourage principals, $33,804 (1983-84). consolidation of schools operated by districts encompassing two or more State profilePopulation (1983): towns. 4,438,000. Per capita income (1983): $10,406. Entered statehood State mandatesCompulsory April 30, 1812. Motto: Union, school attendance for students aged Justice and Confidence. Nickname: 7-17; kindergarten; provision for "Pelican State." Flower: Magnolia. home instruction by parents who Bird: Eastern Brown Pelican. Tree: want to educate their own children. Cypress. Song: "Give Me Louisiana." Number of schods-178 school districts with 610 elementary Excellence activities: High school schools, 105 secondary, and 41 graduates are required to have four combined elementary-secondary units of English, three of (Fall 1983). mathematics, and two of science and social studies, beginning with Student enrollment-209,753 the class of 1988. Students in elementary and secondary; 109,752 kindergarten-eighth grade began a kindergarten-grade 6; 101,001 30-minute longer school day as of grades 7-12 (1983-84). September 1984. The state opened a School for Mathematics, Science Per pupil expenditures$2,829 and the Arts for eleventh and elementary, $1,955 secondary twelfth graders in September 1983. (1983-84).

MAINE Staff-12,467 total instructional; 7,128 elementary teachers, 5,339 Chief state school officer Robert secondary teachers, 133 other E. Boose, Commissioner, nonsupervisory instructional, 1,268 Department of Educational and principals and supervisors. Average Cultural Services, State House, salary of instructional staff, Augusta 04333. (207) 289-2321. $17,328; elementary teachers, $16,839; secondary teachers, Education history The first school $18,171; elementary principals, may have been founded by $26,601; secondary principals, missionaries for Indian children as $28,862, senior high principals, early as 1696. The first known $31,648 (1983-84). school for white children was located in York in 1701. The first State profilePopulation (1983): school building was erected in 1,146,000. Per capita income Berwick in 1719. School funds were (1983): $9,619. Entered statehood provided by the legislature starting March 15, 18LO. Motto: Dirigio (I in 1828. A law providing for free Direct). Nickname: "Pine Tree high schools was enacted in 1873. State." Flower: White Pine Cone. The trend away from one-room Bird: Chickadee. Tree: Eastern

6 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986 White Pine. Song: "State of Maine." districts with 748 elementary 75 schools, 294 secondary, and 189 Excellence activities: Improvement othercombined elementary- of public education in Maine since secondary, special education, and 1983 includes passage of two pieces alternative schools (Fall 1983). of education legislation: A new certification law embracing the Student enrollment- 683,491 master teacher concept, and an elementary and secondary; 335,652 education reform act that includes kindergarten-grade 6; 347,839 annual $2,000 stipends for teachers grades 7-12 (1983-84). who have taught full-time for at least three years and a special commission to study and Per pupil expenditures$3,720 recommend permanent elementary and secondary enhancement of teacher (1983-84). compensation. Staff-48,591 total instructional; 17,453 elementary teachers, 20,436 MARYLAND secondary teachers, 8,473 other Cdef state school officerDavid W. nonsupervisory instructional, 2,229 Hornbeck, State Superintendent of principals and supervisors. Average Schools, State Department of salary of instructional staff, Education, 200 W. Baltimore St., $25,091; elementary teachers, Baltimore 21201. (301) 659-2200. $23,052; secondary teachers, $24,471; elementary principals, Education historyThe colony first $34,371; junior high/middle school provided public education funds in principals, $33,670; senior high 1694. King William's School (now principals, $38,640 (1983-84). St. John's College in Annapolis) was the first free school, foundei as an State profilePopulation (1983): academy in 1696. In 1826, Maryland 4,304,000. Per capita income established public schools (1983): $12,994. Entered statehood throughout the state. In 1864, the April 28, 1788. Motto: Fatti constitution provided for a uniform Maschii, Parole Femine (Manly public school system. The state Deeds, Womanly Words). board of education and office of Nicknames: "Old Line State," "Free state superintendent of public State." Flower: Black-eyed Susan. instruction were created in 1865. A Bird: Baltimore Oriole. Tree: White compulsory school attendance law Oak. Song: "Maryland, My was passed in 1911. Maryland."

State mandatesCompulsory Excellence v..14 ;ties: Scholarships school attendance for students aged proposed for students who agree to 6-15; provision for home teach in areas of critical shortages. instruction by parents who want to High school graduation educate their own children. requirements have been revised, adding one each of mathematics Number of schools-24 school and fine arts credits. A certificate of 7 STATE PROFILES

76merit is given to students who earn school attendance for ..:.udents aged a 2.6 grade point average and take 7-16; kindergarten; provision for advanced courses. New teachers home instruction by parents who must pass a test to teach; teachers want to educate their own children. are considered for tenure after two years and after passing a test. Number of schools 337 school districts with 1,336 elementary MASSACHUSETTS schools, 461 secondary, and 30 otherspecial education and Chief state school officerJohn H. alternative schools (1983-84). Lawson, Commissioner of Education, State Department of Student enrollment-876,935 Education, Quincy Center Plaza, elementary and secondary; 415,712 1385 Hancock St., Quincy 02169. kindergarten-grade 6; 450,763 (617) 770-78:00. grades 7-12 (1983-84).

Education history Boston Latin Per pupil expenditures$3,176 (1635) was the first public school in elementary and secondary the American colonies, established (1983-84). to prepare boys for college. The Massachusetts Act of 1642 required Staff-57,143 total instructional; compulsory education of children 20,103 elementary teachers, 28,164 by parents and masters of young secondary teachers, 6,847 other apprentices, though schools were nonsupervisory instcuctional, 2,029 not established. In Ye Old Deluder principals and supervisors. Average Satan" Act of 1647, the colony salary of instructional staff, required towns of 50 or more $25,000; elementary teachers, households to establish schools; $22,240; secondary teachers, towns of 100 or more households $22,700; elementary principals, were to create Latin grammar $35,251; junior high/middle school schools to prepare boys for principals, $38,938; senior high university. Education stressed principals, $39,904 (1983-84). religious training to save young souls. Vocational high schools were State profile Population (1983): founded in 1821. The state board of 5,767,000. Per capita income education was created in 1837 (1983): $13,089. Entered statehood till ough the persistence of Horace February 6, 1788. Motto: Ense Petit Mann, who became its first Placidam Sub Libertate (By the secretary. His campaign for school Sword We Seek Peace, But Peace reform and teacher training made Only Under Liberty). Nicknames: him the "Father of the Common "Bay State," "Old Colony." Flower: School." The state passed the Mayflower. Bnd: Chickadee. Tree: nation's first compulsory school American Elm. Song: "All Hail to attendance law in 1852. A free Massachusetts." textbook statute was enacted in 1884. Excellence activities: The Massachusetts legislature is State mandatesCompulsory considering a reform package that 88 E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

will raise graduation requirements, organized in various towns, they 77 require two years of mandatory were not tax-supported; parents kindergarten and move teachers' paid for their children's education. salaries to $18,000 a year to start. Detroit began free schooling in Teacher competency tests would be 1842. The statewide system of free instituted, and districts would be public education was initiated in required to develop comprehensive the 1870s. School district curriculum and school plans. The consolidations in the 1950s reduced higher education board approved the number of districts from 4,800 new standards for admission to the to 2,100, a trend that has continued state's colleges and universities, in recent years. including an "eligibility" index based on SAT scores and class rank. State mandatesCompulsory A center for teaching and learning and a mathematics/science/ school attendance for students aged 6-16; provision for home technology project will stress instruction by parents who want to teacher training and new educate their own children. technologies.

Number of schools-527 school MICHIGAN districts with 2,068 elementary Chief state school officer Phillip schools, 1,174 secondary, and 25 E. Runkel, Superintendent of Public othercombined elementary- Education, State Department of secondary, special education and Education, P.O. Box 30008, 115 W. alternative schools. Allegan St., Lansing 48909. (517) 373-3354. Student enrollment-1,573,389 elementary and secondary; 802,405 Education history Catholic kindergarten-grade 6; 770,984 missionaries as early as the 1600s grades 7-12 (1983-84). provided regular schooling and vocational training for Indian and Per pupil expenditures $3,648 white children. In 1809, the elementary and secondary territorial government levied a tax (1983-84). for support of schools, but no attempt was made to enforce the Staff-85,369 total instructional; law. In 1827, the Territorial Council 37,766 elementary teachers, 35,189 passed a statute requiring every secondary, teachers, 7,088 other township with 50 inhabitants to nonsupervisory instructional, 5,326 employ a schoolmaster of "gooc: principals and supervisors. Average morals" to teach children to read salary of instructional staff, and write in English and French $30,374; elementary teachers, and learn mathematics, spelling and $28,650; secondary teachers, "decent" behavior. Schools were in $29,140; elementary school session six months a year. When principals, $34,288; junior towns reached 200 inhabitants they high/middle school principals, were to establish higher schools $36,850; senior high principals, offering Latin. When schools were $39,450 (1983-84). 89 STATE PROFILES

78 State profilePopulation (1983): Education historyThe first 9,069,000. Per capita income teachers in Minnesota were (1983): $11,574. Entered statehood missionaries who worked among January 26, 1837. Motto: Si Quaris the Indians. About 1820, the first Peninsulam Amoenam Circumspice school for white children was af You Seek a Pleasant Peninsula, opened at Fort St. Anthony (later Look About You). Nicknames: Fort Snelling). During the 1830s, "Great Lake State," "Wolverine the missionaries started many State," Mower: Apple Blossom. Indian schools. Regular grade Bird: Robin. Tree: White Pine. schools were established by an act Song: "Michigan, My Michigan." of the territorial legislature in 1849. Where the one-room schoolhouse Excellence activities: In January once prevailed in rural areas, it has 1984 the State Board of Education disappeared as consolidation efforts adopted a report, Better Education have occurred. State support for' for Michigan Citizens: A Blueprint education always has been for Action. The report contained 15 generous, and Minnesota has been major recommendations and more known to provide up to 60 percent than 60 initiatives that the board of the annual cost of operating plans to take during the next five elementary and secondary schools. years to improve learning. Among the suggestions for local districts, State mandatesCompulsory the governor and legislature were school attendance for students aged establishing high school graduation 7-16; kindergarten. requirements, lengthening the school day and year, developing a Number of schools -434 school plan of accreditation of schools, districts with 889 elementary establishing homework and schools, 662 secondary, and 144 discipline policies and creating othercombined elementary- certification classification for school secondary, special education, and administrators. A state-appointed alternative schools (1983-84). high school commission recommended similar Student enrollment-701,180 improvements previously. An elementary and secondary, 344,952 educational Summit Task Force kindergarten-grade 6; 356,228 held regional meetings in fall 1984 grades 7-12 (1983-84). to discuss 16 proposals aimed at improving education in 1985. Per pupil expenditures$3,376 elementary and secondary (1983-84). MINNESOTA Chief state school ofikerRuth E. Staff-42,966 total instructional; Randall, Commissioner of 18,454 elementary teachers, 20,090 Education, State Department of secondary teachers, 2,483 other Education, 712 Capitol Square nonsupervisory instructional, 1,939 Bldg., 550 Cedar St., St. Paul principals and supervisors. Average 55101. (612) 296-2358. salary of instructional staff, 90 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

$25,400; elementary teachers, Education, State Department of 79 $23,660; secondary teachers, Education, P.O. Box 771, High St., $25,150; elementary principals, Jackson 39205. (601) 359-3513. $38,056; junior high/middle school principals, $41,862; senior high Education historyThe state's principals, $42,065 (1983-84). public school system was established by the Mississippi State profilePopulation (1983): constitution in 1866, A board of 4,144,000. Per capita income education was created and free (1983): $11,666. Entered statehood schooling was initially provided fo: May 11, 1858. Motto: L'Etoile du every child for four months a year. Nord (The Star of the North). Public schools did not enjoy instant Nicknames: "North Star State," popularity. The Civil War had "Gopher State." Flower: Pink and caused hard times, and people nad White Lady's Slipper. Bird: little money for school taxPc. As Common Loon. Tree: Red Pine. conditions improved, however, Song: "Hail, Minnesota." opposition decreased and by the 1890s the system had gained Excellence activities: general approval. A textbook Outcome-based education is a new commission, later to become the project designed to measure what textbook purchasing board, was students learn based on their started in 1904. Agricultural high accomplishments rather than on schools were founded in 1908. course requirements, time spent in School reorganization efforts in the class, and results of tests. This 1960s were geared to academic involves school performance and improvement. Vocational-technical accountability and requires schools training centers were started at to individualize measurement. The high schools and junior colleges state also is implementing a during the same period. Mississippi, statewide program on integrating which had operated separate technology into the classroom and a schools for blacks and whites, began school effectiveness project with 26 integration efforts in 1964. pilot schools. The latter seeks to identify educational processes that State mandatesCompulsory make education successful and to school attendance for students aged help schools use those processes in 6-13; kindergarten in 1986; the classroom. The State Board of provision for home instruction by Education also has increased to 31 parents who want to educate their the number of courses that each own children. high school must offer students; and schools must make available Number of schools-154 school instruction in career education and districts with 615 elementary technology. schools and 369 secondary (Fall 1983). MISSISSIPPI Student enrollment-467,744 Chief state school officerRichard elementary and secondary; 243,001 A. Boyd, Superintendent of kindergarten-grade 6; 224,743 ,, 91 STATE PROFILES

80grades 7-12 (1983-84). MISSOURI Per pupil expenditures$1,962 Chief State School OfficerArthur elementary and secondary L. Mallory, Commissioner of (1983-84). Education, Department of Elementary and Secondary Staff-27,960 total instructional; Education, P.O. Box 480, Jefferson 13,541 elementary teachers, 11,430 State Office Bldg., Jefferson City secondary teachers, 1,433 other 65102. (314) 751-4446. nonsupervisory instructional, 1,557 principals and supervisors. Average Education historyMissouri's first salary of instructional staff, school was a private elementary $16,355; elementary teachers, school established in St. Louis in $15,554; secondary teachers, 1774. In 1821, the state's first $16,118; elementary principals, constitution provided for $25,240; junior high/middle school establishment of a public education principals, $26,506; senior high system, but the system was not principals, $29,311 (1983-84). founded until 1836. In 1873, St. State profilePopulation (1983): Louis became the first city to make 2,662,000. Per capita income kindergarten a part of the public (1983): $8,072. Entered statehood school system. December 10, 1817. Motto: Virtute et Armis (By Valor and Arms). State mandatesCompulsory Nickname: "Magnolia State." school attendance for children aged Flower: Magnolia. Bird: 7-16; provision for home Mockingbird. Tree: Magnolia. Song: instruction by parents who want to "Go, Mississippi." educate their own children. Excellence activities: The state has Number of schools-546 school been implementing reforms passed districts with 1,391 elementary in the Educational Reform Act of schools, 704 secondary; 53 state 1982. Beginning in 1984-85, a schools for severely handicapped, 58 testing program for grades 4, 6, 8 area vocational-technical schools and 11 went into effect, along with (1983-84). a requirement that graduating seniors meet the eleventh-grade Student enrollment-795,453 level on the test. The legislature elementary and secondary; 546,155 approved mandatory kindergarten kindergarten-grade 8; 249,298 in 1986, beginning with a pilot grades 9-12 (1983-84). program in 1985. Loan programs help teachers retrain in Per pupil expenditures$2,714 mathematics and science. A elementary and secondary governor's task force will (1983-84). recommend curricula for school district adoption by July 1986. Staff-54,653 total instructional; Another commission is setting 23,368 elementary teachers, 23,390 standards and criteria for teacher secondary teachers, 4,401 other education programs. nonsupervisory instructional, 3,491 92. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

principals and supervisors. Average Education historyMontana's first 81 salary of instructional staff, formal schools were created in the $18,748; elementary teachers, early 1360s by Catholic missionaries $19,756; secondary teachers, or privately subscribed in mining $29,193; elementary principals, towns :ike Bannack and Virginia $31,677; junior high/middle schor..: City. In 1865, the first territorial principals, $35,568; senior high legislature established a public principals, $38,188 (1983-84). school system. School attendance for children aged 7-16 was required State profilePopulation (1983): as early as 1893, at which time a 4,970,000. Per capita income state board of education was (1983): $10,790. Entered statehood created. Free high schools were August 10, 1821. Motto: Salus established about 1897. Indians are Populi Suprema Lex Edo (The the state's largest minority; in 1972, Welfare of the People Shall Be the the constitution gave specific Supreme Law). Nickname: "Show recognition to their unique cultural Me State." Flower: Hawthorn. Bird: heritage. Bluebird. Tree: Dogwood. Song: "Missouri Waltz." State mandatesCompulsory school attendance for students aged Excellence activities: In 1982, 7-16. voters approved by referendum a one-cent sales tax increase Numl a of schools-551 school eabaarked for education and districts with 592 elementary teachers' salaries; half the proceeds schools and 187 secondary are used to replace local district (1983-84). property tax revenue. During 1983-84, the State Board of Student enrollment-153,646 Education increased minimum high elementary and secondary; 100,213 school graduation standards and kindergarten-grade 6; 53,433 grades approved a policy requiring 7-12 (1983-84). students to pass a state-mandated eighth grade competency test to Per pupil expenditures-52,726 qualify for ninth grade academic elementary and secondary including credit. New state laws require special education (1983-84). school districts to develop performance-based teacher Staff-11,204 total instructional; evaluation programs and eliminate 6,420 elementary teachers, 3,060 lifetime certificates for teachers, secondary teachers, 863 other effective in 1988. nonsupervisory instructional, 861 principals and superintendents. MONTANA Average salary of instructional staff, $21,387; elementary teachers, Chief state school officerEd $20,126; secondary teachers, Argenbright, Superintendent of $21,764; elementary principals, Public Instruction, State Office of $32,020; junior high/middle school Pubit,- Instruction, State Capitol, principals, $37,759; senior high Helena 59620. (406) 444-3654. prtreipals, $41,117(1983 -84). "Lf 0 STATE PROFILES

82State profilePopulation (1983): expenditures were $15.25; by 817,000. Per capita income (1983): 1978-79 they approached $2,000. $9,999. Entered statehood November 8, 1816. Motto: Oro Y State mandatesCompulsory Plata (Cold and Silver). Nickname. school attendance for students aged "Treasure State." Flower: 7-16; provision for home Bitterroot. Bird: Western instruction by parents who want to Meadowlark. Animal: Grizzly Bear. educate their own children. Tree: Ponderosa Pine. Song: "Montana." Number of schools-1,035 school districts with 1,244 elementary Excellence activities: Ideas for schools and 404 secondary improvement were discussed at a (1983-84). series of statewide forums on school reform. High school graduation Student enrollment-267,594 requirements have been increased elementary and secondary; 141,860 to 18 units effective in 1985 and 20 kindergarten-grade 6; 106,036 units effective 1986. Teacher testing grades 7-12 (1983-84). also is being considered. Per pupil expenditures$2,927 NEBRASKA elementary and secondary (1983-84). Chief state school officerJoseph E. Lutjeharms, Commissioner of Staff-19,302 total instructional; Education, State Department of 8,270 elementary teachers, 8,581 Education, P.O. Box 94987, 301 secondary teachers, 811 other centennial Mall S., Lincoln 68509. nonsupervisory instructional, 868 (402) 471-2465. principals and supervisors. Average salary of instructional staff, Education historyThe Army $20,013; elementary teachers, established the first school in what $17,976; secondary teachers, is today Nebraska during the 1820s $19,598; elementary principals, near what was to become Fort $30,048; junior high/middle school Calhoun. During the 1830s and principals, $33,955; senior high 1840s, missionaries of various faiths principals, $35,312 (1983-84). founded schools across the Nebraska region to teach the State profilePopulation (1983): Indians. The first Nebraska 1,597,000. Per capita income Territory legislature adopted a free (1983): $10,940. Entered statehood school law in 1855, a year after the March 1, 1867. Motto: Equality territory opened for settlement. The Before the Law. Nickname: state constitution, adopted in 1875, "Cornhusker State." Flower: provides for the present system of Goldenrod. Bird: Western public education. In 1891, a Meadowlark. Tree: Cottonwood. compulsory school attendance law Song: "Beautiful Nebraska." was enacted. Support for education in the state is reflected in statistics Excellence activities: The indicating that in 1900 per pupil legislature approved a bill raising 94 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 standards for students and teachers pupil costs, the state devised an 83 and promoting innovation in the equalization formula for financial classroom. The State Board of assistance to schools. Education was given more authority for curriculum standards, and the State mandatesCompulsory school year was extended from 175 school attendance for students aged to 180 days. Two levels of 7-17; provision for home competency tests, before entering instruction.by parents who want to teacher-training programs and educate their own children. before certification, are mandated for teachers. A governor's task force Number of schools-17 school recommended doubling state aid, districts with 195 elementary making all districts schools, 74 secondary, and 7 other kindergarten-grade 12 and combined elementary-secondary, expanding foreign language special education, and alternative instruction. Students wishing to schools (Fall 1980). major in mathematics and science teaching can get low-interest Student enrollment-151,200 college loans. elementary and secondary; 81,730 kindergarten-grade 6, 69,470 grades NEVADA 7-12 (1983-84). Chief state school officerTed Sanders, Superintendent of Public Per pupil expenditures $2,870 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary Education, 400 W. King St., Capitol (1983-84). Complex, Carson City 89710. (702) 885-3100. Staff-8,289 total instructional; 3,876 elementary teachers, 3,417 Education historyPlans for a secondary teachers, 587 other tax-supported school system were nonsupervisory instructional, 409 formulated in 1861 when Nevada principals and supervisors. Average became a territory. The legislature salary of instructional staff, established the first school districts $24,000; elementary teachers, in 1865, a year after statehood. In $22,000; secondary teachers, thinly populated rural areas where $23,000; elementary principals, taxpayers had to support schools for $35,989; junior high/middle school a handful of children, the school principals, $38,748; senior high year lasted only six months. In principals, $42,828 (1983-84). 1907, Nevada appointed its first state school superintendent. State profilePopulation (1983): Deputies were placed in charge of 891,000. Per capital income (1983). five large supervision districts $12,516. Entered statehood October created at the same time. 31, 1864. Motto: All for Our Population growth in the 1940s and Country. Nicknames: "Sagebrush financial problems in the 1950s State," "Battle Born State." Flower: prompted school consolidation Sagebrush. Bird: Mountain measures. In recognition of wide Bluebird. Tree: Single-leaf Pinon. local variations in wealth and per Song: "Home Means Nevada." 95 STATEPROFILES

84Excellence activities; The 1983 schools are operated by regional legislature appointed a special school districts as efficiency committee to study education and measures. directed state universities and public high schools to improve State mandatesCompulsory instruction in mathematics and school attendance for students aged other subject areas. The State 6-16; provision for home Board of Education and instruction by parents who want to universities are working on a joint educate their own children. effort on college preparation. Starting with the class of 1986, Number of schools-169 school high school studentsmust have 20 districts with 332 elementary units to graduate, including two in schools and 124 secondary mathematics and an extra unit of (1983-84). English for students who fail proficiency tests. Student enrollment-156,750 elementary and secondary; 75,120 NEW HAMPSHIRE kindergarten-grade 6; 78,626 grades 7-12 (1983-84). Chief state school officerRobert L. Brunelle, Commissioner of Per pupil expenditures $2,796 Education, State Department of elementary and secondary Education, 101 Pleasant St., State (1983-84). Office Park S., Concord 03301. (603) 271-3144. Staff-11,318 total instructional; 5,101 elementary teachers, 4,617 Education history In colonial secondary teachers, 900 other days, children of settlers attended nonsupervisory instructional, 700 one-room schoolhouses, some of principals and supervisors. Average which still stand. Operations of salary of instructional staff, today's schools are based on laws $18,030; elementary teachers, passed in 1789 and broadly revised $17,357; secondary teachers, in 1919the year a state board of $17,394, elementary principals, educations was established and given $29,051; junior high/middle school authority to certify teachers, principals, $31,069; senior high enforce attendance laws, and principals, $33,873 (1983-84). prescribe school standards. The first public school was founded in 1830. State profilePopulation (1983): By then a number of private 959,000. Per capita income (1983): academies, including Philips Exeter $11,620. Entered statehood June (1781), the oldest and best known, 21, 1788. Motto: Live Free or Die. had been founded. With the spread Nickname: "Granite State." Flower: of public high schools, some of Purple Lilac. Bird: Purple Finch. these private academies went out of Tree: White Birch. Song. "Old New existence and others lost their Hampshire." private character by accepting tax support. In many communities, Excellence activities: Beginning public high schools and elementary with the class of 1988, high school 96 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

students will have to complete more schools, 606 secondary, and 15 85 courses to graduatefour years of other. English, two each of mathematics and science, 2.5 cf social studies, Student enrollment 1,147 ,841 one year of physical education and elementary and secondary; 725,703 other requirements. The State kindergarten-grade 6; 422,138 Board of Education is considering grades 7-12 (1983-84). teacher competency testing 5efore certification, and curriculum Per pupil expenditures$4,943 groups are drawing up teaching elementary and secondary guidelines in mathematics and (1983-84). science. Staff-88,028 total instructional, NEW JERSEY 41,884 elementary teachers, 31,378 secondary teachers, 8,823 other Chief state school officerSaul nonsupeivisory instruc*:onal, 5,943 Cooperman, Commissioner of principals and supervisors. Average Education, State Department of salary of instructional staff, Education, 225 W. State St., $24,151; elementary teachers, Trenton 08625. (609) 292-4450. $22,622; secondary teachers, $23,605; elementary principals, Education history Colonial New $39,712; junior high/middle school Jersey relied on parochial and other principals, $42,100; senior high private schools. The public school principals, $45,224 (1983-84). system dates from 1817, when the legie-ture established a permanent State profile Population (1983): school fund. In 1824, the state 7,468,000. Per capital income began to add part of its tax income (1983): $14,057. Entered statehood to the fund. In 1867, a state board December 18, 1787. Motto: Liberty of education was created. That year and Prosperity. Nickname: "Garden the state constitution was amended State." Flower: Purple Violet. Bird: to require the legislature to Eastern Goldfinch. Tree: Red Oak. maintain free public schools for all youth aged 5-18. Industrial and Excellence activities: The vocational schools were founded in Education Department raised the subsequent years, as were special standards of college teacher facilities for pYsically impaired, preparation courses and as of blind, deaf, ana other handicapped September 1985 requires that all youngsters. new teachers hold a bachelor's degree and take a subject-matter State mandates Compulsory competency examination. school attendance for students aged Emergency certification has been 6-16; provision for home eliminated as of September 1985; instruction by parents who want to districts may hire people meeting educate their own children. certain qualifications on a provisional basis by offering them Number of schools 616 school one-year, state-approved training districts with 1,598 elementary programs. A new Academy for the 97 STATEPROFILES

86Advancement of Teaching and educate their own children. Management will train teams of teachers and principals. Starting Number of schools-88 school July 1985, five districts are taking districts with 500 elementary part in a Pilot Master Teaching schools, 107 secondary, and 12 Program. The Education othei combined elementary- Department also is implementing a secondary, special education, and more rigorous ninth grade alternative schools (Fall 1980). graduation test, and has introduced graduation standards for students of Student enrollment-269,949 limited English proficiency. A new elementary and secondary; 151,332 statewide program will address the kindergarten-grade 6; 118,617 problems of urban schools. grades 7-12 (1983-84).

NEW MEXICO Per pupil apenditures$2,921 Chief state school officerLeonard elementary and secondary (1983-84). J. DeLayo, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Department of Education, State Capitol, Santa Fe Staff-17 ,650 total instructional; 87503. (505) 827-6635. 8,120 elementary teachers, 7,410 secondary teachers, 1,220 other Education historySpanish priests nonsupervisory instructional, 900 brought education to New Mexico principals and supervisors. Average in the 1600s when they began to salary of instructional staff, teach the Indians. The first formal $21,700; elementary teachers, school was initiated by the Catholic $20,360; secondary teachers, Church at Santa Fe in 1853. The $21,810; elementary principals, present system of free public $30,902; junior high/middle school education commenced in 1891. In principals, $32,995; senior high 1973, the U.S. Commission on Civil principals, $36,022 (1983-84). Rights recommended that the state system address the wishes of Indian State profile Population (1983): parents in providing education for 1,399,000. Per capita income their children. In also responding to (1983): $9,560. Entered statehood the needs of Hispanic youth, the January 6, 1912. Motto: Crescit state constitution provides that all Eundo (It Grows As It Goes). pupils be given access to bilingual Nickname: "Land of Enchantment." education. To provide qualified Flower: Yucca. Bird: Roadrunner. teachers to fulfill this directive, the Tree: Pinon. Song: "0, Fair New state education department has Mexico," "Asi es Nuevo Mexico." established bilingual teacher-training centers. Excellence activities: High school graduation requirements in State mandates Compulsory mathematics and science have school attendance for students aged increased from one to two units 6-18; provision for home each, effective 1983-84. The state instruction by parents who want to has concluded a study on 98 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5- 1 9 8 6

performance-based pay, and a staff State mandatesCompulsory 87 accountability plan for teachers and school attendance for students aged administrators now includes 6-16; provision for home competencies for evaluation of instruction by parents who want to both. A computer education guide educate their own children. was released in December 1983. Number of schools-728 school districts with 2,398 el. mentary NEW YORK schools, 1,379 secondary, and 187 other combined elementary- Chief state school officer Gordon secondary and special education M. Ambach, Commissioner of (Fall 1983). Education, State Department of Education, 111 Education Bldg., Student enrollment- 2,661, 041 Albany 12234. (518) 474-5844. elemertary and secondary; 1.301,097 kindergarten -grade 6; Education historyThe first school 1,359,944 grades 7-12 (1983-84). was founded at New Amsterdam (now New York City) in 1633. The Per pupil expenditures$4,845 British Society for the Propagation elementary and secondary of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (1983-84). established early schools for Indian and poor children, while families Staff-196,637 total instructional; that could afford to do so hired 72,685 elementary teachers, 87,105 tutors or sent their children to secondary teach-rs, 9,154 private schools. In 1784, the elementary-secondary teachers, legislature created a Board of 11,797 other nonsupervisory Regents authorized to establish instructional, 15,896 principals and secondary schools and colleges. The supervisors. Average salary of regents proposed a public school instructional staff, $27,400; system in 1787, but no action was elementary teachers, $25,850; taken until 1795, when the secondary teachers, $27,500; legislature authorized a permanent elementary principals, $41,462; school system with school districts junior high school principals, in each township. By 1828, there 44,767; senior high school were schools in 8,000 districts. princinals, $45,734 (1983-84). During the 1850s a few cities began to set up free public high schools. State profilePopulation (1984): In 1904, the legislature reorganized 17,575,210. Per capita income the education system and a (1983): $13,146. Entered Statehood commissioner of education was July 26, 1788. Motto: Excelsior made responsible for elementary (Ever Upward). Nickname: "Empire and secondary education. Since State." Flower: Rose. Bird: then, the statewide system has been Bluebird. Tree: Sugar Maple. marked by expanding enrollments, broader curriculums, consolidation Excellence activities: The State efforts, and al. increase in state aid Board of Regents has approveda to localities. comprehensive plan for education 99 STATE PROFILES 88reform that includes the following: War led to the system's collapse. more rigorous academic Schools reopened after the war, but requirements for all high school lc late as 1900, public schools were and junior high school students; all open only 70 days a year, there was public school students starting with no compulsory attendance law, and the graduating class of 1992 will be only 74 percent of school-age required to take at lease one year of youngsters attended. In 1901, foreign language instruction Governor Charles B. Aycock and between kindergarten and grade 9, other leaders launched a campaign and two years will be required that stimulated dramatic changes. beginning with the class of 1994, By 1907, an improved system was ;n mastery of computer skills will be place, and a compulsory attendance emphasized in all grades and law had been passed. In 1933, the subjects; all new teachers will be state took over the cost of operating required to pass a certification the system on a minimum examination and complete a eight-month term. In 1943, the one-year internship; and school school term was increased to nine districts will have a greater months. The twelfth grade was responsibility for accounting to the added in 1943. In 1973, the General public through annual school Assembly allocated funds for a assessments presented at public kindergarten pilot program. meetings. Kindergarten programs were phased into the public schools during the next four years. In 1973, principals NORTH CAROLINA were employed for 12 months. Chief state school officer A. Craig While the school term for children Phillips, Superintendent of Public remains at 180 days, the Instruction, State Npartment of employment for teachers was raised Public Instruction, Education to ten months in 1973. Building, Room 318, Edenton and Salisbury Sts., Raleigh 27611. State mandatesCompulsory (919) 733-3813. school attendance for students aged 7-16; kindergarten. Education historyThe earliest Number of schools-142 school schools were primarily private districts with 1,454 elementary academies. By 1800 there were 40 schools. 300 secondary, and 242 such schools, by 1860 more than othercombined elementary- 400. In 1825, a fund was created to secondary, special education, and stimulate public education. The alternative schools (1984). first public schools opened in 1840. By 1846, every county had at least Student enrollment-1,089,606 one public school and the state elementary and secondary; 75,630 education fund exceeded $12 kindergarten; 685,423 grades 1-8; million. In 1853, Calvin H. Wiley 328,553 grades 9.12 (1983-84). became the first state superintendent of schools. Under Per pupil expenditures $2,460 his direction a unified school elementary and secondary system was started, but the Civil (1983-84). zoo EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Staff-60,000 total instructional; Instruction, State Department of 89 27,790 elementary teachers, 19,352 Public Instruction, State Capitol secondary teachers, 7,984 other Bldg., 600 Blvd. Ave. E., Bismark nonsupervisory instructional, 1,986 58505. (701) 224-2261. principals and supervisors. Average salary of instructional staff, $18,922; elementary teachers, Education historyThe first school $18,299; secondary teachers, was established by Roman Catholic missionaries in 1818, and early $18,530; elementary principals, $28,424; junior high/middle school schools basically served the children principals, $30,682; senior high of Scottish and Irish settlers from principals, $32,525 (1983-84). Canada. Where there were no schools, teachers traveled from Staff pmfilePopulation (1983): village to village teaching groups of 6,082,000. Per capita income youngsters in private homes. As (1983): $9,656. Entered statehood settlements grew, so did the need for schools and teachers. Railroad November 21, 1789. Motto: Esse companies, anxious to attract Quam Videri (To Be Rather Than To settlers, supported school Seem). Nicknames: "Tar Heel construction by providing building State," "Old North State." Flower: materials. In 1862, the first Dogwood. Bird: Cardinal. Tree: legislature of the Dakota Territory Pine. Song: "The Old North State." passed "An Act for the Regulation and Support of Common Schools." Excellence activities: A state task When the state was admitted into force recommended to the the Union in 1889, over 3 million legislature that the base salary of acres of federal land were set aside certified personnel be increased for the support of common schools 14.8 percent. It also directed the and other land-grant institutions. State Board of Education to come up with a career-ladder plan for Income from these lands was teachers, to establish a Easic eventually augmented by state revenues from oil, discovered in education program with cost figures to reduce class size in grades 4-6, to 1951. General sales'taxes provide provide a computer literacy additional funds for the support of education in the state. program, establish a system to assure improving the quality of all teachers and statewide standards State mandates Compulsory and procedures of e.aluation, and school attendance for students aged to encourage entrance into 7-16; provision for home education by the top students. The instruction by parents who want to loan-scholarship program was educate their own children. doubled and a recruiting program started. Number of schools-296 school districts with 420 elementary NORTH DAKOTA schools, 135 secondary, and 164 othercombined elementary- Chief state school officer Wayne secondary, special education, and Sansted, Superintendent of Public alternative schools (Fall 1980). "Ibi STATE PROFILES 90Student en: ollment-114,765 OHIO elementary and secondary; 80,903 kindergarten-grade 6; 33,862 grades Chief state school officerFranklin 7-12 (1983-84). B. Walter, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Department of Education, 65 S. Front St., Room Per pupil expenditures$3,307 808, Columbus 43215. elementary and secondary (615) 466-3304. (1983-84). Education historyEducation was Staff-8,311 total instructional; private and local until 1825 when a 4,708 elementary teachers, 2,677 statewide school tax was levied and secondary teachers, 493 other township officials were required to nonsupervisory instructional, 433 set aside school districts on penalty principals and supervisors. Average of losing tax money. Under the salary of instructional staff, Akron Law of 1847, cities were $20,740; elementary teachers, authorized to set up their own $19,503; secondary teachers, systems of graded schools. In 1853, $21,231; elementary principals, state law placed public schools on $35,064; junior high/middle school solid foundations with adequate principals, $33,432; senior high revenues, township units of principals, $41,669 (1983-84). organization, school libraries, and a state commissioner of common State profile Population (1983): schools. During the 1850s, high 680,000. Per capita income (1983): schools developed rapidly and $11,350. Entered statehood largely displaced private academies. November 2, 1889. Motto: Liberty In 1894, consolidation of township and Union, Now and Fore7er, One schools was begun, but there were and Inseparable. Nicknames: still 10,000 one-room schools by "Sioux State," "Flickertail State." 1914. The passage of Rural School Flower: Wild Prairie Rose. Bird: Codes in that year aided the Western Meadowlark. Tree: acceleration of consolidation. In American Elm. Song: "North 1935, a School Foundation Law Dakota" Hymn. caused drastic change in the school system as more state control Excellence activities; North Dakota accompanied greater state aid. has increased its high school Smaller schools were closed,as graduation requirements in English economy measures. In 1952, there and mathematics and added one were only 200 one-room schools year of U.S. history and one year of left: by 1955 these had decreased to world history. The physical 76. In 1953, the constitution education requirement has been established a state board of reduced and dri4er's education is no education with the power to appoint longer required. The state is a superintendent of public considering increasing the instruction, an officer previously academic year by five days and appointed by the governor. establishing merit pay for outstanding teachers. State mandatesCompulsory 1 0 2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 school attendance fog students aged competency testing. New standards 91 6-18; kindergarten; provision for for administrator certification home instruction by parents who became effective in 1984. Teacher want to educate their own children. certification standards are undergoing revision. A 1983 report Number of schools-616 school by Ohio's Commission on districts with 2,483 elementary Educational Excellence included 49 schools, 503 middle or junior high, recommendations to the State 720 senior high, and 25 other Board of Education. The 1983-84 combined elementary-secondary, school year was celebrated as the special education, and alternative '"Year of Educational Excellence for schools (1983-84). All," culminating in a major conference in May 1984. Student enrollment-1,827,484 elementary and secondary; OKLAHOMA 1,240,214 kindergarten-grade 8; 587,270 grades 9-12 (1983 -84). Chief state school officer John M. Folks, Superintendent of Public Per pupil expenditures $2,816 Instruction, State Department of elementary and secondary Education, Oliver Hodge Memorial (1983-84). Education Bldg., 2500 N. Lincoln Blvd., Oklahoma City 73105. Staff 114,868 total certificated; (405) 521-3301. 51,517 elementary teachers, 45,414 secondary teachers, 2,387 Education historyThe first elementary principals, 979 schools in the state were established secondary principals. Average salary for the Indians in the 1820s by of elementary teachers, $21,381; missionaries. The Cherokee had the secondary teachers, $22,446; most advanced educational systems, elementary principals, $33,744; primarily because one of their junior high principals, $36,317; leaders, Sequoya, invented a senior high principals, $39,441; method of writing Jo simple that superintendents, $42,075 (1983-84). many Cherokee could learn to read and write within a few weeks. The State profile Population (1983): territorial legislature provided 10,746,000, Per capita income schools for white children in 1890. (1983): $11,254. Entered statehood Provisions of a 1906 Enabling Act March 1,1803. Motto: With God All set aside sections of each township Things Are Possible. Nicknames: in the territory for the benefit of "Buckeye State," "Gateway State." common schools and appropriated Flower: Scarlet Carnation. Bird: $5 million for those in the Indian Cardinal. Tree: Buckeye. Song: Territory. A law providing free "Beautiful Ohio." textbooks was passed in 1923, and state aid for weak schools was Excellence activities: As of approved in 1924. Annual state September 1983, minimum support of public schools was set at standards for elementary and $42 per capita in 1946, and a secondary education mandate comprehensive school code was .1103 STATE PROFILES

92 passed by the legislature in 1949. 1936-87, high school graduation requirements will be increased to State mandates Compulsory 20 units, including four in English school attendance for students aged and two each in mathematics and 8-18; kindergarten; provision for science. State universities are home instruction by parents who upgrading entrance requirements, want to educate their own children. including requirements for teacher candidates. School administrators Number of schools 617 school must take a year's leadership districts with 1,106 elementary program, and teachers must take schools, 269 junior high, 491 part in staff development programs secondary, 35 vocational-technical, offered by the state. and 6 special schools (Fall 1982). OREGON Student enrollment-588,038 elementary and secondary, 344,611 Chief state school officer Verne A. kindergarten grade 6; 243,427 Duncan, Superintendent of Public grades 7-12 (1983-84). Instruction, State Department of Education, 700 Pringle Pkwy. S.E., Per pupil expenditures $3,312 Salem 97310. (503) 378-3573. elementary and secondary (1983-84). Education history Schools were established as early as 1834 by a Staff-39,72: ..otal instructional; Methodist minister named Jason 18,682 elementary teachers, 17,011 Lee. After the Oregon Territory was secondary teachers, 1,861 other organized, an act passed in 1848 nonsupervisory instructional, providing that income from two 2,169 principals and supervisors. sections of land in each township Average salary of instructional staff, should be set aside for education $19,100; elementary teachers, purposes. The following year, 1849, $18,000; secondary teachers, the legislature passed a law $19,000, elementary Principals, providing for a free public school $30,605; junior high/middle school system. The first public school was principals, $34,020; senior high opened in 1851. principals, $37,406 (1983-84). State mandatesCompulsory State profile Population (1983). school attendance for students aged 3,298,000. Per capita income 7-16; compulsory kindergarten (1983). $11,187. Entered statehood beginning with the 1984-85 school November 16, 1907. Motto. Labor year; provision for home instruction Omnia Vincit (Labor Conquers All by parents who want to educate Things). Nicknames: "Sooner their own children. State," "Boomer State." Flower: Mistletoe. Bird; Scissor-tailed Number of schools -309 school Flycatcher. Tree: Redbud. Song: districts with 943 elementary "Oklahoma." schools, 346 secondary, 29 other combined elementary-secondary, Excellence activities: Beginning in special education, and alternative 4 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

schools (Fall 1983). in the schools. Plans are also under 93 way to develop a more stable Student enrollment 446,700 funding system for public schools. elementary and secondary; 275,330 kindergarten-grade 6; 171,370 grades 7-12 (1983-84). PENNSYLVANIA Chief state school officerMargaret Per pupil expenditures $3,771 A. Smith, Acting Secretary of elementary and secondary Education, State Department of (1983-84). Education, 333 Market St., 10th Floor, Harrisburg 17126. Staff-28,220 total instructional; (717) 787-5820. 14,070 elementary teachers, 9,920 secondary teachers, 2,480 other Education historyEarly laws nonsupervisory instructianal, 1,750 provided for the free schooling of principals and supervisors. Average children aged 5-12 when parents salary of instructional staff, were unable to pay. These were $23,91; elementary teachers, viewed as pauper education acts, $22,374; secondary teachers, and parents were not eager to $23,663; elementary principals, educate their children under such $34,080; junior high/middle school terms. The Free Public School Act principals, $36,908; senior high of 1834 created local school principals, $38,550 (1983-84). districts, permitted the levy of taxes for the support of free elementary State profilePopulation (1983): schools for all children, and 2,662,000. Per capita income provided state aid to districts (1983): $10,920. Entered statehood accepting the act. The constitution February 14, 1859. Motto: The in 1873 called for the education of Union. Nickname: "Beaver State." all children above the age of six. It Flower: Oregon Grape. Bird: also created the position of state Western Meadowlark. Fish: Chinook superintendent of public Salmon. Rock: Thunderegg. instruction. In 1895, a compulsory Animal: Beaver. Dance: Square attendance law was passed Dance. Insect: Oregon Swallowtail (requiring only 16 weeks of annual Butterfly. Tree: Douglas Fir. Song: schooling) for pupils aged 8-13. The "Oregon, My Oregon." age later was increased to 17 and attendance was required Excellence activities: The State throughout the school year. In Board of Education adopted an 1921, state appropriations were "Action Plan for Excellence" in made contingent on the June 1984. Components of the plan maintenance of certain minimum include: a comprehensive statewide standards in regard to curriculum, curriculum, increased graduation teacher qualifications, and salaries. requirements, a state honors During the 1960s, consolidation diploma, a statewide eighth grade efforts to create more effective examination and expanded state administrative units reduced the testing at other grade level. staff number of school districts to 600, development, the use of tEaology down from an earlier high of 2,000. .105 STATE PROFILES

94State mandatesCompulsory required for high school graduation school attendance for students aged from 13 to 21 and tripled the 8-17; provision for home requirements in mathematics and instruction by parents who want to science, beginning with 1989 educate their own children. freshmen. Statewide competency testing for students in grades 3, 5, Number of schools-501 school and 8 began in October 1984. New districts divided into 29 teacher certification regulations will intermediate units, with 2,108 require teaching graduates to pass elementary schools, 901 secondary, tests in subject matter, general and 478 othercombined knowledge, basic skills, and elementary-secondary, special professional knowledge in order to education, and alternative schools be certified. New teachers. will be (1983-84). required to serve a one-year, supervised induction period, and Student enrollment-1,737,952 new teachers and administrators elementary and secondary; 846,145 will be required to take six kindergart-n-grade 6, 891,807 continuing education credits every grades 7-12 (1983-84). five years. A teacher intern program allows qualified persons who have Per pupil expenditures$3,725 bachelor degrees to become elementary and secondary full-time teachers while earning the (1983-84). teaching credits necessary for permanent certification. Staff-119,358 total instructional, 40,812 elementary teachers, 44,373 secondary teachers, 27,761 RHODE ISLAND other nonsupervisory instructional; Chief state school officerI. Troy 6,412 principals and supervisors. Earhart, Commissioner of Average salary of instructional staff, Education, State Department of $21,670; elementary teachers, Education, 22 Hayes St., Providence $22,998; secondary teachers, 02908. (401) 277-2031. $22,373; elementary principals, $34,035; junior high/middle school Education historyWhile Rhode principals, $37,541; senior high Island relied primarily on private principals, $38,648 (1983-84). education in the colonial period, a State profilePopulation (1983): free school for poor children was 11,895,000. Per capita income founded in Newport in 1640. The (1983): $11,510. Entered statehood state's first law establishing public December 12, 1787. Motto: Virtue, schools was enacted in 1800, Liberty and Independence. dropped in 1803, and passed again Nickname: "Keystone State." in 1828, when the legislature also Flower: Mountain Laurel. Bird: set up the state's first permanent Ruffed Grouse. Tree: Hemlock. public school fund. Henry Barnard became the first state commissioner Excellence activities: New of education in 1845. During his curriculum regulations have tenure, the state became a national increased the number of credits leader in educational reform, and 166 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Mr. Barnard was summoned to $25,593; secondary teachers, 95 Washington, D.C. to become the $23,555; elementary principals, first U.S. Commissioner of $34,325; junior high/middle school Education. In 1882, the Rhode principals, $35,998; senior high Island legislature enacted principals, $38,199 (1983-84). legislation requiring towns to establish free public schools, and State profilePopulation (1983): compulsory school attendance was 955,000. Per capita income (1983): inaugurated the following year. The $11,504. Entered statehood May .9, arrival of large numbers of Irish, 1790. Motto: Hope. Nicknames: French-Canadian, and other "Little Rhody," "Ocean State." immigrants with Catholic Flower: Violet. Bird: Rhode Island backgrounds led to the Red. Tree: Red Maple. Song: "Rhode establishment of a large parochial Island." education system. Currently one in Excellence activities: Improvements five students attends a Catholic made in Rhode Island public school. schools since April 1983 include State mandatesCompulsory tightened teacher certification requirments; upgraded high school school attendance for students aged graduation requirements; 7-16; kindergarten available; requirement of a basic provision for home instruction by kindergarten-twelfth grade parents who want to educate their education program; governor's own children. technology initiative infusing $4 million for purchase of Number of schools-40 school microcomputers; testing of all districts with 223 elementary public school students in grades 4, schools, 59 secondary, and 7 other 6, 8, and 10; option of a test for combined elementary-secondary, twelfth graders for award of a merit special education, and alternative diploma. schools (Fall 1982). SOUTH CAROLINA Student enrollment-136,179 elementary and secondary, 68,642 Chief state school officerCharlie kindergarten grade 6, 67,537 grades C. Williams, Superintendent of 7-12 (1983-84). Education, State Department of Education, 1006 Rutledge Bldg., Per pupil expenditures $3,720 1429 Senate St., Columbia 29201. elementary and secondary (803) 758-3291. (1983-84). Education historyMost children Staff 8,787 total instructional; in the colonial period were educated 3,581 elementary teachers, 3,860 at home or in private school. In secondary teachers, 804 other 1710, the colonial government nonsupervisory instructional, 542 established semi-public schools in principals and supervisors. Average which poor children were educated salary of instructional staff, without cost but with tuition being $25,250; elementary teachers, charged for other children. By !10.7 STATE PROFILES

961811, when the state legislature 2.060 principals and supervisors. approved a plan for free schools Average salary of instructional staff, statewide, the larger cities had $17,232; elementary teachers, already founded tax-supported $16,715; secondary teachers, schools. The 1868 constitution $18,062; elementary principals, called for free schools for all $29,031; secondary principals students, but it was not until 1895 (includes junior high schools), that tax funds wire provided for a $31,014; senior high principals, statewide public school system. Like $34,691 (1983-84). other Southern states, South Carolina had separate schools for State profilePopulation (1983): blacks and whites. Following the 3,264,000. Per capita income 1954 Supreme Court decision (1983): $8,954. Entered statehood against segregated schools, the state May 23, 1778. Motto: Dum Spiro began to dismantle the dual school Spero (While I Breathe, I Hope). system. By 1970, all public schools Nickname: "Palmetto State." were integrated. Flower: Carolina Jessamine. Bird: Carolina Wren. Tree: Palmetto. State mandatesCompulsory Song: "Carolina." school attendance for students aged 5-16; a 5-year-old child will be Excellence activities: The exempt from the kindergarten Education Improvement Act, requirement if a parent signs a containing about 60 provisions, was written waiver, provision for home passed by the General Assembly in instru.I:on by parents who want to June 1984. Funded by d one-cent educate their own children. increase in the state sales tax, the legislation addresses increased Number of schools-92 regular graduation requirements, school districts (plus one composed compensatory/remedial instruction, of schools within the state a high school exit examination, correctional institution), with 787 upgraded teacher salaries, teacher elementary schools, 204 secondary, and principal incentive pay and 73 otherspecial education programs, incentive grants for and vocational education (1984). school improvement, and a school building aid program. Student enrollment-603,026 elementary and secondary; 318,571 kindergarten-grade 6; 284,455 SOUTH DAKOTA grades 7-12 (1983-84). Chief state school ofikerJames 0. Pe? pupil erpenditara. $2,431 Hansen, State Superintendent, elementary and secondary Department of Education and (1983-84). Cultural Affairs, Division of Elementary and Secondary Staff-36,830 total instructional Education, Kniep Bldg., Pierre staff; 20,370 elementary teachers, 57501. (605) 773-3243. 11,680 secondary teachers, 2,720 other nonsupervisory ins:,ructional, Education historyThe public 108 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

school system dates back to '1856, salary of instructional staff, 97 when school districts were $17,125; elementary teachers, organized. Early financial support $16,200; secondary teachers, came from proc^eds of public land $16,700; elementary principals, s,. es. During the 1930s, state $27,576; junior high/middle school school funding came i'.-.,.m income principals, $31,181; senior high taxes. Since then the legislature has principals, $33,343 (1983-84). helped to fund schools through special appropriations. The primar; State profilePopulation(1983): financial burden, however, falls on 700,000. Per capita income (1983): taxpayers in the districts, who $9,704. Enterer. statehood support the schools through November 2, 1889. Motto:Under personal and real property taxes. Cod, the People Rule.Nicknames: Until the latter part of the 1960s "Coyote State," "Sunshine State." there were more than 1,000 rural Flower: Pasque. Bird: Ringnecked schools. The legislature called for a Pheasant. Tree: Black Hills Spruce. reorganized school system based on Song: "Hail, South Dakota." districts offering 12 years of schooling, and scores of rural Excellence activities:High school schools were closed as a result. graduation minimum requirements have been increased from 16 to 20 State mandatesCompulsory units, including four English, three school attendance for students aged social studies, two mathematics, and 7-16; provision for home two laboratory science. All courses instruction by parents who want to designed to meet graduation educate their own children. requirements must have a plan of study on file. All districts must offer Numberofschoo/s-195 school at least two years of one foreign districts with 493 elementary language and a program for the schools, 229 secondary, and 13 gifted. Statewide achievement otherspecial education and testing mandated in grades 4, 8 and alternative schools (Fall 1983). 11. Teacher preparation program standards are being upgraded, and Student enrollment 122,656 certified staff must complete 15 elementary and secondary; 84,718 hours of inservice training kindergarten-grade 8; 36,158 grades annually. 9-12; 1,780 special and ungraded (1983-84). TENNESSEE Per pupil expenditures $2,386 Chief state schoolofficerRobert elementary and secondary L. McElrath, Commissioner of (1983-84). Education, State Departmer t of Education, 100 Cordell Hull Bldg., Staff 8,881total instructional; Nashville 37219. (615) 741-2731. 5,334 elementary teachers, 2,655 secondary teachers, 434 other Education historyPrior tothe nonsupervisory instructional, 458 Civil War free public schooling was principals and supervisors. Average offered only to poor children. Given 1l109 STATE PROFILES

98the resulting stigma, such schools salary of instructional staff, were not well attended. The $18,230; elementary teachers, atmosphere began to change in $17,850, secondary teachers, 1838 when a common school fund $17,990; elementary principals, based largely on land revenue was $29,445; junior high/middle made a part of the capital of the schools principals, $31,163; senior state bank. This fund, later high principals, $34,054 (1983-84 supplemented by state and local est.) taxes, ultimately provided the basis for establishing, in 1873, a State profilePopulation (1983): statewide system of essentially 4,685,000. Per capita income separate free public schools for (1983): $9,362. Entered statehood whites and blacks. Later acts June 1, 1796. Motto: Agriculture created a state board of education and Commerce. Nickname: (1875), a secondary school system "Volunteer State." Flower: Iris. (1891), and a general education Bird: Mockingbird. Tree: Tulip fund (1909). Progress in integrating Poplar. Song: "The Tennessee the state's schools followed the Waltz." 1954 Supreme Court decision barring segregated education. Most Excellence activities: A new schools were integrated by the late three-level career ladder for 1960s. teachers allows eligible teachers to receive bonuses ranging from State mandatesCompulsory $1,000 to $7,000 a year. The Better school attendance for students aged Schools Program of 1984 also 7-17; kindergarten. mandated kindergarten to be offered to every child and defined Number of schools 143 school basic reading and mathematics districts with 1,172 elementary skills for kindergarten-grade 8. In schools, 388 secondary, and 131 place is a fully funded statewide othercombined ele:nentary- computer literacy course. High secondary, special education, and school graduation requirements alternative schools (1983). increased, including a doubling of mathematics and science courses; Student enrollment826,470 and a proficiency test is required for elementary and secondary; 450,331 graduation. The program also kindergarten-grade 6, 376,139 provides for in-school suspensions grades 7-12 (1983-84). and alternative schools for disruptive students, Per pupil expenditures $2,173 elementary and secondary (1983-84 est.) TEXAS Staff-45,065 total instructional, Chief state school °Ricer William 24,264 elementary teachers, 14,872 Kirby, Acting Commissioner of secondary teachers, 3,435 other Education, Texas Education Agency, nonsupervisory instructional, 2,494 201 E. Eleventh St., Austin 78701. principals and supervisors. Average (512) 475-3271. 10 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Education history Texas had only nonsupervisory instructional, 9,403 99 a few public schools when it gained principals and supervisors. Average independence from Mexico in 1836, salary of instructional staff, and the refusal of Mexican $20,170; elementary teachers, authorities to provide English- $19,692; secondary teachers, speaking teachers was a major $20,858; elementary principals, reason for settler determination to $34,698; junior high principals, become a part of the United States. $37,047; senior high principals, In 1854, less than ten years after $41,240. having been admitted to the Union, the state established a uniform State profilePopulation (1983): school system. In 1915, the state 15,724,000. Per capita income legislature adopted a compulsory (1983): $11,685. Entered statehood school attendance law that called December 29, 1845. Motto: for 12 years of free schooling for Friendship. Nickname: "Lone Star every child. Shortly thereafter a State." Flower: Bluebonnet. Bird: follow-up law authorized free Mockingbird. Tree: Pecan. Song: textbooks. In 1949, the "Texas, Our Texas." Gilmer-Aikin Laws established the Foundation School Program to Excellence activities: House Bill ensure the maintenance of 72, a comprehensive reform minimim standards for education package, placed the burden of programs in every school district. improved student achievement on the State Education Agency. It State mandate Compulsory called for full-day, state-funded school attendance for students aged kindergarten and a four-level 7-17; kindergarten. career-ladder plan for teachers, the latter beginning in 1984-85. Number of schools-1,099 school Current teachers and districts with 3,432 elementary administrators are to be tested for schools, 2,278 secondary, and 154 competency prior to the 1986-87 othercorlibined elementary- school year. The legislation set secondary, special education, and guidelines for grade requirements alternative schools (1983-84). and course credit, examinations, promotion, class sizes, attendance, Student enrollment-3,130,151 and other activities. A discipline elementary and secondary; management program will be required in 1986-87. High school 1,724,324 kindergarten -grade 6; graduation requirements mandate 1,390,634 grades 7-12 (1983-84). 21 credits. Per pupil expenditures$2,670 elementary and secondary UTAH (1983-84). Chief state school officerG. Leland Burningham, Staff-169,942 total instructional; Superintendent of Public 74,702 elementary teachers, 75,994 Instruction, State Office of secondary teachers, 43,289 other Education, 250 E. Fifth St. S., Salt STATE PROFILES 100 Lake City 84111. (801) 533-5431. Student enrollment-378,208 elementary and secondary; 221,146 Education historyMormons took kindergarten-grade 6; 150,180 the precaution before leaving grades 7-12 (1983-84). Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1846 of printing a supply of books for classroom use Per pupil expenditures$1,992 in their new home. Almost elementary and secondary immediately after arriving in Salt (1983-84). Lake Valley, they built schools for their own children. The first Staff-18,024 total instructional; non-Mormon school was established 8,662 elementary teachers, 7,073 in 1867 by the Protestant Episcopal secondary teachers, 9,381 other Church. This was followed by other nonsupervisory instructional, 1,570 non-Mormon schools created by principals and supervisors. Average various other churches. In 1890, salary of instructional staff, the territorial legislature passed a $20,007; elementary teachers, law calling for a system of $19,286; secondary teachers, tax-supported schools available to $21,022; elementary principals, all children. When Utah was $34,146; junior high/middle school admitted to the union six years principals, $35,772; senior high later, its constitution called for a principals, $37,924 (1983-84). statewide educational organization that developed into a full-fledged elementary and secondary school State profilePopulation (1983): tirogram. Although church schools 1,619,000. Per capita income continued to operate, by 1912 the (1983): $9,031. Entered statehood state-controlled tax-supported January 4, 1896. Motto: Industry. system had gained so much public Nickname: "Behive State." Flower: confidence that the Mormon Sego Lily. Bird: Seagull. Tree: Blue Church began to withdraw from Spruce. Song: "Utah, We Love full-time instruction and develop Thee." closer relationships with the public schools. In 1920, the Mormon Excellence activities: The state Church ended its high school legislature appropriated $15.2 programs altogether. million for career ladders, of which, at least 50 percent must be spent State mandatesCompulsory for teacher salaries. The State Board school attendance for students aged of Education adopted a new core curriculum and high school 6-18; provision for home grLduation requirements in January instruction by parents who want to 1984. Course description standards educate their own children. have been determined and committees are refining criteria for Number of schools- -40 school kindergarten-twelfth grade courses, districts with 436 elementary effective with the class of 1988. A schools, 204 secondary, 50 spedal new core program has been education, and 15 alternative and designated for kindergarten- vocational schools (1984-85). grade 6 and for the middle 11.2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

school level. Twenty-four units will instruction by parents who want to 101 be required for high school educate their own children. graduation, among them a half-year of computer studies and Number of schools-277 school one-and-a-half years in the arts. districts with 225 elementary Teachers must be fully certified in schools, 55 secondary, and 101 their subject matter areas. othercombined elementary- Assessment of student mastery is secondary, special education, and required at completion of grades 3, alternative schools (Fall 1984). 6, 8, 10, and 12. A college entry cluster of elective high interest, Student enrollment-99,687 technology, vocational, and job elementary and secondary; 50,618 entry courses will be offered. kindergarten-grade 6; 49,069 grades 7-12 (1983-84). VERMONT Per pupil expenditures$3,148 Chief state school officer Stephen elementary and secondary S. Kaagan, Commissioner of (1983-84). Education, State Department of Education, State St., Montpelier Staff-7 ,905 total instructional; 05602. (802) 828-3135. 1,930 elementary teachers, 3,305 secondary teachers, 865 other Education historyThe town of nonsupervisory instructional, 805 Guilford provided funds for free principals and supervisors. Average public schools as early as 1761. As salary of instructional staff, an independent republic (1777-91) $17,353; elementary teachers, before joining the Union, Vermont $17,373; secondary teachers, in its 1777 constitution called for a $18,489; elementary principals, complete educational system. The $21,600; junior high/middle school system included town elementary principals, $28,800; senior high schools, county grammar schools, principals, $31,175 (1983-84). and a state university. In 1780, Vermont's first secondary school State profile Population (1983): was established in Bennington. 525,000. Per capita income (1983). During the early 1830s private $10,036. Entered statehood March academies and schools were 4, 1791. Motto: Freedom and Unity. established in the more prosperous Nickname; "Green Mountain State." villages, and 20 such academies Flower: Red Clover. Bird: Hermit were soon in operation. The Thrush. Tree: Sugar Maple. Song: movement for public high schools "Hail, Vermont." was launched in the 1840s, and by 1900 the number and dominance of Excellence activities: In 1984, the private academies had significantly State Board of Education adopted declined. the state's first comprehensive school standards, setting goals and State mandates Compulsory mandating 15.5 units for high school attendance for students aged school graduation. Summer 7-16; provision for home institutes provide learning 113 STATE PROFILES

102enrichment experiences for junior desegregation efforts in 1959. All high and senior high students. school districts were integrated by The Vermont Inservice Institute the mid-1960s. for Professional Development was established to expand and improve State mandatesCompulsory inservice education. Also underway school attendance for students aged is an "Early Education Initiative" 5-17; provision for home aimed at children from age 3 to instruction by parents who want to grade 3. A new vocational education educate their own children. bill calls for increased services to adults, incentives for regional Number of schools 139 school services, and new standards. districts with 1,136 elementary schools, 206 junior high, 256 secondary, and 160 other VIRGINIA combined elementary-secondary, Chief state school officer S. John special education, and vocational Davis, Superintendent of Public education schools. Instruction, State Department of Education, P.O. Box 6Q, James Student enrollment-966,110 Monroe Bldg., Fourteenth and elementary and secondary; 588,476 Franklin Sts., Richmond 23216. kindergarten-grade 6; 377,634 (804) 225-2023. grades 7 -12 (1983-84).

Education history The first free Per pupil expenditures $2,967 schools in what is now the United elementary and secondary States were founded in Virginia. (1983-84). They were the Syms Free School, esmblished in Hampton in 1634, Staff-64,300 total instructional; and the Eaton Free School, started 33,141 elementary teachers, 23,013 in that town in about 1640. secondary teachers, 4,552 other Meanwhile Virginia planters and nonsupervisory instructional, 3,594 merchants subsidized private principals and assistant principals. schools for their young, called Average salary of instructional staff, "old-field schools" because they $20,681; elementary teachers, were built in open fields. By the $19,170; secondary teachers, mid-1700s there also were many $20,830; elementary principals, academies, usually taking the form $31,467; junior high/middle school of combined elementary and high principals, $34,686; senior high schools. The state assembly in 1810 principals, $36,306 (1983-84). created a literary fund to help poor children get an education. The State profile -- Population (1983): state's public school system was 5,550,000. Per capita income started in 1870. Like other southern (1983): $11,835. Entered statehood states, Virginia had separate schools June 1788. Motto: Sic Server for blacks and whites. With the U.S. Tyrcmnis (Thus Ever to Tyrants). Supreme Court holding in 1954 Nicknames: "Old Dominion," that segregation was "Mother of Presidents," "Mother of unconstitutional, the state began its States." Flower: Dogwood. Bird: 114 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Cardinal. Tree: Dogwood. State St., S.W., Olympia 98504. 103 Dog: Foxhound. Song: "Carry Me (206) 753-6717. Back to Old Virginia." Education historyThe first school Excellence activities: The State in what was to become the state of Department of Education adopted a Washington was opened in Old Fort Standards of Learning Program that Vancouver in 1832 by the Hudson includes objectives in ten academic Bay Company, a British trading subjects for all grades and a future firm, for employees' children. The assessment program. School territorial legislature organized the accreditation standards have been public school system in 1854. It revised and mathematics and authorized the creation of a school science requirements increased. fund, the levying of county and High school graduation district taxes for schools, and requirements were increased to 20 election of county school units and include an advanced superintendents.Jn 1880, Dayton studies program. Beginning established the first high school, teachers are required to demonstate offering a two-year program; Seattle satisfactory performance for two in 1883 opened a three-year high years before being certified. A school. The state in 1895 imposed a Governor's Center for Educational school tax based on the number of Innovation ane Technology has school-age children in the census been established, and magnet count. This was changed in 1901 to schools for science and technology the number of children actually and the fine arts are planned. attending school. In 1948, voters Teachers' salaries have been approved an amendment to the increased, and a "pay-for- state constitution permitting local performance" pilot program started property tax levies for school to test merit pay. The Board of support. Concerned about low Education also recommended a student achievement scores, the threelevel master-teacher program legislature in 1955 established a to provide $5,000 - $8,000 bonuses, program to raise academic and a state-funded staff standards and to provide rime state development plan calls for aid to less affluent school districts improving management skills of to equalize per pupil expenditures school administrators and providing statewide. inservice training for teachers. Computer literacy objectives have State mandatesCompulsory been defined for students. school attendance for students aged 8-16; provision for home instruction by parents who want to educate their own children. WASHINGTON Number of schools-299 school Chief state school officer --Frank B. districts with 996 elementary Brouillet, Superintendent of Public schools, 460 secondary, and 134 Instruction, State Department of combined elementary-secondary Public Instruction, 7510 Armstrong and unclassified (1983-84). 115 STATE PROFILES 104Student enrollment-736,238 high school transcripts and setting elementary and secondary; 362,318 graduation and college admissions kindergarten-grade 6; 359,090 are forthcoming. In fall 1983, grades 7-12 (1983-84). regional computer demonstration centers began operating to help Per pupil expenditures$3,106 school districts review hardware elementary and secondary and software before making (1983-84). purchases. The board raised graduation requirements and Staff-34,926 total instructional; funded inservice training for 16,124 elementary teachers, 15,428 teachers in mathematics, science, secondary teachers, 2,743 other and computer literacy. nonsupervisory instructional, 2,194 principals and supervisors. Average WEST VIRGINIA salary of instructional staff, $25,868; elementary teachers, Chief state school officerRoy $24,057, secondary teachers, Truby, State Superintendent of $24,852; elementary principals, Schools, State Department of $36,582, junior high/middle school Education, 1900 Washington St., principals, $39,452, senior high Bldg. B, Room 358, Charleston principals, $41,558 (1983-84). 25305. (304) 348-3644.

State profilePopulation (1983): Education historyPioneer 4,300,000. Per capita income children attended schools in log (1983): $12,051. Entered statehood cabins that served both as schools November 11, 1889. Motto: Alki (By and churches. Parents paid teachers and By). Nickname: "Evergreen in cash, farm products, or bed and State." Flower: "Western board. In 1796 the legislature of Rhododendron. Bird: Willow Virginia (of which West Virginia was Goldfinch. Tree: Western Hemlock. then a part) enacted a law providing Song: "Washington, My Home." for free district schools in counties that wanted to set them up. Few Excellence activitiesOne 1984 schools materialized, however, reform requires school districts to because most county officials set goals, with the help of citizens, believed that people should not educators, community and business have to pay for the education of leaders. The law requires a school children other than their own. In district's resources to be considered 1810, the legislature created a and learning objectives to be literary fund for the education of measured by student attainment. poor children. Seceding from Other reforms include more Virginia during the Civil War, West funding for gifted and talented Virginia joined the Union and programs, eighth grade testing and established a free public school a life skills test. The State Board of system in 1863. The state Education also called for more constitution called for taxes to emphasis on student proficiency in support schools. Until 1875, a second language. children in rural schools were not Recommendations on standardizing educated by grade levels. That year 116 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Alexander L. Wade, Monongalia (1983): $8,937. Entered statehood 105 County school superintendent, June 20, 1863. Motto. Montani worked out a system to teach Semper Liberi (Mountaineers Are subjects by grade level and student Always Free). Nickname: "Mountain age group. In 1933, independent State." Flower: Big Rhododendron. districts were merged into 55 Bird: Cardinal. Tree: Sugar Maple. county units for more efficient Songs: "The West Virginia Hills," administration of elementary and "This Is My West Virginia," and secondary education. "West Virginia, My Home, Sweet Home." State mandatesCompulsory school attendance for students aged Excellence activities: West Virginia 7-16; kindergarten; provision for was the first state to require home instruction by parents who students to retain a "C" average to want to educate their own children. participate in athletics and other extracurricular activities. More Number of schools-55 school money was allocated to teachers' districts with 824 elementary salaries by the 1984 legislature. schools, 301 secondary, including 7 High school graduation multi-county vocational centers, 31 requirements are set fur review by county vocational centers, and 31 the State Board of Education in vocational centers within high 1985. Beginning in 1985, new schools (Fall 1983). teachers will have to pass a basic skills test, a content area test, and a Student enrollment 371,251 pro:essional education performance elementary and secondary; 220,825 test. kindergarten-grade 8; 150,426 grades 9-12 (1983-84). WISCONSIN Per pupil expenditures$2,587 Chief state school officerHerbert elementary and secondary J. Grover, Superintendent of Public (1983-84). Instruction, State Department of Public instruction, 125 S. Webster Staff-25,155 total instructional, St., P.O. Box 7841, Madison 53707. 12,652 elementary teachers, 9,765 (608) 266-1771 secondary teachers, 1,197 other nonsupervisory instructional, 1,541 Education historyIn Southport principals and supervisors. Average (now Kenosha), newspaper editor salary of instructional staff, Michael Frank led a movement for $18,224; elementary teachers, free education that resulted in the $17,196; secondary teachers, establishment there of Wisconsin's $17,941; elementary principals, first public schools, in 1845. With $26,897; junior high/middle school that precedent, the state principals, $29,632; senior high constitution adopted in 1848 principals, $30,363 (1983-84). provided state funds for free schooling for all children between State profilePopulation (1983): the ages of 4 and 20. In 1856, Mrs. 1,965,000. Per capita income Carl Shurz opened the nation's first 117 STATE PROFILES

106 kindergarten (for German-speaking Wood Violet. Bird: Robin. Tree: children) in Watertown. A law Sugar Manle. Song: "On, enacted in 191,1 the first of its Wisconsin!" kind in the countryrequired all cities and towns with populations of Excellence activities: A new 5,000 or more to set up vocational voluntary statewide teacher schools. Today the Milwaukee competency program stresses a Vocational School ranks as one of state-local partnership. the largest trade schools in the Participating school districts United States. undergo a rigorous review of their instructional programs and make State mandatesCompulsory decisions on the kinds of tests they school attendance for children aged will administer. A 1984 report of a 6-18; kindergarten. statewide task force included recommendations for upgrading Number of schools-432 school teacher preparation and teacher districts with 1,436 elementary inservice training, and ways to schools, 578 secondary, and 21 increase the attractiveness of the othercombined elementary- teaching profession. Many of the secondary, special education, and recommendations are being alternative schools (1983-84). implemented, including a requirement for a teacher test. The Student enrollment -774,656 legislature passed the first state law elementary ?..a.i JCL.ondary, 380,155 establishing high school graduation pre kindergarten -grade 6, .194,491 requirements. These include four grades 7-12 (1983-84). years of English, three of social studies, two of science, two of Per pupil expenditures $3,645 mathematics, one and one-half of elementary and secondary physical education, one-half of (1983-84). computer science, and one-half of health education. Staff-51,689 total instructional; 29,096 elementary teachers, 20,293 secondary teachers, 2,300 principals WYOMING and supervisors. Average salary of instructional staff $23,650; , Chief state school officerLynn 0. elementary teachers, $22,400; Simons, State Superintendent of secondary teachers, $23,323; Public Instruction, State elementary principals, $32,108; Department of Education, junior high/middle school Hathaway Bldg., Cheyenne 82002. principals, $35,519; and senior high (307) 777-7675. principals $37,995 (1983-84). Education historyThe first school State profile Population (19b3): in what was to become Wyoming 4,751,000. Per capita income was founded at Fort Laramie by (1983). $11,132. Entered statehood Chaplain William Vaux in 1852. In May 29, 1848. Motto: Forward. 1860 another school was built at Nickname: "Badger State." Flower: Fort Bridger. The territorial 118 /11

E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

legislature in 1869 passed a law Staff-7,841 total instructional; 107 providing tax support for the 4,566 elementary teachers, 2,493 schools, and in the years secondary teachers, 309 other immediately thereafter district nonsupervisory instructional, 473 schools were established in many principals and supervisors. Average communities. The first high school salary of instructional staff, opened in Cheyenne in 1875. Two $24,800; elementary teachers, years later, school attendance for at $24,000; secondary teachers, least three months a year was made $25,100; elementary principals, compulsory. After the attainment of $39,386; secondary principals, statehood in 1890, Wyoming's $42,374; senior high principals, education department was headed $42,856 (1983-84). by an elected superintendent. A law enacted in 1969 mandated county State profilePopulation (1983): committees to arrange for 514,000. Per capita income (1983): redistricting and resulted in $11,969. Entered statehood July 10, extensive school reorganization, as 1890. Motto: Equal Rights. approved by state committee on Nickname: "Equality State." reorganization. Flower: Indian Paintbrush. Bird: Meadowlark. Tree: Cottonwood. State mandateCompulsory school Song: "Wyoming." attendance for students aged 7-16. Excellence activities: A Quality Education Committee Number of schools-49 districts recommended greater emphasis, on with 254 elementary schools, 63 attendance and school improvement junior high, 73 senior high schools, research, and that more time be and 3 special schools (Fall, 1983). spent on professional development and more recognition be given to Student enrollment-100,965 educators. High school graduation elementary and secondary; 56,151 requirements were increased to four kindergarten-grade 6; 43,008 grades years of language arts, two of 7-12; 1,806 special education or mathematics, three of social nongraded students (1983-84). studies, and two of science. For college-bound students, an Per pupil expenditures$4,488 additional year of mathematics, two elementary and secondary years of foreign language, and a (1983-84). laboratory science are required.

119 108What the Polls Say About Public Education

hat is the one most since 1976. important factor Following is a summary of Dr. necessary to keep Gallup's analysis of the data from America strong in the the poll, completed shortly before years ahead? Not his recent death: defense, and not our powerful industrial infrastructure. Summary of The 1984 Findings No, the answer is our educational Americans are today more favorably system. Says who? Says the people, disposed toward the public schools that's whoas recorded in the than at any other time during the latest "Gallup Poll of Public last decade. 1p the 1984 survey, Attitudes Toward the Public more Americans (42 percent) grade Schools." their local schools A or B for their In cooperation with Phi Delta Kappa, which now finances the See page 112 for some of the survey, the organization founded by specific questions and the the late George Gallup has been responses to them. monitoring public opinion about the nation's schools for 16 years now. The result is a fascinating performance than at any time since record of which public attitudes 1976with an 11-point increase have shifted during that pericd and over 1983. Virtually the same which have steadfastly remained the increase occurs among the parents same. of public school childrenwith a As for here and now, the picture 10 percent rise since last year in the is in general held to be bright, with percentage giving the local schools the public giving the schools higher an A or B rating. marks in 1984 than at any time Americans also have become '120 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

significantly more favorably Americans also support, by wide 109 disposed toward public school margins, the ideas of career ladders teachers and administrators. In for teachers and state board teacher 1981, 39 percent gave teachers a examinations in every subject. To a grade of A or B, whereas today the lesser degree, the public feels that figure is 50 percent. Moreover, the salaries for teachers are too low. A or B grades given to principals The public appears to be and administrators rose from 36 unwilling to make some of the percent to 47 percent during that necessary sacrifices or same three-year period. commitments to help implement Another indicator that reveals an some of the recommendations of increase in favorable feelings toward the school reform reports. the schools is the public's increased Americans are opposed to extended willingness to pay the price for school years or longer school days, public education. The percentage of which would provide the time for Americans who say that they would additional schooling. (Support for be willing to pay more taxes for both ideas has increased somewhat education has risen from 30 percent in the last few years, however.) to 41 percent. Although teachers oppose merit Americans continue to feel that pay as a means of rewarding public education contributes more outstanding teaching performance to national strength than either by a margin of roughly 2-1, the industrial might or military power. public (including parents and More than eight in ten say that nonparents) favors the idea by developing the best educational about 3-1. Among the half of the system in the world will lye "very population who are familiar with important" in determining merit pay, support rises to roughly America's future strength, 4-1. compared to 70 percent who favor The American public continues to developing the best industrial regard discipline as the most production system and only 45 important problem facing the percent who favor developing the public schools; about one-fourth of strongest military force. Americans cite discipline as the The American public is divided in predominant problem, as they have its support for the various done for more than a decade. Half recommendations proposed in the of the American public feels that recently published reports drugs are used in the local schools concerning U.S. education. The "most of the time" or "fairly often." public strongly favors (1) increasing About one-third of the public feels the amount of schoolwork and that theft of money or personal homework in both elementary and property, drinking of alcoholic high school, (2) basing all grade beverages, theft of school property, promotions on examinations, and and carrying of knives or other (3) employing nationally weapons occur "most of the time" standardized tests for high school or "fairly often." diplomas. Support for each of these proposals has increased in recent Looking Backwards years. In the first poll of the Public's .121 WHAT POLLS SAY

110Attitudes About the Public Schools non parentsparents of private taken in 1969the chief concern and/or parochial school children, Noved to be the lack of discipline. senior citizens whose children had Gallup noted at the time that "court grown and were no longer at home rulings defending student rights or single adults without children." have not helped the discipline Gallup also underscored the situation although they have almost crc.cial role played by parents in ended the in loco parentis principle their children's progress in school at least at the college level." and declared, "A properly conceived The second most pressing plan of helping parents do a more concern expressed in the first poll effective job of motivating their was the growing militancy of school-age children, organizing teachers. Gallup reported that the their home life to enable them to do survey showed a growing majority the best work in the classroom, and of the public against permitting instructing them in the many areas teacher strikes. "The position of the not included in formal education, teacher changed in the 1930s and offers the greatest opportunity to 1940s," he reported. "Teachers were reach higher educational standards thought to be grossly underpaid and at the lowest cost." public servants who engaged in In the first poll one question teaching because of their dedication dealt with the amount of knowledge to education. In the struggle to gain people had about the schools. Only parity with other professionals, 19 percent responded that they had teachers have been compelled to "quite a lot," while 41 percent adopt, in many situations, a responded "very little." Parents in militant position." the survey sample were not much The third major concern was better informed than the general racial integration, followed by public, with only 27 percent being concern about busing. Gallup felt in the "quite a lot" category. that the concern about busir:g as Asked to identify the qualities "not really a carry-over to that characterize "good schools," integration itself, but rather to the survey respondents in 1969 cited busing of students to achieve it." the following: In subsequent years discipline qualified teachers continued to be singled out as the discipline first "problem" of the schools, and physical equipment with the fifth poll in 1973, Gallup a wide variety of courses suggested that "a successful interesting to the students resolution of the problem of a good library. discipline would almost certainly Regarding "What was not good bring about a change in the attitude enough in the schools?" they said: of those parents who are moving to discipline the suburbs chiefly to remove their overcrowding of students children from the inner-city poor transportation schools." buildings too old It was also in the fifth poll that integration Gallup noted what he called "the Asked thehest source of shocking lack of information of information about schools, 12 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

respondents listed: parents of students 111 newspapers The high water mark in people's personal communkation overall rating of the public schools students and neighbors was established in 1974, the first school personnel time the Gallup Poll raised the radio and TV questionwith 48 percent saying A meetings at school or B. By the time of the fifth poll in Since that time public confidence 1973, certain shifts had taken place. in the schools would appear to have The top concern was still discipline, declined virtually every year, but but segregation rose to the second 1984 was an exception. In 1984 the most critical concern. Drug use, sixteenth annual poll saw a jump of mentioned by only a few in 1969, 11 percent over 1983, to a total of was now in fifth place, with third 42 percent. and fourth being lack of proper Perhaps the downward trend has financial support and difficulty of been reversed; perhaps public getting good teachers. appreciation of the remarkable The response to "What ways are achievements of America's public the local public schools particularly schools is on the rise to an good?" was: appropriate level. the curriculum Interested schools are invited the teachers by Phi Delta Kappa to use the school facilities Gallup Poll questions to assess extracurricular activities public opinion in their own up-to-date teaching methods communities, and to compare A new trend was picked up .n the their results with those from the fifth yc. r of the polls, when no less national sample. The Gallup Poll than 90 percent of the respondents is not copyrighted and may be held that the schools should gibe purchased in tinantities of 25 for more emphasis to "career $4.50 from education." Linked to that reaction Phi Delta Kappa were responses to the question of Post Office Box 789 "How important is education to Bloomington, IN 47402 one's future success?" with 76 percent of the general public saying Also, Phi Delta Kappa has "very important" (a proposition produced a very useful guide agreed to by 81 percent of public called PACE (Polling Attitudes of ::nool parents and 84 percent of the Community on Education) in private school parents). a handy three-ring loose-leaf Meanwhile there had been some binder that provides how-to interesting changes in what people information on conducting such felt were the best sources of a survey, selecting a valid information about the schools, the sample, and evaluating the 1973 ranking being as follows; findings. PACE costs $39.50 and newspapers may be ordered from radio/TV Phi Delta Kappa students Eighth and Union Streets school board/faculty Bloomington, IN 47402

12312, , WHAT POLLS SAY 112 Here Are Some of the More Important Questions and Answers

Education's Importance In determining America's strength in the future say, 25 years from now how important do you feel each of the following factors will bevery" important, fairly important, not too important, or not at all important?

Not Not Very Fairly Too At all Don't Important Important Important important Know

Developing the best educational system in the world 82 13 2 1 2 Developing the most efficient industrial

production system in the world 70 23 3 1 3 Building the strongest military force in the world 36 13 3 3 1 2445 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Rating Public Schools 113 Students are often given the grades A, B, C, D, and FAIL to denote the quality of their work. Suppose the public schools themselves, in this community, were graded in the same way. What grade would you give the public schools hereA, B, C, D, or FAIL?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % % % %

A rating 10 8 15 4 B rating 32 31 37 33 C rating 35 35 32 42 D rating 11 10 12 16 FAIL 4 5 3 4

Don't know 8 11 1 1

National Totals Ratings Given 1984198319821981 19801979197819771976 The Local Public Schools % % % % % % % % %

A rating 10 6 8 9 10 8 9 11 13 B rating 32 25 29 27 25 26 27 26 29 C rating 35 32 33 34 29 30 30 28 28 D rating 11 13 14 13 12 11 11 11 10 FAIL 4 7 5 7 6 7 8 5 6 Don't know 8 17 11 10 18 18 15 19 14

Rating Teachers What grade would you give the teachers in the public schools in this community?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % % % %

A rating 13 13 15 6 B rating 37 35 43 34 C rating 31 31 29 42 D rating 7 6 8 9

FAIL 3 3 3 1 Don't know 9 12 2 8 125 WHAT POLLS SAY

114Rating Administrators . What grade would you give the principals and administrators in the local public schools in this community?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % % % %

A rating 13 12 18 5 B rating 34 32 36 42 C rating 29 30 27 27 D rating 8 7 10 13 FAIL 5 5 5 6 Don't know 11 14 4 7

1984 1981 % %

A rating 13 10 B rating 34 26 C rating 29 28 D rating 8 12 FAIL 5 9 Don't know 11 15

Rating School Boards What grade would you give the school board in this community?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents %

A rating 9 9 11 5 B rating 32 31 33 33 C rating 29 27 29 39 D rating 11 10 14 14 FAIL 6 6 8 5 Don't know 13 17 5 4 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5- 1 9 8 6

Rating Parents 115 What grade would you give the parents of students in the local public schools fce bringing up their children?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % % % %

A rating 7 6 9 6 B rating 26 25 30 23 C rating 36 36 35 40 D rating 16 15 19 16 FAIL 6 6 5 10 Don't know 9 12 2 5

School Taxes Suppose the local public schools said they needed muchmore money. As you feel at this time, would you vote to raise taxes for thispurpose, or would you vote against raising taxes for this purpose?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % % % %

For raise in taxes 41 37 54 42 Against raise in taxes 47 50 38 51 Don't know 12 13 8 7

Favor Opposed to Raising Raising Taxes Taxes Don't Know % % %

1984 survey 41 47 12 1983 survey 39 52 9 1981 survey 30 60 10 1972 survey 36 56 6 1971 survey 40 52 8 1970 survey 37 56 7 1969 survey 45 49 6 127 WHAT POLLS SAY 116Length of School Year In some nations, students attend school as many as 240 days a year as compared to 180 days in the U.S. How do you feel about extending the public school year in this community by 30 days, making the school year about 210 days or 10 months long? Do you favor or oppose this idea?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

Favor 44 44 45 46 Oppose 50 49 52 46 Nc opinion 6 7 3 8

1984 1983 1982

Favor 44 40 37 Oppose 50 49 53 No opinion 6 11 10

Length of School Day How do you feel about extending the school day in the schools in this community by one hour? Do you favor or oppose this idea?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

Favor 42 42 41 38 Oppose 52 51 56 58 No opinion 6 7 3 4

1984 1983 1982

Favor 42 41 37 Oppose 52 48 55 No opinion 6 11 8 128 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986 Student Burden 117 In general, do you think elementary schoolchildren in the public schools here. are made to work too hard in school and on homework or not hard enough?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents % %

Too hard 5 5 7 4 Not hard enough 59 60 54 56 About right amount 24 20 34 30 Don't know 12 15 5 10

What about students in the public high schools herein general, are they required to work too hard or not hard enough?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

Too hard 4 4 5 Not hard enough 67 69 62 69 About right amount 18 15 25 22 Don't know 11 12 8 9

Automatic Promotion In your opinion, should children be promoted from grade to grade only if they can pass examinations?

Public Nonpublic National No Children School School Totals In School Parents Parents

Yes 71 73 66 73 No 25 23 31 23 No opinion 4 4 3 4 ' 1129 118Microcomputers in the School

he surge of elementary schools to 146.4 for technology into the intermediate schools to 61 percent classroom shows no for high schools, the U.S. sign of abating. Department of Education reported. Virtually every recent QED found an average of 85 survey has turned up evidence that students per microcomputer in the the country's feeling for the big districts, half what it was in computer is not just puppy love but 1983-84. an increasingly fervent attachment. Large scnool districts doubled Chief Computer Uses their number of microcomputers in How schools acquire computers, just one year, according to a survey what they are doing with them and by Quality Education Data, Inc. what results they are having are (QED) of Denver, a market research among the myriad questions being firm. The average school now has addressed by researchers. Perhaps eight microcomputers and the the most extensive survey of nation's 50 largest school districts microcomputer uses in schools was share a total of nearly 74,000. done by Johns Hopkins University's Overall, C2.5 percent of high Center for Social Organization of schools, 46.2 percent of middle and Schools. In its National Survey of junior high schools, and 27.4 School Uses of Microcomputers, the percent of elementary schools had center found the following: microcomputers in 1983. This In elementary schools, students represents increases from the year use microcomputers for a median before ranging from 175 percent for of 19 minutes a week for 130 ..1 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

programming or computer type of computer literacy mandate 119 literacy; 13 minutes for drills, and a few others had similar remedial work, math, and legislation pending. Five states language; and 12 minutes for required teachers to be certified in games. computers, and at least 14 more Secondary students, on the other were considering some form of hand, spend a median of 55 certification requirements. minutes a week on programming; Another report, prepared for the only 17 minutes on drills and U.S. Department of Education, remedial work; 11 minutes found that state officials now playing games, and 30 minutes on believe they must play a key role in word processing, data processing, coordinating the use of educational and other uses. technology if their states and How microcomputers are used, students are to benefit. Turnkey the survey foundwhether for Systems, Inc., which did the report, programming, drill, or something said the states now speak of the elsedepends largely on who led need for a coordinated approach to the effort to purchase them arid use technology. The federal government them in the curriculum. It should also play a bigger part, it concluded that the most effective in helping states with use is in elementary schools in technology ilanning. Appropriate which a group of teachers was itierai ivies as defined in the report instrumental in bringing in include gathering information, computers. In these schools, supporting state consortia, computers are in use for more providing technical assistance, and hours each week and are used by all maintaining a database. types of students, by more of them, and for a greater variety of The Equity Issue purposes. Where a single teacher or Johns Hopkins also found that administrator led the way, the chief while a majority of schools have use is by above-average students. microcomputers, certain groups of Who actually paid for the schools lag in their use, particularly computers also had some effect. elementary schools in the South Schools that acquired computers and parochial schools. Only about through general school funds used one-fourth of these schools reperted them less often and allowed fewer having at least one micro, students to have access to them compared to twice that many than did schools where the schools in general. Elementary equipment was bought with outside schools in poor areas also are less money or through fund-raising likely to have a computer. efforts. These figures underscore a persistent problem, and one that Rising State Involvement may be becoming more acute, as A 1984 survey by Electronic the issue of equity between rich and Learning magazine found a poor and white and minority. Johns growing interest in computers on Hopkins found that only 31 peecent the part of the states. Twenty states, of the nation's poorest elementary six more than in 1983, had some schools have, microcomputers, 131 MICROCOMPUTERS mi. 120compared to 46 percent overall and home computers are bought by 57 percent of the wealthiest. parents, although families with Two-thirds of pcor secondary children make up only 38 percent of schools own microcomputers, but the population, according to 86 percent of the richer ones do. TALMIS, Inc., a Chicago marketing Affluent white elementary schools firm. It predicts that 15 percent of report 155 students per American homes now have microcomputer, compared to 192 in computers, double the amount at poorer white schools and 215 in the end of 1983. Sales topped 5 predominantly minority schools. million in 1984, with educational Likewise, twice as many students in software becoming a $94 million the first group have access to a market (9 percent of the total). computer during a typical week. This new home market may also And they are more likely to use the widen the gap between parents and machines for programming instead schools, experts say. According to a of drill-and-practice. National School Boards Association survey of school board presidents, Computers at Home schools know very little about what Another equity problem is springing is going on with home computers up from the advent of computers and have no plans for intruding into into the home. About 60 percent of the matter.

Following is a sampling of Educational Technology publications that may help those Educational Technology who want to stay abreast of Publications developments in the field: 720 Palisade Avenue Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 Apple Education News Electronic Education Apple Computer, Inc. Electronic Communications, Inc. 20525 Mariani Avenue 1311 Executive Center Drive Cupertino, CA 95014 Tallahassee, FL 32301 Arithmetic Teacher Electronic Learning National Council of Teachers of Scholastic, Inc. Mathematics 730 Broadway 1906 Association Drive New York, NY 10003 Reston, VA 22091 InfoWorld 1060 Marsh Road Classroom Computer Learning Suite C-200 Pitman Publishing Co. Menlo Park, CA 94025 19 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002 Instructional Innovator Association for Educational The Computing Teacher Communications and Technology 1787 Agate Street 1126 16th Street, NW Eugene, OR 97403 132 Washington, DC 20036 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Journal of Courseware Review Microcomputing 121 Apple Education Foundation Wayne Green, Inc. 20525 Mariani Avenue P.O. Box 997 Cupertino, CA 95014 Farmingdale, NY 11737

Mathematics Teacher National Council of Teachersof Persbnal Computing Mathematics Hayden Publishing Cc. 1906 Association Drive 10 Mulholland Drive Reston, VA 22091 Hasbrouck Heights, NJ 07604

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4.33 122Meet the Nation's Teachers and Principals

(Excerpts from Educator Opinion Poll: Teachers and Principals, a study conducted by the Educational Research Service)

A Portrait of Teachers classrooms. They are divided on the The majority of teachers are female. issue of merit pay for teachers and The average age of all teachers is on requiring experienced teachers 40. They earn an average of $21,983 to pass competency tests, but a working an average of 185 days a substantial majority tend to support year, seven hours and 13 minutes a career ladders for teachers. day. The typical teacher has worked The majority of elementary in the same school district for 12 school teachers are female. The years and has been a teacher for an average age of all elementary school average of 15 years. Most teachers teachers is 40, and the average are covered by collective bargaining work-year is 185 days, seven hours agreements. Paperwork, class size, and eight minutes a day. The and lack of support from parents average salary is $21,621, and the rank among the biggest problems average class size for those teaching facing teachers. About half would in a nondepartmentalized setting is not want to work a longer school 25 pupils. Most elementary teachers day or school year even if a do not want a longer school day or commensurate salary increase were school year. Mostbelieve that offered. Most teachers report that homework should be assigned to they do not have a major problem elementary students three or more with such discipline infractions as times a week. Over 40 percent extreme verbal abuse, physical believe that students' attitudes attacks, theft, or damage to toward school are more negative personal property in their than five years ago. 134 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

The majority of intermediate statistical confidence. 123 level teachers are also female. The average age is 40, and the average A Portrait of Principals salary is $21,560 for working an The majority of principals in the average of 184 days a year, seven United States are male. Most have hours and 13 minutes a day. Most earned a master's degree, and their intermediate level teachers are average work year is 11 months. unwilling to work a longer day, but They work an average of 52.9 hours would work a longer year for a a week when school is in session. higher salary. The average salary is $33,856. The The majority of high school average time in their present teachers are male. The average age position is seven years; the average is 41, and the average salary is time in the profession, including $22,714 for working at school an classroom teaching experience, is average of 185 days a year, seven 21 years. The majority of principals hours and 18 minutes a day. Most belong to national, state, and local high school teachers believe that associations of their profession. students should have homework at Most are not covered by collective least four times a week. Most bargaining agreements, but their believe that students' attitudes are teachers are. In a rank ordering of more positive toward school and problems that detract from their learning than students' attitudes of ability to do the best job they can, five years ago. too much paperwork and lack of Contrary to some news reports time to observe classes and to about wholesale flight from the confer with teachers lead the list. teaching profession, the The overwhelming majority of overwhelming majority of principals see educational teachers 72.8 percentsee administration as their career. They teaching as their career. These intend to stay in school teachers say they intend to stay in administration as long as they can. the profession as long as they can. The majority of elementary Of the remzining teachers, 24.1 school principals are male, and percent are undecided about their their average age is 47. Their ultimate ctreer plans and are average salary is $32,786, and they consider:4 other occupations. A work an average of 10.9 months a small minority, 2.3 percent, report year. The average length of that they have definitely decided to experience of elementary school leave teaching. These percentages, principals is 13 years, seven of translated into real numbers, which have been spent at their represent a corps of over 1.5 million current school. The average faculty teachers committed to their size is 26 teachers in a school with profession, with slightly over half a 445 students. The students are in million undecided and about 48 school 178 days a year for six hours thousand determined to leave. The and, six minutes a day. The majority number of teachers determined to of elementary school principals leave the profession is so smell that work in districts that do not have no distinguishing characteristics merit pay plans for administrators. can be gleaned with any degree of Most believe that the attitude of

t TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS

124students toward school and learning The majority of high school is more positive than five years ago principals are males who report and that today's students are better earning $36,377 working 11.2 prepared. mono is a year. Most of them work The majority of intermediate in districts that do not have merit level principals also are male. The pay plans for administrators. The average age is 47, and the average average staff size is 51 teachers in a salary is $35,805 for working 11.1 school with 844 students. The months a year. The average students are in school an average of professional experience is 12 years six hours and 29 minutes a day, 179 as a principal, seven of which have days a year. The average length of been spent at their current school. professional experience is 11 years, The average faculty size is 39 the last seven of which have been in teachers in a school with 669 their current assignment. The students. The students are in school majority of high school principals 178 days a year, six hours and 24 believe that the attitude of students minutes a day. The majority of toward school is more positive than intermediate level principals work it was five years ago. Most alsc in districts that do not have merit believe that their present students pay plans for administrators. The are better prepared than their majority believe that the attitudes predecessors. of students are more positive toward school and learning than those of students five years ago. Most also believe that contemporary Adapted from Educator Opinion Poll. students are better prepared. The ReportingtheOpinions, Status, and Experiences ofAmerican Public School majority of the intermediate level Educators. Copyright 1984 by EduCational principals approve of the concept of Research Service, Arlington, VA 22209. Used merit pay for teachers. by, permission.. Three Polls of Teachers 125 and Principals

hree new kinds of than 62 percent of the elementary polls taken during and secondary school principals 1984 dealt with the involved said that students' attitudes and feelings attitudes toward learning are more of teachers and positive than they were five years principals, variously seeking their ago, but only 36 percent of the opinions on some of the major teachers agreed. education issues, each other, About 58 percent of the students, and in general the principals said students are better condition of education in the United prepared in the basic skills than States. they were in 1979, compared to Although the questions in the only 27 percent of the teachers. three polls were similar, differences Neither group views drugs and in their wording and focus make alcohol as being major problems in precise comparison difficult, but the the schools, whereas the general resultant information conveys an public and parents rate these interesting overall glimpse into how among the gravest of all school these groups of educators see concerns. Again .in.contrast with America's schools. the opinions of parents and, the The Educational Research general public, nearly all principals Service, Inc., in its first national and teachers said such discipline poll of educators revealed some problems as theft and verbal or sharp differences between the physical abuse were uncommon in impressions of teachers and their schools. principals, along with some basic More than three-fourths of agreements. For example, more teachers and principals said that 13 7 THREE SPECIAL POLLS 126 new teachers should be required to some teachers in their schools pass exams in teaching rtr'hods deserve extra compensation. and subject areas before bc..ig Only 44 percent of the teachers hired. Less than half the teachers gave administrators an A or B; and said experienced teachers should only 29 percent gave such marks to have to take such exams, compared school board members. Parents to six in ten principals. were on the bottom of the teachers' Most of those surveyed supported list, rating an A or B from only one the idea of career ladders for teacher in five. And 31 percent gave teachers (82 percent of teachers, 92 parents a D or F. The same percent of principals). Merit pay was percentage of teachers said that favored by only half of the teachers parents' lack of interest is the but two-thirds of the principals. biggest problem their schools face. (From: "Educator Opinion Poll," Almost all (94 percent) blamed lack Educational Research Service, Inc., of home discipline for school 1800 North Kent Street, Arlington, discipline problems. Virginia 22209) (The Teachers Poll is available from Phi Delta Kappa, 8th and "A" for Schools Union Streets, Box 789, In the first-ever Gallup/Phi Delta Bloomington, Indiana 47402.) Kappa "Poll of Teachers' Attitudes Toward the Public Schools," Another High Grade two-thirds of the respondents gave In the third poll, performed by their local schools an A or a B, with Louis Harris for The Metropolitan 72 percent saying their own school Life Insurance Company, nine in was particularly deserving of high ten teachers rated the teachers in marks. In the most recent Gallup their schools as excellent. Only 8 Poll of Americans as a whole, percent said discipline problems however, schools got As or Bs from were "very serious." only 42 percent of the respondents. By what the Harris Poll described The teachers gave students a pat as "overwhelming majorities," the on the back for conduct, with only teachers said the numerous reforms 16 percent saying discipline is a now underway or proposed will "very serious" problem. In contrast, have positive effects on education. 34 percent of the general public Nearly all surveyed favored an rate discipline as education's emphasis on basic skills and number one challenge. Similarly, discipline, tighter high school while 18 percent of the public think graduation requirements, and a drugs are rife in the schools only 5 broader curriculum. Three fourths percent of the teachers regard chugs said homework should be increased, as a problem. and 8 percent favored student In the Gallup Poll of teachers, competency tests. A longer school almost eight in ten (78 percent) day and year won approval from gave their fellow teachers an A or B only one teacher out of five. Not grade, compared to half of the necessarily in conflict with Gallup public. Although the teachers findings in which teachers opposed opposed merit pay two to one, merit pay two to one, 74 percent of three-fourths nevertheless said that the teachers in the Harris Poll said X38 E D U C A T I' N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 merit pay could work "If a teacher's (From: "The Metropolitan Life 127 merit pay can be judged as an Survey of the American Teacher," objective standard." The Gallup Metropolitan Life Insurance survey simply asked teachers their Company, 1 Madison Avenue, New opinion of the merit pay concept. York, New York 10010)

133 128Major National Education Organizations

American Alliance for Health, Publications: Lifelong Learning: Physical Education, Recreation Omnibus of Practice and Research; and Dance Adult Education Quarterly; AAACE 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA Newsletter; MACE Membership 22091 Directory (703) 476-3400 1985 national convention Executive Vice President: Jack E. November 6-11, Milwaukee, Razor Wisconsin Publications: Fitting In (fitness 1986 national convention newsletter for fifth and sixth November 6-10, Hollywood, Florida graders); Quarterly for Exercise and Sports; Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance; American Association for Health Education; Update Counseling and.Development 1985 national convention 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, April 17-21, Atlanta, Georgia VA 22304 1986 national convention (703) 823.9800 April 9-13, Cincinnati, Ohio Executive Vice President: Patrick J. McDonough American Association for Adult and Publications: Guidepost; Journal of Continuing Education Counseling and Development 1201 16th Street, NW, Suite 230 1985 national convention Washington, DC 20036 April 2-5, New York, New York (202) 822-7866 1986 national convention Executive Director: Gary Eyre April 20-23, Los Angeles, California 140 E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 American Association for Higher territorial affiliates, influences Education education policy at the state and One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 600 local levels. A major function of Washington, DC 20036 AACTE is its participation in the (202) 293-6440 National Council for Accreditation President: Russell Edgerton in Teacher Education. One-third of Publications: AAHE Bulletin; the council's governing board is Current Issues in Higher Education composed of AACTE 1985 national convention representatives. March 17-20, Chicago, Illinois The association was formed in 1986 national convention 1858 as the American Normal March 23-26, Washington, DC School Association. In 1948, following a series of organizational American Association of Colleges shifts, the association combined for Teacher Education with two other higher education One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 610 associations to form the American Washington, DC 20036 Association of Colleges for Teacher (202) 293-2450 Education. Executive Director: David G. Imig AACTE is governed by a Publications: Journal of Teacher 19-member board of directors Education; Briefs elected by the 3,400 officially 1985 national convention appointed representatives of February 27-March 2, Denver, member institutions. The board Colorado actions are reviewed by.the annual 1986 national convention membership meeting, which February 26-March 1, Chicago, determines bylaws changes and Illinois resolutions. American Association of The American Association of Community and Junior Colleges Colleges for Teacher Education One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 410 (AACTE) represents the training Washington, DC 20036 arm of the education profession. Its (202) 293-7050 memberssome 720 schools, President: Dale Parnell colleges, and departments of Publications: Community and educationhold responsibility for Junior College Journal; AACJC the specialized instruction of the Newsletter; Communitkand Junior teachers, counselors, principals, College Directory and superintendents who staff and 1985 national convention manage America's schools. April 14-17, San Diego, California The association promotes 1986 national convention professional excellence; advances April 13-16, Orlando, Florida new techniques and insights in teaching; advocates public policy American Association of School conducive to excellence in Administrators education; offers professional and 1801 North Moore Street, leadership development services; Arlington, VA 22209 and through its 43 state and (703) 528-0700 " i41 OZIGANIZATIONS

130Executive Director: Paul B. Salmon administrators more effectively Publications: Annual Report; The manage curriculum and School Administrator; The Job instruction and improve learning. Bulletin The association is governed by a 1985 national convention nationally elected executive March 8-11, Dallas, Texas committee, consisting of six 1986 national convention members, plus the president, March 21-24, San Francisco, president-elect, and vice president. California The immediate past president and executive director serve in an The American Association of School ex officio capacity. Each year, a Administrators (AASA), founded in delegate assembly is constituted ,to 1865, serves more than 18,000 assist AASA in developing policy and members who include school position statements on a number of superintendents, central office vital issues. administrators, school principals, board members, professors of American Association of School educational administration, and Personnel Administrators other local, state, and federal 6483 Tanglewood Lane education officials. Seven Hills, OH 44131 AASA: (216) 524-3030 Seeks excellence in educational Executive Director: Arch S. Brown administration; PublicationS: AASPA Bulletin; Initiates and supports laws, Annual Directory of Personnel policies, research, and practice to Practices and Programs improve education; 1985 national convention Promotes programs and activities October 21-24, Seattle, Washington that focus on leadership for 1986 national convention learning and educational October 20-24, Houston, Texas excellence; and Fosters a climate in which quality American Association of University education can thrive. Professors AASA programs inchide the 1012 14th Street, NW, Suite 500 following: Washington, DC 20005 The annual AASA convention, (202) 737-5900 which draws from 15,000 to General Secretary: Ernest Benjamin 20,000 educational leaders from Publication: Academe around the world. 1985 national convention The National Academy for School June 14-15, Washington, DC Executives, which provides 1986 national conventionnot yet professional development determined seminars to help school administrators iacrease their American Council on Education knowledge and stills. One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 800 The National Centn for the Washington, DC 20036 Improvement of Letrning, (202) 833-4700 focuses on sharing in,t'ormation, President: Robert H. Atwell ideas, and research to help Publications: Higher Education and 142 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

National Affairs; Educational President: Albert Shnker 131 Record Publications: American Teacher; 1985 national convention American Educator; Public Service October 28-30, Miami Beach, Reporter Florida 1985 QUEST Educational 1986 national convention ConferenceJuly 10-14, October 6-8, San Francisco, Washington, D.C. California 1986 biennial conventionJuly 3-7, Chicago, Illinois American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, Inc. Established in 1916, the 579 Broadway 580,000-member American Hastings-on-Hudson, NY 10706 Federation of Teachers (AFT) of the (914) 478-2011 AFL-CIO serves elementary and Executive Director: C. Edward secondary teachers, college and Scebold university professors, and other Publications: Public Awareness nonsupervisory personnel in Network Newsletter; Fine Language education. Although the AFT Annals represents teachers in urban, 1985 national convention suburban, and rural school districts November 28-30, New York, New throughout the country, its York strongest concentration of members 1986 national conventionnot yet lies in the major U.S. cities. determined The goal of AFT's founders was to form a national organization that would support full union rights for American Educational Research teachers and would agree that Association professional status and academic 1230 17th Street, NW, Washington, freedom can be achieved only DC 20036 through affiliation with the trade (202) 223-9485 union movement. Executive Director: William J. The national office provides Russell technical assistance to its state and Publications: Educational local affiliates in organizing and Researcher; Review of Research in collective bargaining activities, and Education; Educational Research provides support through its Journal legislative, political action, public 1985 national convention relations human rights, research, March 31-April 4, Chicago, Illinois educational issues, and editorial 1986 national convention departments. March 31-April 4, San Francisco, The AFT has more than 2,000 California autonomous local affiliates that have their own constitutions, elect American Federation of Teachers, their own officers, set their own AFL-CIO dues structures, and formulate local 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW goals and policies. In most states, Washington, DC 20001 AFT locals are affiliated with one (202) 879-4400 another through AFT state 43 ORGANIZATIONS

132federations. (312) 944-6780 The AFT delegate body is Executive Director: Robert apportioned on the basis of local Wedgeworth membership. The annual AFT Publications: Choice; School convention, attended by the Library Media Quarterly; Library delegates, is the highest national Resources & -Technical Services; AFT policy-making body. Every two Information Technology and years delegates elect the AFT Libraries; 7bp of the News national president and the 34 vice 1985 national convention presidents who make up the AFT July 6-11, Chicago, - Illinois executive council, a body that sets 1986 national convention broad national policy for the June 28-July 3, New York, New,York organization. The elected president is the top administrative officer of The American Library Ackociation the AFT. is the oldestand largest libralibrary association ini the world. Founded American Home Economics in 1876, the ALA promotes libraries Association and librarianship toward assuring, 2010 Massachusetts Avenue, NW the delivery of user-oriented library Washington, DC 20036 and information service to the (202) 862-8300 public, and sets standards for Executive Director: Joan McFadden library performance. Its 40,000 Publications: Journal of Home members include librarians, Economics; Home Economics libraries, library trustees, authors, Research Journal; AHEA Action publishers, information scientists, 1985 national convention business firms, and friends of the June 24-27, Philadelphia, library in the U.S., Canada, and Pennsylvania abroad. 1986 national conventionnot yet The ALA is recognized by the U.S. determined Secretary of Education and by the Council on Postsecondary'Accredi- American Industrial Arts tation as the only accrediting Association agency for American library 1914 Association Drive, Reston, VA education programs, and maintains 22091 a list of approVed schools at the (703) 860-2100 graduate level. Headquartered in Executive Director: Kendall Chicago, it also has an office in Starkweather Washington, D.C. Publication: The Technology The association is governed by-a Teacher council of 100 members elected at 1985 national convention- - large, 51 members elected by state March 26-30, San Diego, California chapters, and 11 members elected 1986 national convention by divisions. The executive board is March 24-28, Kansas City, Missouri composed of the elected officers, the immediate past president, and American Library Association eight members elected by the 50 E. Huron Street, Chicago, IL council from among the members 60611 of that body. The association is 144 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986 served by a staff of 200 and 1986 national convention administered by an executive August 18-21, Chicago, Illinois director. American Vocational Association American School Counselor 2020 North 14th Street, Arlington, Association VA 22201 (Division of American Association (703) 522-6121 for Counseling and Development) Executive Director: Gene Bottoms 5999 Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria, Publications: VocEd; Update; VocEd VA 22304 Technical Insiders (703) 823-9800 1985'national convention Executive Vice President: Patrick J. December 6-10, Atlanta, Georgia McDonough 1986 national convention Publications: The School December 5-9, Dallas, Texas Counselor; Elementary School Guidance and Counseling; ASCA Association for Childhood Counselor Newsletter Education International 1985 national convention 11141 Georgia Avenue, Suite 200 April 2-5, New York, New York Wheaton, MD 20902 1986 national convention (301) 942-2443 April 20-23, Los Angeles, California Executive Director: James S. Packer Publications: Childhood Education; American Speech-Language- ACEI Exchange Hearing Association 1985 nationgconvention 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD June 19-22, San Antonio, Texas 20852 1986 tational convention (301) 897-5700 March 26-30, Greensboro, North Executive Director: Frederick T. Carolina Spahr Publications: ASHA: Journal of Association for Educational Speech and Hearing Disorders; Communications and Technology Journal of Hearing and Speech 1126 16th Street, NW, Washington, Research DC 20036 1985 national convention (202) 4664780 November 21-25, Washington, D.C. Executive Director. Lyn Gubser 1986 national convention Publications: Instructional November 21-24, Detroit, Michigan Innovator; ECTJ Journal of Instructional Development American Statistica! Association 1985 national convention 806 15th Street, NW, Washington, January 18-22, Anaheim, California DC 20005 1986 national convention (202) 393-3253 January 16-21, Las Vegas, Nevada Executive Director: Fred C. Leone Publications: Journal of American Association for Supervision and Statistics; American Statistician; Curriculum Development Amstad News 225 North Washington Street; 1985 national convention Alexandria, VA 22314 August 5-8, Las Vegas, Nevada (703) 549 -9110 145 ORGANIZATIONS

134Executive Director: Gordon Cawelti Association for the Advancement of Publications: Educational International Education Leadership; ASCD Update, and an Room 220, Norman Hall annual yearbook. University of Florida 1985 national convention Gainesville, FL 32611 March 22-26, Chicago, Illinois (904) 392-1542 1986 national convention Executive Director: Gordon E. March 1-4, San Francisco, Parsons California Publications: Inter-ed; AAIE Bulletin The Association for Supervision and 1985 national ccnvention Curriculum Development (ASCD) March 5-7, San Antonio, Texas focuses on general improvement of 1986 national conventionnot yet education through promotion of determined optimum school practices and programs. ASCD seeks to assure quality educational opportunities Association of American Colleges for all students, and to provide its 1818 R Street, NW members with effective information Washington, DC 20009 and training. (202) 387-3760 ASCD's origins go back to 1943. President: Mark H. Curtis With a membership of 35,000, Publications: Update; Liberal ASCD today calls itself the nation's Education; The Forum for Liberal largest education leadership Education organization. Its members include 1985 national convention school superintendents, principals, February 1043, Washington, D.C. directors, supervisors, professors, 1986 national convention and teachers. January 16-18, New Orleans, ASCD activities include an annual Louisiana conference attended by 4,000-6,000 participants, a wide range of Association of School curriculum study institutes, a Business Officials research information service, 1760 Reston Avenue, Suite 411 numerous individual projects, and a Reston, VA 22090 publications program that includes (703) 478-0405 videotapes and other media. Executive Director: Ronald A. Allen In addition to individual Publications: School Business members, ASCD maintains over Affairs; Accents 15,000 affiliations with unit 1985 national convention organizations throughout the September 29-October 3, Las Vegas, United States. Nevada The association's governance 1986 national conventionOctober includes a 200-member board of 19-23, San Francisco, California directors to set general policies; a 13-member elected executive council (including the association's Association of Teacher Educators president, past president, and 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA president-elect). 22091 146 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

(703) 620-3110 1986 national convention 135, Executive Director: Robert November 15-19, Orlando, Florida Stephensen Publications: Action in Teacher Established in 1927, the Council of Education; ATE Newsletter Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) 1985 national convention is composed of the leading public February 18-21, Las Vegas, Nevada official responsible for education in 1986 national convention each state. The council members February 21-26, Atlanta, Georgia are thus the 57 state superintendents and commissioners Council for Advancement and of education in the 50 states, the Support of Education District of Columbia, American 11 Dupont Circle NW, Suite 400 Samoa, Guam, the Northern Washington, DC 20036 Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, the (202) 328-5900 Trust Territory of the Pacific President: James L. Fisher Islands, and the Virgin Islands. Publication: CASE Currents Recognizing the responsibility of 1985 national convention the states for leadership in July 14-18, Washington, D.C. education, CCSSO exists to help its 1986 national convention members and their agencies carry July 14-17, San Antonio, Texas out this responsibility. In doing so the council: Council for Exceptional Children Provides various services plus 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA avenues for cooperative action 22091 among its members to strengthen (703) 620-3660 education through the work of Executive Director: Jeptha V. Greer state education agencies. Publications: Exceptional Children; Conducts special projects that Teaching Exceptional Children; address problems of concern at Update the state level and targets 1985 national convention research and resources developed April 15-19, Anaheim, California through the council to improve 1986 national convention educational opportunities for all March 31-April 4, New Orleans, students. Louisiana Coordinates seminars, educational travel, and special Council of Chief State School study programs toward providing Officers opportunities for the professional 400 North Capitol Street, NW, growth of chief state school Suite 379 officers and their top Washington, DC 20001 management teams. (202) 393-8161 In addition, CCSSO provides Executive Director: William F. extensive leadership in vocational Pierce education, data management, sex Publications: State linc, Handbook equity, the humanities, and other 1985 national convention areas, and has developed practical November 10-13, Wilmington, networks with key personnel in Delaware each department of education. 1 4 ORGANIZATIONS 136Projects such as the National Publications: New Dimensions Teacher-of-the-Year Program and 1985 national convention international visitations from April 24-28, San Francisco, various ministries of education are ^llifornia two additional projects that have 1986 national conventionApril enhanced CCSSO's national and 30-May 4, Atlanta, Georgia international reputation. Each year, during CCSSO's EdPRESS annual meeting, the membership Glassboro State College, Glassboro, elects the president, president-elect, NJ 08028 and board of directors. (609) 863-7349 Executive Director: Linda C. Council of Educational Facility Bateman Planners International Publications: Annual EdPRESS 29 West Woodruff Avenue, Membership Roster; EdPRESS News Columbus, OH 43210 1985 national conventionnot yet (614) 422-1521 determined Executive Director: Dwayne E. 1986 national conventionnot yet Gardner determined Publications: CEFP Journal; CEFP News & Views EdPRESS was organized in 1895 in 1985 national convention Denver by the editors of eight November 16-21, San Jose, educational journals who banded California together to deal with problems 1986 national conventionnot yet involving such matters as rising determined postal rates, copyright infringement, and plagiarism. Council of the Great City Schools During the ensuing nine decades 1413 K Street, NW, Suite 400 the association's purpose has Washington, DC 20005 evolved into the goals of advancing (202) 371-0163 the cause of education and Executive Director: Samuel B. Husk improving the quality of education Publications: Legislative Activity communications. Report; Urban Education Weekly; EdPRESS today has News and Notes approximately 500 members across 1985 national convention the United States and in Canada, November 7 11, Albuquerque, New most of whom are editors or staff Mexico members of education publications. 1986 national conventionnot yet The association is governed by a determined board of directors made up of the president, vice-president, secretary, Distributive Education Clubs of treasurer, and three members at America large. EdPRESS representatives 1908 Association Drive, Reston, VA serve 12 North America regions. 22091 (703) 860-5000 Education Commission of Executive Director: Frederick L. the States Williford 1860 Lincoln Street 148 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Denver, CO 80295 arena. 137 (303) 830-3622 4. Offer technical assistance to Executive Director: individual states and defined state Robert Andringa leadership groups. Publications: State Education 5. Facilitate nationwide Leader; State Education Review; cooperation in education by Footnotes; Issuegrams; and dozens providing information to the federal of reports on education concerns. government and national 1985 national convention organizations, representing states' July 24-27, Philadelphia, interests in the national arena, Pennsylvania stimulating intergovernmental 1986 national convention coordination and helping state July 23-27, San Diego, California. officials exercise leadership beyond their state roles. The Education Commission of the Each member jurisdiction has States (ECS), originally proposed by seven voting commissioners, James Conant, became a reality in generally including the governor, a 1965 after its sponsors gained member of both the state house and support from almost every major senate education committees, and education organization in the U.S. four individuals'appointed by the and from a number of state governor. These often include the governors who believed that a chief state school officer, a member compact among states was of the state board of education, and necessary in order to develop a a leader from the higher education nationwide educational policy. community. Today, 48 states (all but Montana The commission chair and and Nevada) plus the District of chair-elect are always governors Columbia, Puerto Rico, American from opposite political parties. Samoa, and the Virgin Islands have Traditionally, the vice chair has joined the commission. been a state legislator. The The commission works with treasurer is selected from among advisers from 25 national the state education leaders. They organizations (including NAESP) to are elected for a one-year term by fulfill the following functions: commission members during the 1. Undertake policy research, annual meeting. The executive surveys, and special studies in director serves as secretary to the response to the needs of state commission. policymakers. 2. Serve as a clearinghouse of Education Writers Association information about state policies and P.O. Box 281, Woodstown, NJ 08098 proposals, statistical information, (609) 769-1313 research findings, and other sources Executive Director: Charles of data. Harrison 3. Organize forums at the state, Publications: Education Reporter; regional, and national levels for Directory of Information Sources ECS constituents to exchange 1985 national convention views, explore new ideas, and build March 21-24, Boston, relationships in a nonadversarial Massachusetts 149 ORGANIZATIONS

1381986 national conventionnot yet software, and a computer-generated determined local school budget analysis prepared for individual districts on Educational Research Service, Inc. request. 1800 North Kent Street Arlington, VA 22209 Future Business Leaders of America (703) 243-2100 1908 Association Drive, Reston, VA President: Glen E. Robinson 22091 Publications: ERS Bulletin, (703) 860-3334 Spectrum, Management Operations President and Chief Executive Information Exchange, Special Officer: Edward D. Miller Days and Weeks for Plann,..y Publications: Thmorrow's Business School Calendar and ERS Reports Leader,. Hotline and Monographs. 1985 national convention No conventions held July 1-8, Houston, Texas 1986 national convention June 26-July 3, Washington, D.C. Educational Restzrch Service, Inc. (ERS) is an independent, nonprofit corporation sponsored by seven Future Farmers of America national associations of education 5632 Mount Vernon Memorial administrators to serve the nation's Highway, Alexandria, VA 22309 school systems. (703) 360-3600 Founded in 1973, ERS compiles National Executive Secretary: and analyzes data bearing on C. Coleman Harris effective education decision making, Publication: National Future and functions as an information Fanner clearinghouse both for day-to-day 1985 national convention operations and for long-range November 1446, Kansas City, planning. It is thus a resource for Missouri education leaders, school district 1986 national convention officials, school administrative November 13-15, Kansas City, teams, and officials of school Missouri boards. The annual fee for ERS is Future Homemakers of America graduated in order to open 1910 Association Drive, Reston, VA participation to large and small 22091 school districts alike. Districts (703) 476-4900 affiliated with ERS receive such Executive Director: Louisa Liddell services as the, following: on-call Publication: Teen Times information, special school 1985 national convention management studies and reports, July 8-11, Phoenix, Arizona summaries of ongoing school 1986 national convention research, educator status and July 14.17, Orlando, Florida opinion surveys, access to successful management approaches Institute for Educational Leadershir by other districts, information 1001 Connecticut Avenue, NW, about school use of computer Suite 310 150 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985 - 1986 Washington, DC 20036 Music Educators National 13 (202) 822-8405 Conference Executive Director: Michael Usdan 1902 Association Drive, Reston, VA Publication: Network News 22091 1985 national conventionnot yet (703) 860-4000 determined Executive Director: John J. 1986 national conventionnot yet Mahlmann determined Publication: Music Educators Journal International Reading Association 1985 national convention 800 Barksdale Road, Newark, DE April 9-12, Anaheim, California 19714 1986 national conventionno (302) 731-1600 convention planned Executive Director: Ronald Mitchell Publications: The Reading Teacher; National Art Education Association Journal of Reading; Reading 1916 Association Drive, Reston, VA Research Quarterly; Lectura y Vida 22091 1985 national convention (703) 860-3900 May 5-9, New Orleans, Louisiana Executive Director: Thomas A. 1986 national convention Hatfield April 13-17, Philadelphia, Publications: Art Education; NAEA Pennsylvania News 1985 national convention The International Reading April 18-23, Dallas, Texas Association (IRA) has a membership 1986 national convention of nearly 60,000 classroom April 3-9, New Orleans, Louisiana teachers, reading specialists, consultants, administrators, National Association for Bilingual supervisors, college teachers, Education researchers, psychologists, 1201 16th Street, NW, Suite 405 librarians, and parents in 85 Washington, DC 20036 countries. (202) 822-7870 Officially begun in 1956, IRA President: Sarah Melendez seeks to improve the quality of Publications: NABE Journal; NABE reading instruction through the News study of the reading process and 1985 national convention teaching techniques, to promote a March 12-16, San Frarlisco, lifetime habit of reading and an California awareness of the impact of reading, 1986 national convention and to enhance every reader's March 31-April 5, Chicago, Illinois proficiency. More than 1,150 councils and National Association for the national affiliates in 30 nations Education of Young Children form IRA's working foundation, 1834 Connecticut Avenue, NW holding regular meetings and Washington, DC 20009 conferences; come 40 volunteer (202) 232.8777 committees explore reading-related Executive Director: Marilyn M. subjects. Smith

.151 ORGANIZATIONS

140Publication: Young Children April 14-18, Las Vegas, Nevada 1985 national convention November 14-17, New Orleans, Louisiana Founded in 1921, the National 1986 national convention Association of Elementary School November 13-16, Washington, DC Principals (NAESP) seeks to improve the quality of education for National Association for Women millions of children in the Deans, Administrators and elementary and middle school Counselors grades. 1325 18th Street, NW, Suite 210 NAESP's 22,000 members Washington, DC 20036 represent the 50 states, the District (202) 659-9330 of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, as Executive Director: Patricia Rueckel well as most. Canadian provinces. Publications: Journal of the NAESP provides liaison with state NAWDAC; News Leaflet associations through a state 1985 national convention representative in each state, April 10-13, Milwaukee, Wisconsin province, or other geographic 1986 national conventionnot yet region. determined NAESP has consistently promoted two broad objectives: National Association of Biology To assure that elementary and Teachers middle school children receive 11250 Roger Bacon Drive the best possible education and in Reston, VA 22090 the process develop a true love of (703) 471-1134 learning; and Executive Director: Patricia J. To enhance the professional skills McWethy and leadership capabilities of all Publication: The American Biology elementary and middle school Teacher principals, and to bring about 1985 national convention greater public understanding of October 31-November 3, Orlando, the principal's role and Florida responsibilities. 1986 national conventionnot yet Chief among NAESP's determined professional development programs are its national convention, an National Association of Elementary annual leaders meeting and sessions School Principals of its National Fellows Program, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA conducted in cooperation with the 22091 Walt Disney Epcot Center in (703) 620-6100 Orlando, Florida and the National Executive Director: Samuel G. Sava Aeronautics and Space Publications: Principal; Administration's Johnson Space Communicator; Here's How; Center in Houston, Texas. Streamlined Seminar NAESP's governing body, the 1985 national convention delegate assembly, is elected by the March 30-April 3, Denver, Colorado membership and meets annually to 1986 national convention establish goals, objectives, and 152 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

policies. The 13 members of the January 25-29, New Orleans, 14 board of directors, each serving a Louisiana three-year term, include the 1986 national convention president, the president-elect, the February 14-18, Orlando, Florida past president, directors elected in nine zones across the nation, and Composed primarily of high school the executive director in an ex and middle-level administrators, the officio capacity. National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) is National Association of Independent described as the nation's largest Schools organization for school 18 Tremont Street, Boston, MA administrators. Its 34,000 members 02108 also include assistant (617) 723-6900 superintendents, higher education President: John C. Esty, Jr. personnel, secondary school Publications: Independent School; specialists, and others involved in NAIS Newsletter high school and middle-level 1985 national convention instruction. February 28-March 2, Washington, Since its inception in 1916, D.C. NASSP has focused on new 1986 national convention developments and practices in March 6-8, Atlanta, Georgia school administration and on improving theskills and National Association of Pupil performance of its members. Personnel Administrators NASSP institutes run for two and 225 North Washington Street, a half days and are conducted Alexandria, VA 22314 throughout the country, and the (703) 549-9110 annual convention offers more than Executive Director: Charles M. 300 scheduled program events. Wilson The NASSP research department Publication: NAPPA News conducts major studies of the high 1985 national convention school and middle-level March 22-26, Chicago, Illinois principalship, prepares reports, and 1986 national convention maintains a reference service. March 14, San Francisco, On the' egislative front, NASSP California works with the National Association of Elementary School Principals National Association of Secondary and other education groups to School Principals develop education legislation in 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA cooperation with the Congress. 22091 NASSP's student activities office (703) 860-0200 sponsors the National Association of Executive Director: Scctt B. Student Councils, which includes Thomson more than 7,000 student councils Publications: NewsLeader; NASSP and administers the National Honor Bulletin; Curriculum Report; Legal Society and the National Junior Memorandum; Tips for Principals Honor Society, along with the 1985 national convention Century III Leaders program, an .1 53 ORGANIZATIONS

142 annual scholarship-leadership for state boards, and executive development project. secretaries of state boards. NASSP's 18-member board of State boards of education have directors, elected by the been created in all but one state. membership at the annual meeting, Most boards have authority over is composed of two principals from vocational education and/or each of seven regions, two at-large vocational rehabilitation. In ten principalsan assistant principal states, the state board of education and a middle-level principaland is vested additionally with the president and president-elect. responsibility for postsecondary Board members serve four-year learning. Elsewhere, separate terms; the president and community college boards or president-elect serve one-year higher education commissions terms. The executive director serves govern those sectors. in an ex officio capacity. About half,of the state boards are elected; the remainder are National Association of State appointed by the governor or state Boards of Education legislature. Board size ranges from 701 North Fairfax Street, Suite 340 three to 24 members, and a typical Alexandria, VA 22314 term of office is from four to six (703) 684-4000 years. Some common areas of state Executive Director: Phyllis L. board jurisdiction include Blaunstein curriculum standards, high school Publications: Education Times; graduation standards, professional State Board Connection personnel qualifications, state 1985 national convention education statutes and judicial October 9-14, Seattle, Washington functions, education agency 1986 national convention personnel appointments, federal . October 9-14, Baltimore, Maryland assistance program administration, and school facilities standards. The National Association of State NASBE is governed by an elected Boards of Education (NASBE) board of directors and an appointed represents the state and territorial executive committee. boards of education in 46 states, five territories, and the Dstfict of Columbia. NASBE's principal National Business Education objectives include: Association Strengthening staff.: leadership in 1914 Association Drive, Reston, VA educational policymaking; 22091 Promoting excellence in the (703) 860-8300 education of all students; Executive Director: 0. J. Byrnside, Advocating equality of access to Jr. educational opportunity; and Publications: Business Education Assuring continued citizen Forum; Yearbook Issue support for public education. 1985 national convention The association serves 700 April 3-6, Las Vegas, Nevada individuals, including members of 1986; national convention state boards of education, attorneys March 26-29, Hollywood, Florida 154. EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986

National Catholic Educational (312) 787-0977 143 Association 1985 national convention 1077 30th Street, NW, Suite 100 June 10-17, Washington, D.C. Washington, DC 20007 1986 national convention (202) 293-5954 June 20-23, Little Rock, Arkansas Executive Director: Father John F. Meyers Now 5,414,000 members strong, Publication: Momentum the National Congress of Parents 1985 national convention and Teachers has focused on being April 8-11, St. Louis, Missouri an innovator and persuasive 1986 national convention champion of reforms to improve the March 31-April 3, Anaheim, health, education, and welfare of California the nation's youth. Founded in 1897 as the National Congress of Mothers, the nonprofit, National Committee for Citizens in nonpartisan coalition later Education broadened its membership to 410 Wilde Lake Village Green include teachers, fathers, and other Columbia, MD 21044 concerned citizens. In 1924, the (301) 997-9300 name was changed to National Senior Associates: Carl Marburger, Congress of Parents and J. William Rioux, Stanley Salett TeachersNational PTA for short. Publication: Network In 1970, it united with the National No conventions held Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers, founded in 1926. National Community Education From its inception, the National Association PTA has emphasized innovation. In 1201 16th Street, NW, Suite 305 its founding year, it called for Washington, DC 20036 compulsory education, including (202) 466-3530 kindergarten, for all children. That Executive Director: William S. year it also advocated child health De Jong and nutrition programs, later Publications: Community starting its own school lunch Education Journal; Community program for millions of children. In Education Today 1899, it proposed a national public 1985 national convention health service and a juvenile justice December 4-6, Portland, Oregon system. In 1903, it endorsed 1986 national convention not yet education for handicapped, gifted, determined and other children with special learning needs. Nearly 60 years National Congress of Parents and before the actual event in,1980, the Teachers PTA proposed a Cabinet-level U.S. 700 North Rush Street Department of Education. Chicago, IL 60611 Beginning in 1932, the National Executive Administrator: Robert PTA arranged physical examinations Woerner for millions of preschool children in Publications: PTA Today; What's its annual Summer Round-Up. In Happening in Washington the 1950s, itsupported trial tests of -0 5 ORGANIZATIONS

144the Salk polio vaccine and 1985 national convention subsequently vigorously supported November 22-26, Chicago, Illinois that program, virtually eliminating 1986 national convention the disease that crippled November 13-17, New York, New generations of children. In 1977, it York compiled data to show that excessive violence in TV National Council of Teachers of programming has a marked effect English on children. 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, IL The National PTA has been 61801 responsible for enactment of (217) 328-3870 hundreds of child welfare laws, its Executive Director: John C. Maxwell scholarship fund has enabled Publications: Language Arts; numerous students to enter the English Journal; College English teaching profession, and it has 1985 national convention supported hundreds of child-care November 22-27, Philadelphia, centers for children of working Pennsylvania mothers. 1986 national convention The organization continues to November 21-26, San Antonio, speak out on issues of concern to Texas children and to develop programs meeting the changing needs of National Council of Teachers of America's youth. .Mathematics Today the National PTA has 1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA affiliate congresses in 50 states and 22091 the District of Columbia. There are (703) 620-9840 25,000 local units. A single chapter Executive Director: James D. Cates in Europe serves dependent Publications: Mathematics Teacher; children in U.S. military schools. Arithmetic Teacher The governing body of the 1985 national convention association is composed of 15 April 17-20, San Antonio, Texas national officers, elected by the 1986 national convention delegate assembly during the April 2-5, Washington, D.C. annual convention. They include the president, first vice-president, National Education Association secretary, treasurer, three vice 1201 16th Street, NW, Washington, presidents, and eight regional vice DC 20036 presidents. All officers serve a (202) 833-4000 two-year term on a staggered basis. Executive Director: Donald Cameron National Council for the Social Publications: Today's Education; Studies NEA Today; NEA NOW 3501 Newark Street, NW 1985 national convention Washington, DC 20016 June 28-July 3, Washington, D.C. (202) 966-7840 1986 national convention Executive, Director: Frances Haley July 1-6, Louisville, Kentucky Publications: Social Education; The Social Studies Professional The National Education Association EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986 (NEA), founded in 1857, identifies secretary-treasurer, and six itself as the largest professional members elected by the organization in the nation. Its representative assembly. NEA's membership stands at about 1.7 president, Mary Hatwood Futrell, is million, with most members being the highest ranking black and the either elementary or secondary highest ranking woman in the teachers. NEA's membership also United States labor movement. includes some 58,000 higher education faculty and about 57000 National Middle School Association education support employees. P.O. Box 14882, Columbus, OH Among all employee organizations 43214 in America, NEA ranks second in (614)263 =5407 size only to the two million- Executive Director: Hal D. Gaddis member Teamsters union. Publication: Middle School Journal Frequently in cooperation with 1985 national convention other groups, NEA seeks to achieve October 31-November 2, Baltimore, fair-share funding of education Maryland from the federal government, 1986 national convention self-governance in licensing and October 23-25, Atlanta, Georgia certification of teachers, and the guarantee of human and civil rights for all educators and children. National School Boards Association Affiliated with the NEA are 50 1680 Duke Street state-level associations, the Alexandria, VA 22314 Overseas Education Association, (703) 838-6722 and associations in Puerto Rico and Executive Director: Thomas the District of Columbia. There are Shannon about 12,000 local affiliates of the Publications: American School NEA, of which some 8,900 negotiate Board Journal; Executive Educator; collective bargaining contracts; School Board News; Updating; NEA affiliates on approximately 350 Leadership Reports higher education campuses also are 1985 national conventionMarch recognized for collective 30-April 2, Anaheim, California bargaining. 1986 national convention Basic NEA policies are April 5-8, Las Vegas, Nevada determined by delegates to the association's annual representative The National School Boards assembly and by the approximately Association, headquartered in 125 members of NEA's board of Alexandria, Virginia, is a directors, who meet at least five not for-profit federation of the 49 times a year to determine general state associations of local school policies. boards and the.Hawaii State Board A nine-member NEA executive of Education,.plus the boards of committee acts on association education in the District of general policies and professional Columbia and-the U.S. Virgin interests between board meetings. Islands. As such, it represents the Its membership includes the NEA 95,000 local school board members president, vice-president, who set policy for the nation's 157 ORGANIZATIONS ANIIIIIIIMIN 14615,000-plus public school districts. 1984. NSBA's primary mission is to National School Public Relations promote the advancement of public Association education through the American 1801 North Moore Street, tradition of local citizen control and Arlington, VA 22209 accountability. To this end, NSBA (703) 528-5840 makes education and training Executive Director: John H. Wherry programs available to school board Publications: Education USA, It members; provides school district Starts in the Classroom; Scanner; management services; represents Paragraphs; NSPRA Impact the interests of school boards before 1985 national convention Congress and federal agencies and July 8-11, Vail, Colorado in court cases relating to public 1986 national convention education; serves as liaison with July 7-10, Boston, Massachusetts other education organizations and gc.ernment authorities; and offers The National School Public a variety of other services. Relations Association (NSPRA) Policies are determined by a seeks to create greater citizen 150 member delegate assembly, understanding of the objectives, composed of active school board accomplishments, and needs of the members, which meets once a year nation's schools. at the annual convention. Formed in 1935, its 1,500 Responsible for carrying out those membership includes not only policies is a 20-member board of school public relations counselors directors elected by the delegate but superintendents, principals, assembly. The board of directors school board members, and others consists of the five officers, each with professional concern for elected for a one-year term, and 15 school-community relations. directors, three from each of NSPRA's basic function is to train NSBA's five regions and elected to educators and education leaders to staggered three-year terms. NSBA's be more effective in,their executive director is, ex officio, a communications with parents, member of the board. students, government officials, civic Five major components within leaders, and the community at NSBA are the Council of Urban large. Boards of Education, the Council of Toward this end NSPRA conducts School Attorneys, the Conference of inservice training workshops and School Board Negotiators, the other meetings, including annual Large District Forum, and the public relations seminars. Its Forum of Federal Program publications program covers a wide Coordinators. range of subjects bearing on NSBA was founded in 1940 in effective school relationships. In Chicago and later moved first to 1981 NSPRA inaugUrated a suburban Evanston, Illinois, and twice-daily news service called then in 1976 to Washington, D.C. Ed-Line, a computer-based network NSBA moved into newly that provides up-to-the-minute constructed offices in Alexandria, education news and a method by Virginia, during the summer of which subscribers can exchange 1.58 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

information. News Notes and Quotes; Practical 147 In addition to the national Applications of Research (PAR) organization there are 42 1985 national convention semiautonomous chapters in states October 30-November 3, Toronto, across the U.S., plus members in Canada Canada and other nations. 1986 national conventionno National officers of NSPRA are convention planned the president and president-elect, each chosen for one-year terms; a Phi Delta Kappa is an international vice-president at large appointed by professional fraternity for men and the executive board to serve a women in education, organized in three-year term; and the executive 1906, with a current membership director. of about 125,000. Members include classroom teachers, school National School Volunteer Program administrators, college and 701 North Fairfax Street, Suite 320 university professors, and Alexandria, VA 22314 educational specialists of many (703) 836-4880 types. Executive Director: Daniel Merenda As stated in its constitution, "The Publication: The Volunteer in purpose of Phi Delta. Kappa shall be Education to promote quality education, with 1985 national conventionnot yet particular emphasis on publicly determined supported education, as essential to 1986 national conventionnot yet the development and maintenance determined of a democratic way of life." There are currently over 590 Phi National Science Teachers Delta Kappa chapters throughout Association the United States and Canada, 1742 Connecticut Avenue, NW including Puerto Rico, the Isthmus Washington, DC 20009 of Panama, and Guam, and (202) 328-5800 international chapters in the United Executive Director: Bill G. Aldridge Kingdom, West Germany, Korea, Publications: Science and Children; Belgium, Italy, Thailand, Okinawa, Science Teacher; Journal of College Australia, and the Philippines. Science Teaching Approximately half the chapters are 1985 national convention based on college or university April 18-21, Cincinnati, Ohio campuses with graduate 1986 national convention departments of education. The March 26-29, San Francisco, other half are community based. California Membership is by chapter invitation. Invitations may be Phi Delta Kappa extended to men and women who Eighth and Union Streets meet requirements set forth in the Box 789 constitution of Phi Delta Kappa. Bloomington, IN 47402 The local chapter may specify (812) 339-1156 additional requirements as long as Executive Secretary: Lowell C. Rose they are not contrary to the Publications: Phi Delta Kappan; constitution. 159 ORGANIZATIONS

148 Through its Center on officers, meets as a biennial council. Evaluation, Development and This council determines the Research (CEDR), Phi Delta Kappa policies, program, and budget of the supports a research program fraternity and elects the fraternity focused on dissemination of officers. research information and irric:oving The board of directors, composed understanding of the processes of of the president, president-elect, research and evaluation. immediate past president, three vice In its governance, Phi Delta presidents, and the seven district Kappa is divided into seven representatives, carries out the geographic districts. Each district is policies of the biennial council and under the leadership of a district !mplements the program adopted. representative elected by the The board delegates to the chapters served. professional staff the administration In the odd year of each biennium of the fraternity's fiscal affairs, its a legislative body composed of program, and the management of delegates from each chapter of the the international headquarters fraternity, plus the fraternity office. Recent Court Rulings 149 Affecting the Schools

Church and State short story, "The Lottery," in which a small town randomly chooses one McLean v. Arkansas Board of person a year to be stoned to death. Education U.S. District Court, Eastern Abramson v. Anderson Arkansas U.S. District Court, Southern Iowa January 5, 1982 January 20, 1982 The court determined that an When a high school principal Arkansas statute ordering public approved prayers at Christmas and schools to "give balanced treatment Easter student assemblies, a teacher to creation-science and sued for damages to compensate for evolution-science" violates the First emotional distress allegedly caused Amendment's establishment clause. by attendance at the assemblies. The court awarded $300, holding Pratt v. Independent School District that the principal had violated the No. 831, Forest Lake, Minnesota First Amendment's establishment Eighth U.S. Circuit Court of clause. Appeals January 13, 1982 Fink v. Board of Education of The court ruled as a First Warren County School District Amendment violation the school Pennsylvania Supreme Court board's removal from high school September, 1982 (on religious and moral grounds) of The court held that a fourth-grade a film version of Shirley Jackson's teacher was properly fired after he .161 COURT RULINGS

150refused to stop delivering February 10 1983 extemporaneous prayers and The court struck down a statute reading Bible stories in class. The authorizing public schools to right to freedom of religion does conduct a moment of silence daily. not encompass the right to conduct The court held that the statute had religious activities in the classroom. a religious purpose, violated the First Amendment prohibition of Beck v. Alexander entanglement between church and U.S. District Court for the District state, and unconstitutionally of Tennessee advanced religion in the public October 7, 1982 schools. The court struck down a new state law that required public schools to Jaffree v. Board of School set aside a minute of silence for Commissioners of Mobile County "meditation or prayer or personal U.S. Supreme Court beliefs." In making its Stay granted, February 11, 1983 determination, the judge consulted records of the legislative discussions Supreme Court Justice Lewis F. and concluded that the intent of the Powell has ordered a ban on prayer law was to establish daily prayer in in Alabama public schools by schools. staying a decision of a district court judge who held that the First Pznsker v. Joint Dist. No. 28J of Amendment's prohibition against Adams and Arapahoe Counties government establishment of U.S. District Court for the District religion does not apply to state of Colorado government. The ban will continue, January 12, 1983 pending the outcome of a circuit court of appeals review of an The court held that a school's agnostic parent's challenge of state failure to allow a teacher paid leave laws allowing a moment of silence days to observe Jewish holidays does for meditation or prayer and not constitute an impermissible permitting teachers to lead prayers interference with the right to free in public schools. exercise of religion. The fact that school vacations are built around County Hills Christian Church v. Christian holidays was not Unified School District No. 512, considered relevant by the court. Johnson County The court ruled that the plaintiff is U.S. District Court for the District free to take unpaid leave days to of Kansas observe his religion, and detriment March 29, 1983 to him is outweighed by the importance of continuity of The court held that a public school teachers in educating students. that had allowed other community groups to use school facilities Duffy on behalf of Duffy v. Las during nonschool hours could not Cruces Public Schools deny these facilities to a church U.S. District Court for the District group because of the religious of New Mexico content of the church's activities. '162 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

The school had become a "public "Shared-time Program" did not 151 forum," the use of which could not serve equally students in all public be denied on the basis of religion. and private schools.

Mueller v. Allen Aguiland v. Treen U.S. Supreme Court Louisiana Supreme Court June 29, 1983 October 17, 1983 The Louisiana legislation that The court upheld a Minnesota law requires public schools to provide that offers tax deductions for private equal treatment in teaching school costs. Since the law also allows parents of public school "creation science" and evolution pupils a tax deduction for tuition, was validated by the state supreme textbooks, and transportation costs, court. the court held that the law May v. Cooperman neutrally provides state assistance U.S. District Court for the District and is not invalid because its effect of New Jersey benefits religious schools (95 October 24, 1983 percent of Minnesota's private school children attend parochial The court struck down a state law schools). that authorized public schools to set aside a moment of silence for "quiet and private contemplation or Fannin v. Williams introspection." In making this Kentucky Supreme Court July 6, 1983 decision, the judge consulted the legislative history of the statute and The court ruled that a Kentucky law determined that the intent of the that allows the state to lend law was to reinstate daily prayer in textbooks, purchased with funds schools. approved by the general assembly, to sectarian schools violates the Bender v. Williamsport Area School state constitution's prohibition District against the use of tax funds for Third U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals nonpublic schools. July 24, 1984 The court upheld a school district's Americans United for Separation of decision to prohibit students from Church and State v. Grand Rapids participating in a prayer period School District during school time on the grounds Sixth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals that such an activity would be a September 23, 1983 violation of the First Amendment's (religious) establishment clause. The use of public funds and publicly paid teachers to conduct courses for nonpublic school children in space Desegregation leased from private schools was Morgan v. O'Bryant found to be in violation of the First First U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals Amendment's religious Cert. den.* United States Supreme establishment clause. The court Court held that the school district's October163 4, 1982 COURT RULINGS

152The court held that black teachers contention that once a state and administrators are entitled to chooses to do 'more' than the job-retention preference in school Fourteenth Amendment requires, it layoffs as provided by federal court may never recede... The State orders. By declining to review this Constitution still places upon decision, the Supreme Court school boards a greater duty to allowed the appeals court ruling to desegregate than does the stand. Fourteenth Amendment."

Washington v. Seattle School District No. 1 Liddell v. Board of Education U.S. Supreme Court U.S. District Court for the Eastern June 30, 1982 District of Missouri The Court struck down a February, 1983 Washington voter initiative to In an unusual turn of events, a prevent students from being bused major metropolitan desegregation to schools other than those closest case was settled with the court's to home, except to deal with approval. In suburban St. Louis, 22 non-racially related situations. The school districts agreed to initiative had been a voter response desegregate voluntarily in return to a mandatory busing program. for the promise by the city's schools The Court ruled that the initiative and the NAACP to halt court action. violated the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause by making race an issue in government decision making. Arthur v. Nyquist Second U.S. Circuit Court of Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Appeals Education July 22, 1983 U.S. Supreme Court In 1979, the Buffalo (N.Y.) school June 30, 1982 system was ordered to desegregate The Court held constitutional an its teaching staff to more clearly amendment to the California reflect the racial composition of the constitution denying school community. This was to be achieved districts the right to order by hiring one new minority teacher mandatory pupil assignment or for each majority teacher hired and busing to achieve racial balance, reducing the staff, when necessary, unless so ordered by a federal court. by the same ratio. The court ruled Justice Powell said, "This Court's that since this method had as its decision will not support the intent the achievement of a more racially balanced staff, it was legal *Cert. de , isan abbreviation for certiorari even when it violated seniority denied, which means that the Supreme rights, as in the case of staff Courtperhaps because of the large number reduction. However, it further ruled of cases before the Court or perhaps because it is not ready to hear a case on the that rehiring teachers caught in a particular tssue involveddeclines to review staff reduction should be according a decision of a lower court. to length of service. 164 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Discrimination schools to fire teachers who 153 North Haven Board of Education v. practiced homosexual activities in Bell public. However, the court ruled U.S. Supreme Court that dismissal of teachers for public May 17, 1982 expression of support for the rights of homosexuals, as forbidden in the Title IX, Education Amendments of law, would constitute a violation of 1972, prohibits discrimination on their freedom of speech. the basis of sex in schools and colleges receiving federal aid. The Court ruled that Title IX provides antidiscrimination protection to Education for the Handicapped wffnen as employees as well as Hudson Central School District students. Board of Education v. Rowley U.S. Supreme Court Bob Jones University v. United June 18, 1982 States U.S. Supreme Court The Court ruled that the Education May 24, 1983 for All Handicapped Children Act does not require states to maximize Nonprofit privatt. schools that the learning potential of obse-ve racially disc; iminatory handicapped children to the degree admiss'ons standards based on afforded nonhandicapped children, religious beliefs are not exempt so long as an individual learning from taxation. Also, contributions program and support services are to blue schools are not deductible offered. A request was denied for a to the &nor a:, charitable school- provided sign language contributions, interpreter in the case of a deaf student who was performing better Civil Rights Division v than the average children in her Amphitheater School District class. Arizona Court of Arpeals December 9, 1983 KaelinP. Grubbs The court, ruled that a school Sixth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals district that advertit.ed combined July 9, 1982 academic and athletic positions. for Alltd only men could qualify, Thl Court held that before a discriminated against women arid handicapped student can be violated the Arizona Civil !lights expelled, a hearing before a Act specialized panel must be conducted to determine whether or National Got! "ask ForceBoard not the student's infraction was of Education. related to the handicap. The court Tenth Circuit Cow t of Appeals considered expulsion to be March14, 1984 tantamount to a change in the studcnt's education placement; The court upheld an Oklahoma federal law requires review of all statute that allowed public such'changes. 1'6 COURT RULINGS

154Parks v. Parkovic Washington County v. Grace U.S. District Court for the Northern Eighth U.S. Circuit Court of District of Illinois Appeals February 28, 1983 Cert. den. * U.S. Supreme Court May 16, 1983 The court struck down a state law that asseszzd parents of The Supreme Courtby declining handicapped children for a portion to review this decisionallowed to of the cost of the services provided stand an appeals court ruling that, by the school system. The interprets the Education for All Education for All Handicapped Handicapped Children Act to mean Children Act establishes the school that the child must receive an system's duty to provide a free "appropriate" as distinct from the appropriate public education. "best possible" education.

Yaris v. Special School District Marvin H. v. Austin Independent U.S. District Court for the Eastern School District District of Missouri Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals March 2, 1983 August 22, 1983 The court invalidated a Missouri law Parents are not entitled to that limited state funds for special reimbursement of money spent on education to a 180-day year. The private school education of effect of the law was to put the handicapped children in cases financial burden for summer special where public school districts make education programs on local school every effort to provide "free districts, with the result that such appropriate education" and follow programs were not being provided. prescribed procedures in evaluating The court held that this policy the child's educational needs as denied each child the right to an mandated by the Education for All individually structured education Handicapped Children Act. The (including summer session, if parents had made anilateral necessary), which is mandated by decision to place an emotionally the Education for All Handicapped disturbed child in a private school Children Act and the 1973 and subsequently sued for private Rehabilitation Act. school expenses and damages. Quackenbush v. Johnson City Tatro v. State of Texas School District Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals Second U.S. Circuit Court 'of April 25, 1983 Appeals The public school was ordered to August 24, 1983 provide clean intermittent The court held that the parents of a catheterization as a related service handicapped child were entitled to to a student with spina bifida under damages and redress of action when the Education for All Handicapped school officials failed to provide a Children Act. suitable educational program. In

Springdale School District No. 50 of "See footnote under Desegregation. 166 : E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

this case, fraudulent behavior by ruled that a "preliminary injunction 155 school personnel denied the parents proceeding" would be the fairest access to the administrative appeal way to secure a balanced procedure. presentation for each side and deter vacillation by either party. In Georgia Association of Retarded making this decision, the court Citizens v. MacDaniel struck down a previous ruling that Eleventh U.S. Circuit Court of placed the burden of pa iment on Appeals the party formerly responsible for October 17, 1983 payment. The court struck down Georgia's Larry P. v. Riles resolute adherence to a 180-day Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals school year for mentally retarded January 23, 1984 children. It maintained that this practice denied these children the In this case involving black right to individually structured elementary students, the court education and service (year-round, ruled that California's use of if necessary) as mandated by the "standard intelligence tests" to Education for All Handicapped place children in special classes for Children Act. the mentally handicapped was discriminatory. It found that the Hawaii Department of Education tests did not allow for racial and v. Katherine cultural differences and resulted in Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals an unequal proportion of black November 7, 1983 compared with white children being placed in these classes. The The court struck down Hawaii's Education for All Handicapped challenge of a district court's Children Act and the Rehabilitation decision that ordered the state to Act contain provisions that stress pay private school expenses the use of a variety of tests for the incurred by parents of a determination of placement. The handicapped child denied access to court reaffirmed a previous district regular classes in spite of a proven court decision that held that the ability to operate in such an atmosphere. state was in violation of these two acts as well as Title VI of the Civil Rights Act. Doe v. Brookline School Committee Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals Scokin v. Texas December 6, 1983 Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals Parents, in disagreement with January 27, 1984 school officials about the Under the Education for All educational placement of their Handicapped Children Act, parents handicapped child, enrolled the may seek judicial redress when in child in a private school. They disagreement with school officials sought financial assistance with concerning the educational private school expenses until the program offered their handicapped resolution of the case. The court child. The act, however, does not 167 COURT RULINGS 156specify a definite time period during Tyler Independent School District, which such action can be initiated. v. Doe The court examined practices in U.S. Supreme Court other states where similar cases June 22, 1982 were reviewed and decided that the A Texas statute authorized local two-year period used by Texas in school districts to deny enrollment tort claims was the most equitable to children not legally admitted to time limitation for both parents and the United States and to withhold school officials. state funds for their education. The Court held that the statute violated Smith v. Robinson the rights of these children under U.S. Supreme Court the Fourteenth Amendment's equal July 5, 1984 protection clause. The parents of a handicapped child, asserting that their child's Public/Private Distinction education was terminated without Rendall-Baker' v. Kohn proper notification, filed action U.S. Supreme Court against the school and state on June 25, 1982 grounds that their child had been discriminately denied a suitable The Court held that a private school education. They sought damages in that is run primarily with public the form of attorney's fees for the funds (i.e., one that contracts to ensuing administrative and judicial accept students placed by public process. The Supreme Court struck school districts or public agencies) down this request on the basis that is not acting "under color of state this suit was initiated to obtain an law" for the purposes of a civil appropriate educational placement rights lawsuit brought by teachers for a handicapped child. The who claimed they had been recovery of attorney's fees are not terminated for exercising their provided for in the Education for All constitutional rights to free speech. Handicapped Children Act. Williams v. Milonas Irving Independent School District Tenth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals v. Henri Tatro September 13, 1982 U.S. Supreme Court Cert. den. *U.S. Supreme Court July 5, 1984 April 4, 1983 The Supreme Court upheld a court The Supreme Courtby declining of appeals decision tha:. ordered the to review this decisionlet stand public school to provide an appeals court decision that held intermittent catheterization as a that a private school can be sued for related service to a student with civil rights violations by its students spina bifada under the Education if the school contracts to accept for All Handicapped Children Act. students placed by public school districts, courts, or other state agencies. By so doing, the private Illegal Aliens

James Ply ler, Superintendent of 'See footnote under Desegregation. 1.68 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 19 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

school links itself to government, "misspent or misused" prior to 15'i and its actions are subject to suit 1978 under Title I of the under the Civil Rights Act because Elementary and Secondary these actions are taken "under color Education Act. of state law." The appeals court held that mail censorship, polygraph Sex Education examinations, and certain disciplinary practices violated the Smith v. Ricci students' constitutional rights. The New Jersey Supreme Court Court distinguished this case from U.S. Supreme Court theRendall-Baker casebecause the Appeal dismissed, 1983 plaintiffs inWilliams v. Milonas A New Jersey regulation requiring were not employees but students, schools to teach "family life some of whom were involuntarily education" with emphasis on placed in the school by state human sexuality does not violate officials who were aware of these the First Amendment, the Court disciplinary practices. ruled. The regulation allows Griggs v. Commonwealth students to be excused if the.course Virginia Supreme Court conflicts with fundamental beliefs. December 3, 1982 Student Rights The court held that parents may not circumvent a state law regulating Rutz v. Essex Junction Prudential home education by declaring the Committee home school a "private school" Vermont Supreme Court attended by their children only. The January 27,1983 parents in this case did not meet A student's due process rights were the qualifications to be home tutors not violated by school officials' and had tried to educate their own failure to provide him with the children in their "private school," written reasons for his expulsion. since private school teachers do not Written notice was not necessary in have to meet Virginia state this case because the student was certification requirements. well aware of the charges. Repayment ofFederal Funds Karnstein v. Pewaukee School New Jersey v. Hufstedler Board Third U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals U.S. District Court for the Eastern December 27, 1983 District of Wisconsin The court ruled that the repayment February 28, 1983 provision added to the 1978 A high school student who had not Education Amendments could be been selected for membership in retroactively applied to recover the National Honor Society sued Title I funds awarded to ineligible the school system. The court held school districts in prior years. This that the "need" for an honor ismot ruling may result in New Jersey a right or entitlement protet,,,d by returning to the U.S. Department of the due process clause. (The due Education funds that were process clause guarantees that COURT RULINGS

158individuals will receive notice and that the law was unconstitutional, have an opportunity to be heard but the Court's stay of that ruling before they can be deprived of a guarantees that the law will remain constitutional right.) in effect until the full Court has rendered a decision in the case. Connolly v. Bromery Massachusetts Appeals Court New Jersey v. T.L.O. April 14, 1983 New Jersey Supreme Court August 8, 1983 Students at a state university are not entitled to see student The court ruled that school officials performance evaluations of faculty may search students without a members. The court considered warrant only if there is some reason these evaluations to be personnel to believe the students carry proof records, which are not subject to of participation in illegal activity disclosure as "public records." that could prevent the school administration from maintaining a Horton v. Goose Creek Independent learning atmosphere free from School District disorderly behavior. In this case, a Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals search based on undocumented Cert. den. *U.S. Supreme Court reports was deemed a violation of June 27, 1983 students' Fourth Amendment right The court found that a school to privacy. district has a right to use trained Student Vandalism dogs to sniff student lockers and cars for drugs and alcohol, holding Piscataway Township Board of that such a procedure does not Education v. CatTiero violate the Fourteenth New Jersey Supreme Court Amendment's search and seizure U.S. Supreme Court protections. If there is reasonable Appeal dismissed, 1982 suspicion, dogs may be used to The Court upheld a New Jersey search individual students. The statute making parents liable for Supreme Courtby declining to damage to public school property review this decisionallowed the that was willfully and maliciously appeals court ruling to stand. inflicted by children enrolled in the public school system. Selective Service System et al., Applicants v. John Doe et al. Tort Liability (State law only) U.S. Supreme Court Stay granted, June 29, 1983 Gurule v. Salt Lake City Board of Education The court agreed to reinstate Utah Supreme Court temporarily a federal law that March 23, 1983 denies federal education grants and loans to students who fail to The school board was held to the register for the draft. A United same standard of care as a private States district court judge had ruled property owner in a negligence suit for failure to clear an icy school 'See footnote under Desegregation. sidewalk. .170 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Berman v. Philadelphia Board of members personally disagreed. The 15 Education case was remanded to the district Pennsylvania Superior Court court for a factual determination of February 4, 1983 the board's motive. The school board was held liable for a student's injuries sustained in an Martinez v. Bynum after-school hockey game in the U.S. Supreme Court elementary school gym because the May 2,1983 school had not provided the protective equipment necessary to The Court held that a school system prevent the injury. could properly deny tuition-free status to a student who was living Carson v. Orleans Parish School apart from his parent or guardian in Board order to live in a particular school Louisiana Court of Appeals district. May 16, 1983 A school is liable for a student's Shaffer v. Board of School Directors injury that occurred in the school Third U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals restroom because there was no U.S. Supreme Court supervision in that area. Stay denied, November 24, 1982 Supreme Court Justice William J. Nodar v. Galbreath Brennan refused to issue a stay of a Florida Appeals Court court of appeals ruling that allows a March 9, 1983 school district to eliminate bus The parents of a student were held services for kindergarten children liable for damages to a teacher for in order to save money. The slanderous statements they made plaintiffs had argued that the about him to the school board. cutback discriminated against poor While the parents had a privilege to children who were unable to attend comment on the teacher's kindergarten because they had no competency, they were not alternative means of transportation. protected in their statements, The appeals court based its ruling which were malicious and untrue. on the fact that the offering of kindergarten programs in Pennsylvania is at the discretion of Miscellaneous individual school boards, and is not Board of Education, Island Trees mandatory. Union Free School District v. Pico U.S. Supreme Court Roemhild v. State June 25, 1982 Georgia Supreme Court The Court held that the school October 25, 1983 board's removal of certain books The high court nullified Georgia's fr-,.11 the school library shelves was compulsory school attendance law unconstitutional if the intent of the that required all children between removal was to deprive students of the ages of seven and sixteen to be access to ideas with which board enrolled in public or private .171 COURT RULINGS 160schools. The decision was based on April 20, 1984 the failure of the statute to adequately define private schools or The court ruled that schools may the requirements necessary to so not charge fees for student qualify. The Wisconsin Supreme participation in extracurricular Court reached the same decision activities. This practice constitutes concerning that state's compulsory a violation of free education attendance law which was similar to guaranteed in the California Georgia's. Constitution as well as the California Administrative Code, Hartzell v. Connell which contains a prohibition California Supreme Court against school fees.

11,

10 ".

im,o.shfil. 41.41h1t4L11tioilltiu.11,... 111.611(11114114 I.IN4 MII ; ml..0111)

Boston's English High School (circa 1821) from sketches by former pupils. 172 Selected Education 16 Periodicals ri

For additional periodicals related to American Educational Research education, see publications listed Association under the names of their 1230 17th Street, NW sponsoring organizations, in the Washington, DC 20036 section entitled "Major National (202) 223-9485 Education Organizations," page Original reports on theoretical 128. studies in education. Editors, Gene V Glass, Mary Lee United States Smith, Lorrie Shepard Quarterly. Subscription included American Education with membership. Nonmember U.S. Department of Education subscription $17. 400 Maryland Avenue, SW, Room 2089 Washington, DC 20202 American Educator (202) 245-8907 American Federation of Teachers Articles on education issues and the 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW Administration's position on them, Washington, DC 20001 successful school and college (202) 879-4420 projects, and research reports. Devotes each issue to a particular Editor, Beverley Blondell theme in education. Ten issues a year. $20. Editor, Liz Mc Pike Quarterly. Subscription included American Educational Research with AFT membership. Nonmember Journal subscription $2.50. 173 EDUCATION PERIODICALS 162American School and University Arithmetic Teacher North American Publishing National Council of Teachers of Company Mathematics 401 N. Broad Street 1906 Association Drive Philadelphia, PA 19108 Reston, VA 22091 (215) 238-5300 (703) 620-9840 Information on purchasing and Methods for teaching mathematics. business management of public and in elementary schools; regular private schools, colleges, and features include use of computers universities. in math instruction and software Editor, Dorothy Wright review. Monthly. Yearly subscription $25. Editor, Harry B. Tunis Nine issues a year. Subscription American School Board Journal included with NCTM membership. National School Boards Association Single copy $4. 1680 Duke Street Alexandria, VA 22314 Arts & Activities (703) 838-6722 Publishers Development Corp. 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180 Quotable 16 Commentson Education

Henry Adams, 1838-1918: Henry Barnard, 1811-1900: A teacher affects eternity; he can The Common (public) school never tell where his influence stops. should no longer be rt.garded as common because it is cheap, James Truslow Adams, 1878-1949: inferior, and attended only by the There are obviously two educations. poor ...but common as the light One should teach us how to make a and air are common, because its living, and the other how to live. blessings are open to all and enjoyed by all. Amos Bronson Alcott, 1799-1888: The !,,te teacher defends his pupils Jacques Hamm, 1907- against his own personal influence. Teaching is not a lost art, but the He guides their eyes from himself regard for it is a lost tradition. to the spirit that quickens him. Alexander Graham Bell, 1847-1922: Francis Bacon, 1561-1626: [Handicapped] children should Reading maketh a full man, form an annex to the public school conference a ready man, and system, receiving special writing an exact man. instruction from special teachers who shall be able to give Hosea Ballou, 1771-1852: instruction to little children who Educafien commences at the are deaf, blind, or mentally mother's knee, and every word deficient without sending them spoken within the hearing, of little may from their home:, or from the children tends towards the otlinary companions with whom formation of character. they are associated. lb 1 QUOTABLECOMMENTS 170Daniel Boorstin, 1914- His spirit grew robust; [Education is] learning what you He knew no more that he was poor, didn't even know you didn't know. Nor that his frame was dust. He danced along the dingy days, Kenneth Clark, 1914-1983: And this bequest of wings Children who are treated as if they Was but a book. What liberty are uneducable almost invariably A loosened spirit brings. become uneducable. Albert Einstein, 1879-1955: Council of Chiefs of the six nations Imagination is more important of the Iroquois Confederacy, 1744: than knowledge. Knowledge is (Speaking to the governor of limited, whereas imagination Virginia after six Iroquois youths embraces the entire world wer; invited to attend William and stimulating progress, giving birth Mary College.) to evolution. Several of our young people were formerly brought up at the col.',:ges Ralph Waldo Emerson, 18,/3-1882: of the northern provinces; they 1. Respect the child. Be not too were instructed in all your sciences; much his parent. Trespass not on but when they came back to us his solitude. 2. The Roman rule was they were bad runners, ignorant of to teach a boy nothing that he every means of living in the woods, could not learn standing. 3. The unable to bear either cold or man who can make hard things hunger, knew neither how to build easy is the true educator. a cabin, take a deer, or kill an enemy ...they were totally good Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790: for not ..If the gentlemen of To America one school master is Virginia will send us a dozen of worth a dozen poets. their sons we will take great care of their education, instruct them in Robert Frost, 1874-1963: all we know, and make men of Education is hanging around until them. you've caught on.

Henry Steele Commager, 1902 James Garfield, 1831-1881: No other people ever demanded so Next in importance to freedom and much of education (as Americans) justice is popular education, . .None other was ever served so without which neither freedom nor well by its schools and educators. justice can be permanently maintained. John Dewey, 1859-1952: What the best and wisest parent Patricia A. Graham, 1935- wants for his own child, that must The central quandary facing the community want for all of its American teachers today is, the lack children. of clarity regarding the purpose of the schools in which they work, the Emily Dickinson, 1830-1886: nature of the larger educational He ate and drank the precious system of which those schools are words, but a part, and the relationship 182 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

between the two. If education is Abraham Lincoln, 1809-1865: 17 more than mere schooling and it That every man may receive at is then we should have been least a moderate education, and asking ourselves which educational thereby be enabled to read the activities truly belong outside the histories of his own and other classroom door. countries, by which he may duly appreciate the value of our free Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., institutions, appears to be an object 1809-1894: of vital importance, even on this Knowledge and timer shouldn7 be count alone, to say nothing of the much used till they are seusoned. advantages and satisfaction to be ...A child's education should derived from all being able to read begin at least one hundred years the scriptures and other works, before he is born. both of a religious and moral nature, for themselves. Herbert Hoover, 1874-1964: We need to add to the three Rs, James Russell Lowell, 1819-1891: namely, reading, 'riling and Have you ever rightly considered 'rithmetic, a fourthresponsibility. what the mere ability to read means? That it is the key which Thomas Jefferson, 17434826: admits us to the whole world of If a nation expects to be ignorant thought and fancy and and free in a state of civilization, it imagination? to me company of expects what never was and never saint and saga, of the wisest and will be. wittiest moment? That it enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear Lyndon B. Johnson, 1908-1973: with the finest ears, and listen to At the desk where I sit, I iave the sweetest voices of all time? learned one great truth. The answer for all our natic nal James Madison, 1751-1836: problemsthe answer for all the A people who mean to be their own problems of the worldcomes governors must arm themselves down to a single word. That word is with the power which knowledge "education." gives.

Donald Kennedy, 1931 - Gene I. Maeroff, 1939- The best single social test of a Education in the 1980s will have nation's regard for the future is the the awesome responsibility of way it treats its children. upholding standards in a society in which the schools may be among a John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963. shrinking number of institutions A child miseducated is a child lost. concerned with quality. Young people cannot be faulted if they Rockwell Kent, 18824971: question values at a time when the The real art of living consists of best-selling novels tend to be the keeping alive the conscience and worse written, the highest paid sense of values we had when we Americans are entertainers and were young. athletes, and the most popular 183 QUOTABLE COMMENTS 172leisure-time activity of adults is generation should acquire a watching situation comedies on knowledge of literature and the television. Don't blame the kids if arts, and learn to tread in those they wonder why education is paths which have conducted your worth the bother. people, by regular generations, to their present summit of wealth and Horace Mann, 1796-1859: greatness. 1. The Common (public) school is the greatest discovery ever made by Ronald Reagan, 1911 - man. 2. Education is our only If we fail to instruct our children in political safety. 3. A teacher who is justice, religion, and liberty, we will attempting to teach without be condemning them to a world inspiring the pupil with a desire to without virtue.... learn is hammering on a cold iron. 4. School houses are the republican line of fortifications. Hyman Rickover, 1900 - "i Education is our first line of H.L. Mencken, 1880-1956: defensemake it strong. The best teacher, until one comes 2 to adult pupils, is not the one who Will Rogers, 1879-1935: knows most, but the one who is The thing I'm sorriest about in my most capable of reducing life is that I didn't stick around to knowledge to that simple take on the fifth grade. compound of the obvious and the V wonderful which slips into the Theodore Roosevelt, 1858-1919: infantile comprehension. A man of To educate a man in mind and not high intelligence, perhaps, may in morals is to educate a menace to accomplish the thing by a society. conscious intellectual feat. But it is vastly easier to the man (or Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970: woman) whose habits of mind are No man can be a good teacher naturally on the plane of the unless he has feelings of warm child's. The best teacher of affection toward his pupils and a children, in brief, is one who is genuine desire to impart to them essentially childlike. what he himself believes to be of 'if value. John Henry Newman, 1801-1890: Education gives a man a clear, conscious view of his own opinions George Santayana, 1863-1952: and judgments, a truth in 1. A child educated only at school is developing them, an eloquence. in an uneducated e 04. 2. The great expressing them, and a force in difficulty in education is to get urging them. experience out of ideas. V Pushmataha (Choctaw chief), Henry David Thoreau, 1817-1862: ?-1824: What does education often do? It We wish our children educated. We makes a straight-cut ditch out of a are anxious that our rising free meandering brook. 184 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Lionel Trilling, 1905-1975: a knowledge of the sciences but 173 I have been read by Eliot's poems may implant in the minds of and by Ulysses and by American youth the principles of Remembrance of Things Past and virtue and liberty; and inspire them by The Castle for a good many with just and liberal ideas of yea, s now, since early youth. Some government, and with an inviolable of these books at first rejected me; I attachment to their own country. bored them. But as I grew older 2 and they knew me better, they H.G. Wells, 1866-1946: came to have more sympathy with Human history becomes more and me and to understand my hidden more a race between education and meanings. catastrophe. 2 Mark Twain, 1835-1910: Alfred North Whitehead, The man who does not read good 1861-1947: books has no advantage over the 1. From the very beginning of his man who can't read them. education, the child should '4' experience the joy of discovery. 2. Annie Dodge Wauneka, 1910 - All practical teachers.know that We arc a half-century behind he education is a patient process of rest of the country. We want to mastery of details, minute by keep our children near us, not send minute, hour by hour, day by day. them miles away to a school where 'W we cannot supervise them, but until George F. Will, 1941 - we can, we must accept the As Plato understood, there is really education that we have, for it is the only one serious political topic. It is answer to our problems. more serious than war, or even the 2 New Federalism. It is the Daniel Webster, 1782-1852: upbringing of children. Knowledge, in truth, is the great 2 sun in the firmament. Life and Woodrow Wilson, 1856-1924: power are scattered with all its We must believe the things we beams. teach our children. 2 'i' Noah Webster, 1758-1843: Brigham Young, 1801-1877: ...it is an object of vast Education is the power to think magnitude that systems of clearly, the power to act well in the education should be adopted and world's work, and the power to pursued which may not only diffuse appreciate life.

185 i.Some Emerging Educational Trends ri

ith the ebb and flow in the public schools early and of education's thereby avert having their parents changing :ides, here get accustomed to private sector are a few of the services and thus remain with the trends that would private sector when the children seem worth monitoring during reach school age. 1985 and 1986: Another "player" in the day-care scene is the employer. Many are Responsibility for Day Care now offering day care as an option With more than 40 percent of the in flexible benefits plans, on mothers of children under three grounds that worker productivity now in the workforce, the issue of improves if parents r :ceive help where to place day care services with child care, either on company may stoi. its intermittent bobbing premises or through supplemental to the surface and remain on top for payments. good. Renewed interest may have been stimulated by widespread The Dropout Rate accounts of child abuse in private With the youth unemployment rate day-care facilities. The looming above 18 percent and the policy decision will be to determine unemployment rate for blacks and which agencies or providers should Hispanics dramatically higher than be day care's primary deliverer. For for whites, the schools will be under a long time the American prosure to improve their retention Federation of Teachers has been rate of high school students. The pushing for day care to be a dropout rate of students who function of the public schools. reached high school las remained Originally the idea was to provide fairly constant since 1980 at about employment for t. achers being 13.6 percent. However, student displaced by declining enrollments. advocacy groupsespecially those Lately, however, the apparent goal in the vocational education field has been to enroll young children say increased aademic standards 186, E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

adopted by two-thirds of the states National Center for Education 175 in the past two years will inevitably Statistics also is developing a set of drive the dropout rate up. nationwide indicators (see page 250). Nearly two-thirds of those who The CCSSO says its goal will be drop out of school have C and D to achieve a balance in the grade averages. Dropout rates were reporting burden, to select highest among minority groups, indicators that are fair and reliable, with American Indian/Alaskan and to prevent this large assessment Natives showing the highest of all- undertaking from becoming the 29 percent. The dilemma for public dominant influence in the nation's education is that most of the classrooms. monies for special help and programs for disadvantaged Administrator Competendes children are targeted at the lower Administrative leadership has been grades. Consequently, schools that a growing concern in the states, have "held on" to students by with the emphasis up to now on offering a broad curriculum, with assessment and trainingas vocational emphasis in many evidenced by a growing number of instances, will need to find ways to principals' academies being encourage marginal students to stay sponsored at regional or state in school while also narrowing their levels. However, legislative curriculum offerings. attention to school leadership, spurred in some cases by the Another National Assessment emphasis on merit schools rather Effort than merit teachers, has taken a For several years the national media tougher stance. Eight states now and the public have relied on require competency testing of SAT/ACT state averages to judge administrators, and according to an school performancea practice Education Commission of the many educators find inaccurate and States survey, another seven states misleading. When this measure are considering such a measure. became part of a U.S. Department of Education effort to rank the Increasing State Control educational productivity of the Evidence of the increasing leverage individual states, education leaders being used at the state level were incensed. They soon abounds in the excellence reform determined, however, to bury their movement. States have moved to displeasure and seek a better way to increase their participation not only do the ranking, which they accepted in the financing of education but in as inevitable. The Council of Chief setting teacher salary levels, State School Officers (CCSSO) has establishing merit pay-career ladder consequently decided to establish plans, and mandating higher an assessment center and to develcp academic standards. Most observers education indicators by which state assume that these activities will education performance can be create tensions between state and ranked. A set of indicators is to be local levels, reduce flexibility at the reviewed by the members in local level, and erode grass roots November 1985. Meanwhile the influence. 1The U.S. Department of Education

he Department of Administration support or a sense Education is of mission. Then, in 1983, a somewhat like the remarkable transformation began to phoenix, the mythical occur. Under the leadership of bird consumed by fire Secretary Terrel H. Bell, the only to rise again renewed and Department became the energizing ready for another long life. The force in what was portrayed as a Department, however, has had a new Administration initiativeto somewhat easier fate. It managed to renew, recharge, and revitalize skirt the fire and rise again, singed American education. a bit but no less hale and hearty. It was made clear at the outset As sucussor to the U.S. Office of that there would be little if any new Education, itself a century old, the federal money involved. The Department of Education was commitment to academic authorized by Congress in 1979 at excellenceand the money to fund the request of President Carter. It itwould have to come from state opened its doors in 1980. Less than and local governments and private a year later President Reagan sources. marked it for early dismantlement. The turning point in the Congress refused to go along, Department's fortunes came in electing to give the new April 1983 with publication of A Department a chance to prove its Nation At Risk; The Imperative for worth as a Cabinet-level agency. Educational Reform, a powerful The Department stumbled along indictment of the many weaknesses for the next two years without in American education identified 188 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

during an 18-month study by the Entrance Examination Board. 177 National Commission on Excellence These reports sparked a national in Education. debate, and education suddenly Secretary Bell's foresight and soared toward the top of the policy concern for the quality of education and legislative agendas of available to America's young people government at all levels. not only generated this inciteful Legislators, school boards, business report but, perhaps inadvertently, leaders, and parents in virtually gave the Department a new lease on every state began to press for a life. reversal of what was widely viewed He had created the National as two decades of decline in the Commission on Excellence in quality of education. Education in 1981, bringing By late 1984, Secretary Bell said together eminent educators, he could see "a tidal wave of legislators, state and local officials, reform, unprecedented in its and pubiic representatives fora breadth and support, that promises top-to-bottom examination of the to restore excellence as the condition of American education, hallmark of education." from kindergarten through He reported that 34 states have graduate school. raised their high school graduation A Nation At Risk pulled no standards, and 13 others are punches The Commission found weighing tougher-requirements. He that "the educational foundations of couLted 21 states considering or our society are presently being actually trying longer schooldays eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity and years. He said 30 states have that threatens our future as a already begun or are planning pay nation and a people." It called for reforms to provide career ladders tougher state and local graduation for teachers and extra rewards for requirements for high school master teachers. students, with more emphasison As part of the school reform mathematics, science, and foreign debate, Secretary Bell also languages at all grade levels. To challenged the quality of textbooks. improve instruction in basic skills, He says publishers are "dumbing it asked for longer school daysor down" their products to better use of traditional school accommodate students at the hours. It requested better teacher bottom of the class. "Without an preparation and steps to make upgrading of textbook quality," he teaching a more rewarding warns, "education reform will profession. falter." The Commission wasn't the only To recognize excellence where it group sounding the alarm. Similar does exist, the Department has calls for reform were also heard in initiated programs to identify and 1983 reports issued by the honor "educational excellence," Education Commission of the focusing on schools and students in States, Carnegie Foundation for the every state and outlying area. Advancement of Teaching, Outstanding school professionals Twentieth Century Fund, National also are being honored. For Science Foundation, and College example,.the Department and the 189 178National Association of Elementary Aside from tuition tax credits for School Principals launched in 1984 parents who send their children to the National Distinguished private schools, a proposal not yet Principals Program to recognize approved by Congress, the President exceptional elementary, and middle has proposed only one significant school principals. new program. In 1983, he cited the The Department also points with need for more and better qualified pride to actions taken to simplify teachers of science and state and local administration of mathematics. Congress responded federal education funds. In 1981, the following year with the Science Chapter II of the Education and Mathematics Teacher Consolidation and Improvement Act Development Act. It provides a lumped together 42 relatively small modest $50 million a year for five programs, from metric education to years. States can draw on these Teacher Corps, into block grants funds to offer scholarships to worth some $500 million. These teachers who wish to take college grants can be used by states and courses qualifying them to teach local school districts for any science and mathematics in public purpose related to (1) basic skills and private high schools. instruction, (2) educational However, the Administration's improvement and support services, budget request for 1985 provided and (3) special projects. The only $15.5 billion for education, up Department claims that by cutting only $100 million from the 1984 back on rules and regulations appropriation level. Congress, as it governing other programs, it has has previously done, raised the eliminated thousands of man-hours ante. Both the House and Senate of work by state and local school marked up bills of well over $17 officials formerly required to fill out billion. program administration and In its 1985 request, the evaluation reports. Administration asked for no funding Meanwhile the Administration increases over 1984 levels in has firmly clung to its plan to use programs for compensatory leadership and persuasion rather education for disadvantaged than new federal programs (or more children, for handicapped children, funds for existing programs) to for bilingual education, for effect improvements in education. rehabilitation services, or for other similar programs.

190,, Federal Programs to 179 Aid Elementary and Secondary Education

he U.S. Department $6.2 billion, represent the largest of Education share of the higher education currently administers budget. Other programs support 129 programs to aid adult education, research, education. The year rehabilitative services for 1984 brought no new programs and handicapped persons of all ages, and no additional funding for most the department's century-old, ongoing programs, compared with mandatethe collection.and 1983. Nor was the Department's analysis of facts and figures on the total budget adjusted for inflation. condition of American education. In 1984, in was held at the 1983 The 1984 Guide to ED Programs, level of $15.4 billion. reprinted on the following pages, The various programs provide was compiled by the editors of assistance to education at all levels, American Education, the preschool through graduate schocl. Department's official journal. Ten of Particular attention is focused on the 129 programs listed were elementary and secondary unfunded in 1984. education programs for students Head Start, the federal program with special needsdisadvantaged, for disadvantaged preschool handicapped, Indian, and children, is administered by the non-English-speaking children. At Department of Health and Human $3.5 billion, compensatory Services. It is included at the end of education for disadvantaged the Department of Education children under Chapter I of the listing. Education Consolidation and Copies of the 1984 Guide to ED Improvement Act of 1981 continues Programs are available at $2.50 by to be by far the largest single ordering the April 1984 issue of federal education program, American Education from the accounting for 23 percent of the Superintendent of Documents, Department's total budget. Government Printing Office, Financial aid programs to help Washington, DC 20402. older students attend college, at V10;) 1 91 FEDERAL PROGRAMS 180 Compenutory Education Program UAuthorising Who May Apply Canted 1. Education foe the Disadvan- Chapter I of the Education Local education agencies Compensatory Education taged. To upend and Improve Consolidation and Im- (must apply to state edu- Programs elementary and secondary edu- provement Act of 1981 cation agencies). Formula 245-2214 or 245-3081 cation programs in meeting the (Subtitle D of Title V of grants. special needs of educationally P.L. 9735, See. 552.553, deprived children in low- 591496) income areas in public and pri- vate schools.

2 Education for the Disadvan- Chapter I of the Education State education agencies Compensatory Education tagedState Administration. Consolidation and Im- receive up to one percent Programs To strengthen administration of provement Act 011981 of the Chapter I hinds 245-9877 or 245-3081 Chapter I programs. (Subtitle D of Title V of proc4Jed to the state. P.L. 97-35, Sec. 554(bK1)(D) and (d))

3. Education (or the Chapter I of the Education State agencies responsible Applications. State educa- DisadvantagedChildren to Consolidation and Im- (or providing free public tion agencies. Informa- State-Administered Institutions provement Act of 1931 education (or neglected or tion. Compensatory Edu- Serving Neglected and Delin- (Subtitle D of Title V of delinquent children in in. cation Programs quent Children. To Improve the P.L. 97-35, Sec. stitutions (must apply to 245-9877 or 245-3081 education of neglected or de- 534(a)(2)(C)), state education agencies) !invent children in state. administered Institutions or in adult correctional facilitir..

4. The Secretary's Initiative to Chapter I of the Education Appropriate state Chapter Compensatory Education Improve the Quality of Chapter Consolidation and lin. I coordinators Programs I, ECIA Projects. To increase provement Act of 1981 2454877 or 2453081 the effectiveness of elementary and secondary school programs In meeting the special needs of educationally disadvantaged children; specifically, to provide technical assistance to projects under Chapter I, ECIA, and to Identify and recognise publicly the most successful project:.

State and Local Education

5. Education Consolidation and Chapter II of the Educa- State edu atbn agencies Division of Educational Improvement Programs, Chap- tion Consolidation and and local'ucation agen- Support ter 2. To assist state and local Improvement Act o(1931 cies (must apply to state 245.7965 education agencies to improve (Subtitle D of Title V of education agencies). For- elementary and secondary edu- P.L. 97-35, See 361.596) mule grants. cation through consolidation of elementary and secondary edu- cation programs into a single authorisation.

6. Law Related Education Pro. Secretary's Discretionary State education agencies, Division of Educational gram. Supports projects in Program, Chapter II of the local education agencies; Support state and local education gm Education Consolidation patsecondary schools; 472.7960 cies and educates the public and Improvement Act of publk or private agencies, about the American legal sys- 1931 (Suotitie D of Title V organisations, or institu- tem and the principles on of P.L. 97.35) tions. Discretionary which it is based so that stu- grants. dents may become informed and effective citizens.

7. Ads In Education Program. Secretary's Discretionary National Committee Arts Division of Educational Stimulates the integration of Program, Chapter II of the (or the Handicapped; the Support the arts Into the education rye. Education Consolidation John F. Kennedy Center 472.7960 tem by bringing together and Improvement Act of (or the Performing Arts, schools and community art 1961 (Subtitle D of Title V Washington, D.C. resources. of P.L. 97.35) 1.92 BEST COPY AVAILABLE E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

State and Local Education (cont'd) 181

Program Authorising Who May Apply Contact Logslation

8 Alcohol and Drug Abuse Pro- Secretary's Discretionary Local education agencies Division of Educational gram. Assists state and local Program, Chapter II of the must apply to Training Support education agencies in develop. Education Consolidation and Technical Assistance 472.7960 ing training programs for edu- and Improvement Act of Regional Training cation personnel in the preven- 1981 (Subtitle D of Title V Centers. tion of alcohol and drug abuse of P.L. 97.35) problems through a national training system.

9 Inexpensive Book Distribution Secretary's Discretionary ReadingtoFundamental, Division of Educational Program. Supports the distrib- Program, Chapter II of the Inc. Support uting of inexpensive books to Education Consolidation 472.7960 s'udents aged 3 through high and Improvement Act of school age to provide motiva- 1981 (Subtitle D of Title V tion to learn to read of P.L. 97-35)

10 School Assistance in Federally P.L. 81-815, as amended Local education agencies Dm an of Impact Aid Affected Areas Construction, 245-8427 Impact Aid. To provide assis- tance for the construction of urgently needed minimum school facilities in school dis- tricts that have had substantial increases in school member- ship as a result of new or in- a:ased federal activities, or that serve children residing on Indian lands, or that are sub- stantially composed of federal ProPertY.

11 School Assistance in Federally P.L. 81-874. as amended Local education agencies Division of Impact Aid Affected has School Assis- 245-8171 or 245-8427 Lance, Impact Aid. To provide financial assistance to local education agencies when en- rollments are adversely affected by federal activities, where the tax base of a district is reduced through the Federal acquisition of real property, where there is a sudden and substantial in- crease in school attendance as the result of federal activities; to assist local agencies in the education of children residing on federal, including Indian, lands, and children whose par- ents are employed on federal property or on active duty in the Uniformed Saviors.

12General Assistance for the Vir Education Amendments of Government of the Virgin Division of Educational Sin Islands. To provide general 1978, P.L. 95561, as Islands Support assistance to improve public amended 472.7960 elementary and secondary edu- cation in the Virgin Islands.

13. Ellaider Fellowships To assist Ellenda Fellowship', P.L. Economically disadvan- Close Up Foundation the Close Up Foundation of 94.277 taged secondary school 1235 Jefferson Davis Washington, DX., in bringing students; secondary Highway high schoolers to the nation's school teachers who Arlington, Va. 22202 capital and giving them a first- provide service. (703) 892.5400 hand view of how the federal government works. 193 FEDERAL PROGRAMS

182 State and Local Education (cont'd)

Protram Authorising Who May Apply Contact Legislation

14. Consolidated Grant Application P.L. 95 134, Title V American Samoa, Virgin Division of Educational for Insular Areas. To permit an Islands, Guam, the Trust Support insular arca to consolidate two Tea ritory of the Pacific Is- 472.7960 or more authorised formula lands, and the Common- grant programs under one ap- wealth of the Northern plication for simplifying appli- Mariana Islands cation and reporting proce- dures and providing flexibility in allotting funds to meet edu- cational needs.

Indian Education

15. Indian EducationAdult In- Indian Education Act, Indian tribes, organisa Indian Education dian Education. To provide fi. P.L. 92-316, Title IV, Part lions, and institutions, Programs nancisl assistance, on a discre. C, as amended state and local education 2454020 tionary basis, for planning agencies pilot, demonstration, and edu- cational service projects to im- prove educational and employ. ment opportunities for Indian adults.

16. Indian EducationFormula Indian Education Act, P.L. Local education agencies, Indian Education Grants to Local Education 92.316, Title IV, Part A. as tribal schools Programs Agencies and Tribal Schools. amended 2454020 To provide financial assistance for elementar' and secondary school projects meeting the special educational and cultur- ally related academic needs of Indian children.

17. Indian EducationFellowships Indian Education Act, P.L. American Indian ands Indian Education for Indian Students. To provide 92-316, Title IV. Part B, graduate and graduate Programs assistance, on a discretionary Sec. 423, as amended students 245.2975 basis, for Indian students to pursue graduate level degrees in medicine, law, education, and related fields; or graduate or undergraduate degrees in engineering, business adminis- !ration, natural resources, and related fields.

16. Indian Education Grants to Indian Education Act, P.L. Indian tribes, or Indian Indian Education Indian-Controlled Schools. To 92-316, Title IV, Part A, as organisations or LEAs in Programs provide assistance, on a discre- amended existence not more than 245.8020 floury basis, for establishing three years that plan to and operating Local Education establish and operate, or Agencies (LEAs) and Indian- that now operate, a school controlled schools, and to sup- for Indian children or, if port enrichment projects to eligible, an LEA on or meet the special educational geographically near one or and culturally related academic more reservations. needs of Indian children in LEAs and Indian.controlled elementary and secondary schools.

19. Indian EducationSpecial Indian Education Act, P.L. Indian tribes, organixa Indian Education Program Programs and Projects. To 92.316, Sec. 422, and Lions, and Institutions; 245-8020 provide assistance, on a discre- Title IV, Part B, as federally supported floury basis, for planning amended elementary and secondary pilot, demonstration, and edu- schools for Indian chil- cation service and enrichment dren; and state and local projects to Improve educational education agencies opportunities for Indian children. 194 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Migrant Education 183 Program Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation 20 Migrant EducationCollege Higher Education Act of Postsecondary schools or Compensatory Education Assistance Program. To provide 1965, Title N, Sec. 418A, another public or non Programs special academic and support as amended by the Educa- profit agency in coopera- 245-2722 or 245-3081 services to young migrant and tion Amendments of 1980, tion with postsecondary seasonal farm workers in post- P.L. 96-374 schools secondary schools.

21 Migrant EducationHigh Higher Education Act of Postsecondary schools or Compensatory Education School Equivalency Program. 1965, Title N, Sec. 418A, another public or non Programs To provide academic and sup- as amended by the Educa- profit agency in coopera- 245-2722 or 245-3081 porting services to enable mi tion Amendments of 1980, tion with postsecondary grant and seasonal farm work- P.L. 96-374 schools ers who have dropped out of high school to obtain a diploma and subsequent employment or further education at a post- secondary school.

22 Migrant EducationState Dis. Education Consolidation State educatro agencies Compensatory Education crelonary Grant Program. To and Improvement Act of Programs improve interstate and intra- 1981, Chapter 1, Sec. 245-2722 or 2454081 state coordination of Migrant 554(a), P.L. 97-35; Title I, Education Program activities. Elementary and Second. sty Education Act of 1965, Sec. 143, P.L. 95-561 23 Migrant Education State Education Consolidation State education agencies Compensatory Education Formula Grant Program. To and Improvement Act of Programs meet the special educational 1981, Thapter 1, Sec. 245-2722 or 245-3081 needs of children of migratory 654(a), P.L. 97-35; Title I, agricultural workers and mi- Elementary and Second. gratory fishers. ary Education Act of 1965, Sec. 141, P.L. 95-561

Special Programs

24Desegregation Assistance Civil Rights Act of 1964, State education agencies, Division of Educational Civil Rights Training and Advi. Title N public agencies and pri- Soppod wry Services. To provide tech- "ate nonprofit organizes 245-2181 nical assistance, training, and tans. Discretionary advisory services to school dis- grants. tricts through state education agencies and desegregation as- sistance centers in coping with the desegregation of their schools based on race, sex, and national origin.

25 Women's Educational Equity Elementary and Second- Public agencies, private Division of Educational Act Program. To promote clu. ary Education Act, as nonprofit org,anirahons; Support cational equity for women re-enacted by P.L. 95-561, individuals. Discretionary 245 2465 through development and din. Title IX. Part C, as grants. semination of model educa. reauthorized by the Edu- tionsi programs and materials. cation Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981, P.L. 97-35

Federal Student Aid

26. College Work-Study. To pro- Higher Education Act of Undergraduate, to- Federal Student Aid mote parttime employment for 1965, P.L. 89.329, as cational, and graduate Programs postsecondary students. amended by Title N students accepted for en- 472.5080 rollment at least half- time, who must apply to participating schools. Up to 10% of the funds may be awarded to students enrolled less than half- time. 195 FEDERAL PROGRAMS

184 Federal Student Aid (cont'd)

Provarn Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

27. Job Location and Development Higher Education Act of Undergraduate, vo Federal Student Aid Program (funded under College 1965, P.L. 89.329, as cational, and graduate Programs WorkStudy). To establish or amended students accepted for en 472.5080 expand programs for locating rcilment at least half.time or developing jobs for students, in participating schools suited to their needs and schedules.

28. Guaranteed Student Loan Pro- Higher Education Act of Undergraduate, vo Federal Student Aid gram. To provide lowinterest 1965, P.L. 89.329, as cational, and graduate Programs insured loans to postsecondary amended students accepted for en- 472.5080 students. rollment at least half-time in participating schools

29. National Direct Student Loan Higher Education Act of Undergraduate and Federal Student Aid Program. To provide low 1965, P.L. 89.329, as graduate students ac Programs interest loans to undergraduate amended cepted for enrollment at 472.5080 and graduate students. least half.time, who must apply to participating schools

30. State Student Incentive Grants. iiighei Education Act us State educatun. agencies State education agency or To encourage states to expand 1965, P.L. 89-329, as (Grants are on a matching Federal Student Aid grant programs to post- amended 50.50 basis.) Programs secondary students. 472.5080

31. Supplemental Educational Op- Highei Education Act ol Undergraduate students, Federal Student Aid portunity Grants. To assist un 1965, P.L. 89-329, as accepted for enrollment at Programs siergraudate students who show amended least half.time, who must 472.5080 financial need. apply to participating schools. Up to 10% of the funds may be awarded to students enrolled less than half.time.

Information and Dissemination

32. ERIC Clearinghouse for Handi- General Education Public and private organ' Dissemination and Im- capped and Gifted Educatei. Provisions Act, Sec. 4051e1 rations, institutions. provement of Practice To identify, collect and orga agencies, or individuals. 254.5500 nine information concerning handicapped and gifted educa lion for addition to the ERIC database.

33. ERIC Cleartnghouse for Adult, &eneral Education Public and private organs Dissemination and Im. Career and Wcational Educa- Provisions Act. Sec. 4051e1 rations. institutions, provement of Practice tion. To identify, collect, and agencies, or individuals. 254.5500 organize Information concern- ing adult, career, and vo- cational education for addition to the ERIC database.

Libraries

34. Interlibrary Cooperation Library Services and Con State library administra- Division of Library State Grant Program. To assist struction Act (ISCA), tive agencies Programs the States in the systematic and Title Ill State and Public Library effective coordination of the re- Services Branch sources of public, academic, 254.9664 school, and special library and information centers at the lo- O), regional, state, or in- terstate levels. 196 E D U C A T I O N,-.LMANAC1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Libraries (cont'd) 185

Program Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

35. Public Library ServicesState Library Services and Con State library administra- Division01Library Grant Program. To establish struction Act (LSCAL trve agencies Programs and improve public library and Title 1 State and Public Library institutional library services, as Services Branch well as library services for the :54.9664 handicapped, disadvantaged, and persons with limited En. glishspeaking ability; to strengthen state library agen cies and major urban public libraries.

Education Improvement

36. Secretary's Discretionary Pro. Chapter II of the Educa State and local education Thomas E. Enderlem, Of- gram (discretionary activitlesi. lion Consolidation and agencirs, institutions of lice of the Secretary, To support projects and pro- Improvement Act of 1981, higher eduction, public 426.6420 grams designed to meet the Subtitle D, Title V, P.L. and private agencies, or. special educational needs of 97.35, Sec. 583 (Seat. ganizations, and institu- educationally deprived children tary's Discretionary tions. Discretionary and to improve elementary and Program) grants. secondary education for chil dren consistent with the pup poses of the Education Con- solidation and Improvement Act of 1981.

37National Diffusion Network Chapter II of the Educa State and local education Division of National Dis- Program. To promote nation lion Consolidation and agencies, institutions of semination Programs wide dissemination and adop- Improvement Act of 1981, higher education, public 653.7000 tion of exemplary educational Subtitle D, Title V, P.L. and private agencies, or programs approved by the Joint 97.35, Sec. 583 (Stec. ganizations, and institu Dissemination Review Panel. tary's Discretionary Lions. Discretionary Program) grants.

38 Talent Search To help identify Higher Education Act of Postsecondary schools for Division of Student and encourage promising stu- 1965, P.L. 89329, as consortiums), public and Services dents to complete high school amended, Title IV, Part A, private nonprofit organs 426.8960 and pursue postsecondary edu. Sec. 417A417B rations. Discretionary cation. grants.

39 Teacher Exchange To promote Mutual Educational and Elementary and secondary Center ior iiternational international understanding Cultural Exchange Act school teachers, college Education, International and professional competence by (Fulbright.HaysL P.L. instructors, assistant Education Exchange exchange of teachers between 87.256 and P.L. 83480, as professors Branch the U.S. and foreign nations amended 245.9700 and through participation in seminars abroad.

40Foreign Curriculum Consul Mutual Educational and State and local education Cedter for International tants To bring foreign resourc: Cultural Exchange Act agencies, postsecondary Education, International persons to the U.S. for an (Pulbright.Hays), P.L. schools, public and private Studies Branch academic year to assist in de- 82.256, Sec. 10204(0 nonprofit organizations. 245.2794 veloping curriculums in foreign language and area studies.

41Territorial Teacher Training Title XV, Part C, Section State education agencies Center for Libraries and Assistance Program To provide 1525 of the Education of each temtory or a joint Education Improvement assistance for the training of Amendments of 1978 application from a state 254.6572 teachers in schools in Cum, education agency and an American Samoa, the Com. Institution of higher edu. monwealth of the Northern cation, with the state edu- Mariana Islands, the Trust Ter cation agency as the lead ritory of the Pacific Islands, and agency of the grant or the Virgin Islands. 97 FEDERAL PROGRAMS 186 EducatIor Improvement (cont'd)

Program Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

42. Head Start. To provide a corn Omnibus Budget Recon- Public and private non. Head Start prehensive development pro- ciliation Act of 1981, P.L. Nord organizations, in. 755-7782 gram for disadvantaged pre. 97-35 eluding schools and school children, including edu. community groups. cation, health, and a strong pa- rental involvement component.

Vocational Education

43 Vocational EducationBask Vocational Education Act Local education agencies, Office of Vocational and Grants to States. To assist of 1963, Title I, Part A, Postsecondary schools, Adult Education, Division states to improve planning for Subpart 2, Sec. 120, as public and private organ, of Vocational Education vocational education and man- amended by P.L. 94-482 rations. (All must apply to Services power training; to maintain, and P.L. 95-40 state boards of vocational 472-3440 extend, and improve vocational education.) education programs; to develop programs in new occupations; and to provide parttime em- ployment for vocational educa lion students enrolled full- time.

44 Vocational Education Vocational Education Act Local education agencies, Office of Vixational and Consumer & Homemaking of 1963, Title i, Part A, Postsecondary schools, Adult Educatio:., Division Education To provide educa Subpart 5, as amended by public and private organi- of Vocational cell:cation lion programs and ancillary P.L. 94-482 zations. (All must apply to Services services to prepare persons for state boards of vocational 472-3440 the occupation of homemaking. education.)

45 Vocational Education Vocational Education Act Individuals and organiza- Office of Vocational and Program Improvement and of 1963, Title I, Part A, tions must apply to state Adult Education, Division Supportive Services. To assist Subpart 3, SPC3. 130-136. boards of vocational of Vocatioral Education the states in improving their as amended by P.L. 94482 education. Services programs of vocational educa 472-3440 lion by supporting research curriculum development, exemplary projects, personnel development, sex equity, and guidance.

46 Vocational rducatIon Programs Vocational Education Act Local education agencies, Office of Vocational and forth. Disadvantmed. To of 1963, Title 1, Part A, postsecondary schools, Adult Education, Division provide special motional edu Subpart 4, Sec. 140, as public and private organ!. of Vocational Education cation programs for disadvan- amended by P.I. 91482 utioiu. (All must apply to Services taged persons in areas with state boards of vocational 472-3440 high concentrations of youth education.) unemployment and school dropouts.

47 Vocational Education Blau Vocational Education Act State advisory councils tin Office of Vocational and Advisory Countils. To advise of 1963, Title f, Part A, vocational education Adult Education, Division state boards of vocational edu. Subpart 1, Sec. 105, as of vocational Education cation on the development and amended by P.L. 94482 Services administration of 5year state and P.L. 95-40 472-3440 plans, annual prolram plans, and accountability reports; to evaluate vocational education programs, strokes, and activities.

48 Vocational FA nation State Vocational Education Act State boards of vocational Office of Vocational and Planning arJ Evaluation. To of 1963, Title I Part A, education Adult Education, Division assist states in preparing 5year Subpart 1, Sec. 102, as of Vocational Education plans, ahnual program plans, amended by P.L. 94482 Services and accountability reports, and 472-3440 in conducting program evaluations. 198 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Biliagual Education 187

Program Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

49 Bilingual EducationBasic Bilingual Education Act, Local education agencies, Office of Bilingual Educa- Projects. To assist in establish- Tills VII of the Elemen- postsecondary schools tion and Minority ing, operating, or improving tary and Secondary Edu- lapptying jointly with one Languages Affairs programs of bilingual educa cation Act of 1965, as or more local education 245-2609 tion for children of limited amended by P.L. 95-561 agencies); elementary or English proficiency. (1978) secondary school: oper- ated or funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; nonprofit organizations of Indian tribes that operate elementary or secondary schools 50 Bilingual Education Bilingual Education Act, Local education agencies, Office of Bilingual Educa- Dtmonstntion Projects. To Title VII of the Elemen- postsecondary schools tion and Mmonty demonstrate exemplary ap- tary and Secondary Edu- (applying jointly with one Languages Affairs proaches to providing programs cation Act of 1965, as or more local education 245.2595 of bilingual education. amended by P.L. 95-561 agencies); elementary or secondary schools oper- ated or funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; nonprofit organizations of Indian tribes that operate elementary or secondary schools

51 Bilingual Education Bilingual Education Act, Local education agencies Office of Bilingual Educa- Desegregation Sopport Pro. Title VII of the Elemen- (eligible under the tion and 141nority gram. To hip local education tary and Secondary Edu- Emergency School Aid Languages Affairs agencies meet the needs of cation Act of 1965, as Act), nonprofit private or- 245.2609 minority group children who amended by P.L. 95-561 ganizations that receive a lack equality of educational op- request to develop cur- portunity because of language ricula from an eligible barriers and cultural dif- LEA ferences. (Currently unfunded)

52 Bilingual EducationMaterials Bilingual Education Act, Local education agencies, Office of Bilingual Educa- Development Projects. To de- Title VII of the Elemen- postsecondary schools tion and ',Monty velop instructional and testing tary and Secondary Edu- (applying jointly with one Languages Affairs materials for bilingual educa- cation Act of 1965, as or more local education 245.2600 tion and training programs. amended by P.L. 95-561 agencies); elementary or secondary schools oper- ated or funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; nonprofit organizations of Indian tribes that operate elementary cr secondary schools

53 Bilingual Education State Bilingual Education Act, State education agencies Office of 2qingual Educa- Education Agency Projects for Title VII of the Elemen- tion and Minority Coordinating Technical Auto- tary and Secondary Edu- Languages Affairs lance. To help states coordinate cation Act of 1965, as 245.2922 technical assistance provided by ins nded by P.L. 95.561 other agencies to bilingual education programs funded under the Bilingual Education Act.

54 Bilingual EducationSupport Bilingual Education Act, State ind local education Office of Bilingual Educa- Services Projects. To Title VII of the Elemen agencies, postrcondary tion and Minority strengthen bilingual educatkm tary and Secondary Edu- schools (applying jointly Languages Affairs and staff training programs cation Act of 1965, as Or after consultation with 245-2600 through dissemination, as- amended by P.L. 95.561 one or more state or local sessment, and evaluation assis- education agencies) tance provided by regional Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Centers (EDACs). 199 FEDERAL PROGRAMS

188 Bilingual Education (cont)

Program Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

55. Bilingual Education Training Bilingual Education Act, State and local education Office of Bilingual Educa Projects. To establish, operate. Title VII of the Elemen- agencies, postsecond.y Lion and Minority or improve training programs tary and Secondary Edu- schools, public or private Languages Affairs for persons, including teachers cation Act of 1965, as nonprofit organizations 245.2595 and parents, preparing for or amended by P.L. 95.561 (applying jointly or after now participating in programs consultation with one or of bilingual education for chil more state or local educa. dren of limited English lion agencies). proficiency.

56. Bilingual Education Refugee Act of 1980, P.L. State and local education Office of Bilingual Educa Transition Program for Ref- 96-212, as amended by agencies, postsecondary lion and Minority ugee Children. To assist state P.L. 97-363 schools, public and private Languages Affairs and local education agencies to nonprofit organizations 245.2922 meet the special educational needs of eligible refugee chil- dren enrolled in elementary and secondary schools.

57. Bilingual Vocational Instructor vocational Education Act State agencies, publit, and Office of Bilingual Educa Training. To provide training of 1963, Title I, Part B, private nonprofit educa- ton and Minority for instructors, aides, and guid- Subpart 3, as amended by tional institutions Languages Affairs ance counselors to work in bi. P.L. 94.482 (1976) 447.428 lingual vocational training programs.

Special Education and Rehabilitative Services

58. Early Education for Handi- Education of the Nandi State and local education Special Education PTO- capped Children. To aid public capped Act, P.L. 91-230, agencies, public and grams, Division of Innova- and private nonprofit agencies as amended, Part C, private nonprofit tion and Development in demonstrati4 model pro. Sec. 623 organizations 732.1168 grams for handicapped children from birth through age 8.

59. Services for Deaf-Blind Chil- Education of the Handl, Public and nonprofit or Special Education PTO. dren. To provide services to capped Act, P.L. 91-230, ganizations grams, Division of Innova- deaf.blind children, technical as amended, Part C, tion and Development assistance to state education Sec. 622 732.1179 agencies serving these children, and assistance to agencies In facilitating the transition of deaf.blind youth (22 and older) frbm education to employment, and other services.

60. Innovative Programs for Se- Education of the Hand: Public and private Special Education PTO- verely Handicapped Children capped Act, P.L. 91 230, organizations grams, Division of Innova- and Youth. To develop and as amended, Part C, tion and Development. demonstrate innovative ap- Sec. 624 732.1161 proaches to education of se. verely handicapped and deaf. blind children and youth.

61Recruitment and Information. Education of the Hand: Public and nonprofit Special Education Pro- To support a national clearing capped Act, P.L. 91-230, organizations grams, Division of Innova- house on education of handi. as amended, Part D, tion and Development capped children and youth, and Ste. 633 732.1179 support projects to carry out specific recruitment and Infor. mation activities.

62. Media Services and Captioned Education of the Hand: State and local education Special Education Pro- Film Loan ProgramCenters. capped Act, P.L. 91 -230, agenc.o. vostsecondary grams, Division of Educa To establish and operate educa as amended, Part P, and schoob. public and private Hong Services Hong media centers for mate- P.L. 94.142 nonprofit organizations 732.1064 rials for the handicapped. 260 -; ti-`, e`

E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (cont'd) 189 Progra.a Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

63Media Services and Captioned Education of the Nandi- State and local education Special Education Pro- Film Loan ProgramFilm. To capped Act. Pl. 91-230, mencies, public and psi grams, Division of Innova- advance the handicapped as amended, Part F. and vale nonprofit and profit tion and Development through media and technology P.L. 91380, P.L. 94.482 organizations 732.1177 and to provide captioned films and television programs for the deaf.

64Media Services and Captioned Education of the Handi- State and local education Special Education Pro- Film Loan ProgramRe- capped Act. P.L. 91-230, agencies, institutions of grams, Division of Educa- search. To support media and as amended, Part F higher education, and tional Services technology research develop- other public agencies and 732.1064 ment, training, and services 1..r nonprofit institutions handicapped, through contracts and grants.

65 Postsecondary EducationPTO- Education of the Handi- State and local education Special Education Pro - grams for the Handicapped. To capped Act, P.L. 91-230, agencies, institutions of gams, Division of Innova- develop or modify specially de- as amended, Part C. Sec. higher education and tion and Development signed programs for deaf or 625. as amended, other public agencies and 732.1177 other handicapped postsecond- P.L. 93.380 nonprofit institutions, ary education students. junior and community college:, vocational and technics. institutions

66 Handicapped Regional Re- Education of the Handi- Institutions of higher Special Education Pro- source Centers. To establish capped Act, P.L. 91-230, education, state education grams, Division of Assis- regional resource centers to as amended. Part C, agencies, private nonprofit tance to States advise and offer technical Sec. 621 agencies, and combina- 732-1014 services, primarily to state tions of such agencies and departments of education, for institutions which may improving education of handi include one or more local capped children. education agencies

67 Handicapped Research and Education of the Handi- State and local education Special Education Pro- Demonstration To support re capped Act, P.L. 91-230, agencies. postsecondary grams. Division of Educa- starch and demonstration ac as amended, Part E, Secs. schools, public and private tional Services tivities designed to improve 641 and 642 nonprofit education or re- 732.1106 educational opportunities for search agencies, and ap- the handicapped. propriate individuals

68 Model Programs for Severely Education of the Handi- State education agencies, Special Education Pro- Handicapped and Deaf-Blind capped Act, P.L. 91-230, public and private non- grams, Division of Innova- Children and Youth. To award as amended, Part C. profit organizations tion and Development contracts to build on ongoing Sec. 624 732-1179 educational services, innovative educational models, or service- delivery components.

69 Personnel Training for Educa Education of the Handi- State education agencies, Special Education Pro- lion of the Handicapped. To capped Act, P.L. 91-230, institutions of higher edu grams, Division of Per- prepare and inform educators, as amended, Part D, Secs. cation, postsecondary sonnel Preparation parents, administrators, and 631, 632, and 634 schools, public and private 732.1070 other personnel who work with nonprofit organizations, handicapped children, through and other appropriate preservice and intetvke nonprofit agencies (indi- training. viduals must apply to par- ticipating organizations)

70 State Aid Programs for the Education of the Handi- State education agencies Special Education Pro- HandicappedState Grant capped Act. P.1.94.142, grams, Division of Assis- Program, To assist in expan- as amended, Part B tance to States sion and Improvement of pro- 732.1014 grams and projects designed to provide a free appropriate pub- lic education to handicapped children at the preschool, elementary, and secondary levels. ,201 BEST COPYAVAILABLE FEDERAL PROGRAMS

190 Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (cont'd)

Program Authorizing Who May Apply Contact Legislation

71. State-Supported School Pro- Elementary and Second- State education agencies Special Education Pro- grams for the Handicapped ary Education Act of 1965, grams, Division of Assis- State Grant Program. To P.L. 89-313, Secs. 146, tance to States strengthen programs for limb 147 (as Incorporated in 732.1014 capped children In state. the Education Consolida- operated and statesupported tion and Improvement Act schools. of 1981)

72. Preschool Incentive Grants Education of the Handi- State education agencies Special Education Pro- State Grant Program. To en capped Act, P.L. 91 23u, in states that provided grams, Division of Assis- courage states to serve and as amended, Part 13, programs for handicapped tance to States further develop services for Sec. 619 children ages 3 through 5 732.1014 preschool handicapped in previous years children.

73. Special Studies of P.L. 94 -142. Education of the Handl State and 1.scal education Special Education Pro- To analyze and evaluate state capped Act, P.L. 91-230, agencies, public and pn grams, Division of Educa- efforts in providing a free air as amended, Part 13, vats. nonprofit or profit- tional Services propriate public education for Sec. 617.618 making organizations 732.1064 all handicapped children and in meeting other mandates of the Act; t.provide technical assts. tance to the states in matters relating to the education of handicapped children, such as short-term training programs and dissemination of Information.

74. Secondary and Transition Pro- Education of the Hands Postsecondary schools, Special Education Pro- grams for the Handicapped To capped Act, P.L. 98-199, state and local education grams, Division of Educa- strengthen and coordinate edu- Part C, Sec. C26 agencies, and public and tional Services cation, training, and related private nonprofit 732.1106 services for handicapped youth organizations to assist in the transitional pro- cess to postsecondary environments.

75. Training Interpreten for Dcal Rehabilitation Atall1973, :aim or private nonprofit Rehabilitation Services Individuals. To mouse the P.L. 93-112, as amended, agencies or organizations, Administration supply of skilled manual and Sec. 304(d) incluJing public or private 732.1322 oral interpreters available to nonprofit postsecondary serve deaf individuals, and to institutions ensure maintenance of basic in terpreter skills of interpreters now serving.

THE GEM PENCIL SHARPENER Sharpens both Lead and Slate Pendia. regives me great lotion» to recommend the 'Clem Pencil Sharpener' It dote the work well and quickloThis last is of great Importance for schoolwork This Sharpener' la in satisfactory nee In very many of the ernes and towns of the State. From what I personally know of the mutts here and elsewhere, Iamfully 00IIVICCOti thatthe'Gem' the very best sharpener on the market. to fact I do not believe that there is any °User which at all commie withDIM this one forate either In the school or the onloe." Jon Yes

hanks to ERIC, every access for the research community principal, teacher, to, the thousands of research curriculum specialist, studies then being generated with student, and federal education funds. scholarin fact, Now administered by the anyone anywhere in Americahas National Institute of Education in ready access to the latest the U.S. Department of Education, state-of-the-art information about ERIC has long since outgrown its every conceivable subject in the original function as a service to the field of education. research community. Today anyone Need a comparison of the various can submit documents to be software materials available for considered 14 panels of experts for third-grade computer instruction in inclusion in the system, and anyone mathematics? A selection of can retrieve documents from it. bilingual programs for ERIC has become a national Portuguese -speaking students? repository, with sophisticated Inservice training programs for computerized retrieval capability, teachers on mainstreaming for more than 500,000 documents handicapped pupils? How to handle and journal articles contributed by student violence and vandalism? 27,000 colleges, school systems, It's all in ERIC, short for independent research organizations, Education Resources Information and individuals, including many Center. ERIC was founded by the contributors outside the United U.S. Office of Education in 1966 as States. In 1983, ERIC sent out 30 a way to keep track of, and provide million bibliographic records in :203 ERIC

192 response to client requests. A companion monthly, Current Organizationally, ERIC has three Index to Journals in Education, components. contains abstracts of articles in over Central ERIC, National Institute 700 education- related journals. of Education, Washington, D.C., Some 300,000 titles have appeared sets policy, allocates federal since its inception in 1969. funds, and monitors other system Nearly all school districts components. Surprisingly, the subscribe to these two publications, system is virtually self-sustaining. and they alone can give the user Only 4.1 percent of its $136 access to the ERIC system. million total cost in 1983 came Documents can be requested by from federal tax dollars. mail or telephone. Sixteen clearinghouses, each Microfiche collections bring ERIC devoted to a specific aspect of resources still closer. Most state education such as educational departments of education and management or reading and college and university libraries, as communications skills (see box). weal as many local school districts, In addition to collecting are microfiche subscribers, literature, ERIC clearinghouses receiving about 20,000 microfiche analyze and synthesize it into cards annually. research reviews, bibliographies, A computer terminal offers the and interpretative studies. They fastest and most efficient way to will also do customized computer search ERIC files. Most college and searches. university libraries have this Support services, including a computer capability. ERIC's central editorial and computer Thesaurus of Descriptors helps to facility that maintains the data narrow down the subject category base, a reproduction center to to be searched. For example, a provide microfiche or hard copies principal asking for curriculum of requested documents, and a materials to help learning disabled commercial publisher. children would be deluged with In addition, three vendors have thousands of titles. Confining the ERIC contracts to provide online search to materials for children computer access for clients to the with dyslexia would turn up far data base. And several hundred fewer titles, a number the principal service centers have signed on to could reasonably request and study. provide computer searches for For potential users who don't users. know how or where to start, ERIC Some 1,200 documents each suggests contacting the nearest month pass the selection criteria of college library or subject matter the ERIC clearinghouses. Abstracts clearinghouse. are published monthly in Resources If your school district is in Education. Since 1966, nearly interested in setting up an on-line 227,000 studies, reports, computer capability, Central ERIC curriculum guides, and other or any clearinghouse can give you materials have come to the the names and addresses of the attention of ERIC users through participating vendors. this publication. E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5- 1 9 8 6 The Organizations That Make Up ERIC 193

National Institute of Education (Central ERIC) Dissemination and Improvement of Practice Program Washington, D.C. 20208 (202) 254-5500

Clearinghouses

Adult, Career, and Vocational Languages and Linguistics Education Center for Applied Linguistics Ohio State University 3520 Prospect St., N.W. 1960 Kenny Road Washington, D.C. 20007 Columbus, Ohio 43210 (202)298.9292 (614) 486.3655 Reading and Communication Skills Counseling and Personnel Services National Council of Teachers of English University of Michigan 1111 Kenyon Road 2108 School of Education Building Urbana, Illinois 61801 Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109 (217)328.3870 (313) 764-9492 Rural Education and Small Schools Educational Management New Mexico State University University of Oregon Box 3AP 1787 Agate Street Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003 Eugene, Oregon 97403 (505)646.2623 (503) 686.5043 Science, Mathematics, and Elementary and Early Childhood Environmental Education University of Illinois Ohio State University 803 West Pennsylvania Avenue 1200 Chambers Road, Third Floor Urbana, Illinois 61801 Columbus, Ohio 43212 (217) 333-1386 (614) 422-6717 Handicapped and Gifted Children Social Studies /Social Science Council for Exceptional Children Education 1920 Association Drive Social Science Education Consortium, Reston, Virginia 22091 Inc. (703) 620-3660 855 Broadway Boulder, Colorado 80302 Higher Education (303)492.8434 George Washington University One Dupont Circle, Suite 630 Teacher Education Washington, D.C. 2003E American Association of Colleges for (202) 296-2597 Teacher Education One Dupont Circle, Suite 610 Information Resources Washington, D.C. 20036 Syracuse University (202) 293-2450 School of Education 030 Huntington Hall Tests, Measurement, and Evaluation Syracuse, New York 13210 Educational Testing Service (315) 423.3640 Princeton, New Jersey 08541 (609) 734-5176 Junior Colleges University of California Urban Education Mathematical Science Building, Room Teachers College, Columbia University 8118 Box 40 405 Hilgard Avenue 525 West 120th Street Los Angeles, California 90024 New York, New York 10027 (213) 825.3931 (212) 678-3433 2:05 194Head Start: A New LeaseonLife ci

ongress in one of its by Congress to support the first final decisions before full-year program back in 1966. adjourning for the Congress in the same 1984 1984 elections ended legislation reauthorized Head the Head Start Start's companion program, Follow cliff-hanger. After months of Through, which carries graduates of uncertainty about its future, Head the preschool program through the Start was reauthorized for another early primary grades. However, two years. Follow Through funding$10 Launched in 1965 as part of million in 1985is considerably President Lyndon Johnson's Great below the levels of a decade ago. Society initiatives, this major Despite its extension for another federal preschool program for two years, Head Start is seen by children from low income families many specialists in early childhood has been rumored during the past education as facing an uncertain few years to be on its way out. future, particularly in maintaining Contributing to these rumors were project quality. Their most some research studies that immediate concern is a plan by the questioned whether the Reagan Administration to add more improvements achieved by the children to the program without enrollees would last more than a colla,.:ral increases in funding. The year or two. resula, they say, will be large class Then same studies demonstrating sizes plus staff-child ratios that will that the Head Start experience seriously diminish the program's produced improvements in effectiveness. attitudes, behavior, and classroom In any case, Head Start began in performance that continued into 1965 as an eight-week summer high school and often beyond. program for a handful of preschool Head Start thus enters its third children from poor families. The decade with renewed respectand program arose out of research with funding just under $1 billion, showing that deprived children compared with the $2 million voted entered first grade lacking the basic 206 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

learning skills typically possessed by volunteers. Nearly 30 percent of the 195 other children their age. It was also staff are parents of former Head noted that deprived children often Start children. had health and psychological One of the most thorough recent problems that seriously impeded studies of Head Start's performance learningproblems ranging from was conducted by CSR, Inc., a something as clear as hunger to private research firm in something as difficult to deal with Washington, D.C., under contract as deep emotional turmoil caused with the U.S. Department of Health by a destructive home and family and Human Services, which environment. So, along with administers the program. The study classroom activities, Head Start reviewed over 1,500 research and provided services to meet a child's evaluation reports from individual health, nutritional, social, and projects, dating back to 1965. The psychological needs. reports released to date show that Head Start quickly captured the Head Start children have generally enthusiastic support of early out-performed non-Head Start childhood educators, community youngsters and frequently leaders, and parents. The summer maintained this superiority in later program became a full-year school years. Head Start graduates program. Since 1965, Head Start have had fewer grade retentions and has served over 9 million children special class placements, lower between the ages of three and six. absenteeism, and better health in In 1984, some 430,000 children the elementary grades than children received the full range of Head Start without this preschool experience. services in 21,000 classrooms. In addition, Head Start is Projects are conducted by school credited with having had a profound systems, other public agencies, and influence on the planning of day nonprofit parent and community care and related services sponsored organizations. by nonfederal organizations; on the Fully 90 percent of all children expansion of state and local come from families with incomes activities for children, on the range below the poverty level. The and quality of services offered to program currently serves one in five young children and their families, eligible children. Nearly half (42 and on the design of training percent) are black, 33 percent are programs for professionals and white, 20 percent are Hispanic, 4 aides who staff such programs. percent are American Indian, and 1 Head Start is being funded in percent Asian. About 12 percent are 1985 and 1986 under the Human handicapped. The average cost per Services Reauthorization Act. child is $2,249. Within the Department of Health The paid staff totals 75,860. In and Human Services the program is addition the program is served by administerea by the Administration nearly 600,000 volunteers, for Children, Youth and Families, primarily parents, young people, Office of Human Development and senior citizens. For every four Services. The Follow Through children enrolled, at least three program is administered by the Head Start parents work as Department of Education. 207 .Preschool Education: State Support Grows I

hat shapes up as one disadvantaged backgrounds can be of education's most placed in regular classrooms rather noteworthy than in remedial programs developments in the providing significant savings in mid-1980s is the educational costs. move in numerous states and In addition, such children have communities to add preschool developed a sense of social and education to the public school psychological security that agenda. Many authorities say that facilitates the development of no other action holds greater trusting relationships with teachers promise for assuring children a and classmates. And, despite solid foundation for success suggestions that the benefits of throughout their school years and early education would be of short beyond. Moreover, the economic duration, it is now clear that the payoff, in terms of productive chilexen exposed to it build on their citizens and reduced expenditures academic and social success as they for crime and welfare, could be move into the upper grades. enormous. A number of research projects Youngsters with preprimary support these conclusions. In 1977, experience, these observers note, George Washington University enter elementary school with many compiled the findings of more than advantages over children without it. 50 studies of Head Start, the federal They score higher on entry reading preschool program for children and other achievement assessments, from low-income families. A study and they are more ready to enter conducted a year later looked at the grade appropriate to their age Head Start programs involving group. Most of those from handicapped children. 208 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Massachusetts, Minnesota, and New children without preschool 197 York have evaluated nonfederal education, Head Starters have made experimental preprimary programs far greater progress both associated with public schools in academically and socially, and their their communities. These studies progress has endured. As adults, have consistently shown that almost twice as many were found to elementary school children with be holding jobs or to have gone on nursery school and kindergarten to college or vocational school than training have lower absenteeism the control group. Among the girls, and grade retention rates than only half as many became pregnant other children. before marriage. Substantially fewer Perhaps the most significant former Head Starters dropped out long-term study of how well Head of school, committed a crime, went Start graduates do in later years was on welfare. released in 1984 by the High/Scope The High/Scope researchers Educational Research Foundation estimate that the long-term benefits Baltimore Endorses Classes for 4-Year-Olds Usked Press latermatkod BALTIMORE, Nov.30- zees that chikken who are taught early &Waxen school board has en- have better dunces ofhigher dorsed an auditions plan to begin achievement in subsequent years. restructuring the school system, than children starting later. otablishing 13 grades beginning 1i the plan is implemented, 4- with 4-year-olds in 13 schools. year-olds could start school in a The new plan weand cost about half-day preelemestary program. $6 million, and board officials said After meeting certain educational Thursday it would be voluntary for requkemests, the children would parents because the state legal ate be sent to first year. requires cbDdren to start school by Kindergarten, which is now a half the age of 6. day in most city schools, would be The board plans to take its cue repbced with a new curriculum and tothelegislatureforfunding called the first year of school. through the Extended Elementary Children would be tested to meet Education program. certain criteria before advancing Charkee Cooper Boston. suPer into the next year, and could grad- vior cl a committee that re- uate as yotmg as 16 or u old u 19, ikarched the plan. said studies show Boston said in Ypsilanti, Michigan. High/Scope of the program can be valued at researchers kept track of 123 about seven times the original cost randomly selected low income black of $4,000 per child. The estimate is children who were enrolled in Head based on higher lifetime earnings, Start in the early 1960s. These but the reduction in crime alone is youngsters came from families with valued at more than $3,000 per little education; their scores on person. aptitude tests were very poor; and Steadily climbing enrollment about half were from single parent figures and announcements of new families. Nonetheless they made programs, like the one proposed in good progress when they began Baltimore (illustration), their formal schooling. Compared demonstrate that preprimary with a control group of similar education is on the move. 20 9 PRESCHOOL EDUCATION

198 The U.S. Department of Iowa has been serving kindergarten Education's National Center for children all day every other day for Education Statistics reports that years. enrollments in nursery school and Kindergarten teachers appear kindergarten rose from 4.1 million overwhelmingly to prefer an all-day in 1970 to 5.1 million in 1982, an program over two half-day sessions, increase of 24 percent. By 1984 the citing in particular the availability total had risen to 5.4 million. of time to work with children on an Moreover, the Center projects individual basis. In addition to the that by 1992 enrollments in public extra learning time, working and private preschool programs will parents like the full-day child care reach no less than seven million service such programs provide. children. Since enrollments of Again, research tends to support 5-year-olds in kindergarten are the perceptions of teachers and already approaching 100 percent, parents. Children in a five-hour most of the increase by 1992 will be kindergarten in Phoenix, Arizona, among 3- and 4-year-olds in were reported to have performed prekindergarten programs. substantially better on the Meanwhile state legislatures and Metropolitan Readiness Test than local school districts alike are half-day children. In Evansville, responding to public pressure for Indiana, first grader., who had had more and better preprimary full-day kindergarten were similarly programs. The New York legislature found to score higher in reading in April 1984 approved a $5 million tests than first graders with only increase in grants for half-day kindergarten experience. prekindergarten programs. Texas in For school officials concerned 1983 and South Carolina in 1984 about the expense of full-day peed major reform bills to kindergarten, cost analysis studies upgrade education across the board, are encouraging. They show that both reform measures included initially higher costs can be offset if funds for preprimary education. the school district can obtain full Beginning in the 1985-86 school state aid for each child. year, Texas will offer half-day Expenditures for supplies and programs for 4-year-olds from maintenance need not increase and low-income and non-English- may even decrease, several studies speaking families. South Carolina found, because fewer children use will give school districts the option each room and its equipment. Also, to offer child development elimination of the noon bus trip for programs for 4-year-olds with two half-day kindergarten groups small-motor-skills and other cuts transportation costs. learning problems. Preprimary education remains a Meanwhile, other states and local option in most states. Only 14 many communities have adopted require school districts to offer variations of a second major kindergarten programs, much less development in early childhood prekindergarten, 36 states give aid educationfull-day kindergarten. to local districts that take the In Illinois, some 70 school systems opportunity to offer kindergarten. now offer full-day programs, and 210 The Magnet School 199 Movement

he term "magnet Improvement Act, direct federal school" describes an support foi magnet schools came to elementary or a halt. Nevertheless the magnet secondary school school concept continued to spread, organized around a and during the next year nearly 140 central purpose or theme and school districts throughout the offering a program so outstanding nation operated more than 1,000 as to cause parents to ignore any magnet schools and programs other considerations and enroll supported only with local funds. their children in it. In 1984 Congress again enacted Although that concept is not new legislation supporting magnet in American education, today's schools and programs and calling magnet school movement was for annual appropriations of $75 launched only a decade ago by the million for three years. Under the "Glenn Amendment" to the bill school districts would have the Emergency School Aid Act. This opportunity to plan, create, and called for the allocation of federal expand the magnet school concept. funds with which a local Given the persistent budget crunch educational agency could create "a there is of course considerable school or educational center that question as to whether any future operated a special curriculum appropriations will be approved. capable of attracting substantial Meanwhile the Department of numbers of students of different Education issued proposed racial backgrounds." regulations that would help The magnet school was in short compensate school districts an alternative to "forced busing." receiving $1 million less for magnet Today such schools are to be found schools under the new arrangement in virtually every state, especially in than they originally did under the urban areas, and there would Emergency School Aid Act. In appear to be a decreasing emphasis practice that means Chicago, New on desegregation and a growing York, St. Louis, the District of emphasis on the uniqueness or Columbia, Buffalo, Philadelphia, quality of the school program. Cleveland, Dallas, New Orleans, With the enactment in 1982 of Seattle, and Milwaukee. the Education Consolidation and 211 200 Education in Canada

anadians in 1982 by the legislatures of the provinces, severed their last the equivalent of U.S. states. formal legislative ties In the Constitution Act, with Great Britain. Canadians opted to retain the They obtained the delegation of authority that had right to amend the British North served education through the years. America Act, the constitution Thus, Canada continues to created for them by the British educate nearly 5 million elementary Parliament when Canada was given and secondary students in public Dominion status in 1867. schools controlled by the ten In the Constitution Act of 1982, provinces, with considerable Canadians set up a formula for authority delegated to local amending this century-old jurisdictions. In some provinces, constitution. However, they left one separate church-related schou'is also very important provision are largely supported by t'.x dollars. intactcontrol of public education. According toEducation in The British North America Act Canada, 1984,published by the had specified that "in and for every feder 1 government in Ottawa, province the (provincial) legislature Canaua spent $19.3 billion in school may exclusively make laws in year 1982-83 to operate its public :elation to education." schools and provide assistance to its By 1982, Canadians had had 115 separate schools. Another $8 billion years of experience with schools set went to support community up and operated under laws passed colleges and technical programs not by the federal government but below the university level. 212 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Universities received $5.6 billion. Whereas provinces once operated 201 Spending for elementary- separate academic and vocational secondary education accounted high schools, the comprehensive for 66.8 percent of total education high school offering a variety of expenditures and represented courses in both areas is today the 5.4 percent of Canada's gross rule. However, two "streams" are national product. still available. One prepares As in the United States, the students for college. The other federal government has no direct teaches occupational skills education authority. However, marketable immediately after Canadians, like Americans, have graduation or prepares students for recognized the need for federal further training at a community assistance. As Canada's population college or technical institute. has grown and its education needs Provinces have all but eliminated have proliferated, federal funds have grade promotion for high school increasingly been provided to assist graduation. Rather, students provincial schools, especially for graduate when they have vocational education. In addition, accumulated enough credits in the federal government has taken subjects chosen in consultation full responsibility for educating with parents and scht1 's. For Eskimos and Indians beyond the example, a student registered in reach of public school systems, plus grade 10 may be taking mostly children of military personnel in grade 10 subjects, but also some Canada and abroad. courses at the grade 11 or 12 level, Every province requires and some at the grade 9 level. compulsory school attendance from Furthermore, the student may age 6 or 7 to 15 or 16. School concentrate high school studies, systems usually provide 12 years of especially in the final years, in a instruction, with some local particular field such as the physical districts offering one or two years of and natural sciences, to the almost preschool education. total exclusion of others such as the As in most countries, the purpose humanities and social sciences. of elementary education in C -Ida Most provinces have abolished is to give children the knowltage graduation examinations and problem-solving skills basic to administered by their departments proceeding to higher grade levels. of education, leaving schools to set, There are enriched and accelerated conduct, and mark their own exams. programs for academically gifted However, high school graduation students. Programs for handicapped certificates are still issued by children are extensive. Public provinces on the recommendation schools provide classes for slow of individual schools. learners. Separate institutions The separate tax-supported educate blind, deaf, and mentally sectarian schools, mostly Catholic, retarded children. Where special are authorized under the Public schools for handicapped pupils School Act, though five of the ten operate within the local public provinces :nake no legislative system, the province usually provision for their support. provides 100 percent of the funding. Separate schools operate under 213 CANADA

202boards of elected trustees, as do for an elementary teaching public schools, and conform to certificate used to be a high school provincial regulations regarding education plus one year of training, length of school year, curriculum usually in a provincial teachers' requirements, textbooks, and other college. Now all teaching academic considerations. certificates require a four to five In addition to public and separate year education program at a schools, Canada has private schools university. Provinces grant operated without tax dollars and certification solely on the basis of a enrolling nearly 5 percent of candidates's university record; elementary-secondary students. however, beginning teachers are on In 1982-83, 272,300 teachers probationary contract to their were employed in public and private school board for a period of four elementary and secondary schools. years, during which time a contract Teacher training standards have may be cancelled on the advice of been significantly upgraded in the principal to the personnel recent years. The basic requirement superintendent.

r- .1111141111111M11=111119 CALL BELLS,

Of all kinds, styles, sizes and prices.Address 3. B. MERWIN, St. Louis, IIIIINNIMMIN411.17111111INIMINII 214 Toward A-1 K-8 Schools 203

First-rate elementary schools best possible education. For should have a maximum example: pupil-teacher ratio of 20 to 1, Average class-size in elementary instruct children a minimum of five schools across the nation is 25, hours a day for at least 180 days a with many classes exceeding 30. year, pay teachers for an additional Classroom observations indicate ten days of training, and have a that as much as 35 percent of the full time principal, according to a five-hour instructional time is detailed set of "Standards for lost to lunch, recess, checking Quality Elementary Schools" roll, and passing out materials. piulgated by the National Many school districts assign one Association of Elementary School principal to two or more schools. Principals (NAESP). The committee of principals that The standards of excellence were developed the standards suggested developed by a group of building that in kindergarten through third principals and cover organization, grade, pupil-teacher ratios should leadership, curriculum, instruction, be lower than average, about training and development, school 15-to-1. The goal would be. to make climate, and evaluation and sure that the youngsters received an assessment. appropriate amount of individual NAESP noted that although the attention and that learning proposed standards contain nothing problems were identified and that could be called radical, corrected early on in their school numerous schools fail to achieve careers. The committee added that themand thus fail to provide the in the upper grades, ratios could be 215 A - 1 K - 8

204expanded to about 25-to-1 without staffs, and the community at large harm. to assess the quality of their local The 60-page publication lists 21 school, and to develop a "standards of excellence" and step-by-step plan for improvement. includes an accompanying checklist NAESP said the standards had of "quality indicators." The purposely been kept flexible because statement grew out of a 1983 of the enormous variations among conference organized by NAESP, schools in such characteristics as the Johnson Foundation, the financial support, board of Carnegie Foundation for the education policies, parental Advancement of Teaching, and the convictions about what a school U.S. Department of Education. should achieve, and the NAESP noted that the doLument socioeconomic backgrounds of seeks to blend the substantial body pupils. of extant research on effective Copies of Standards for Quality schools with the practical Elementary Schools may be experience of on-line principals. obtained for $8.50 each from The goal was to produce an NAESP at 1920 Association Drive, instrument that would help parents Reston, Virginia 22091. as well as the principals, school

216 About Homework 205

he median amount of course, private high schools in homework done per general promote academic or week by all student; pre-college curricula, while public is about 5.4 hours. schools tend to be more diverse, This includes the including some schools and 12.8 percent of all students who curricula that are principally reported having no homework in an remedial or vocational, many that average week. offer general education, and some There is some variation around that are as academically advanced as this national figure of 5.4 hours. the mo t advanced private schools. The median value for high school Nevertheless, this greater diversity students was 6.9 hours, while for of public ;nstitutions and the elementary students (grades 1-8) it implicit selectivity of private was 5.0 hours. The overall schools is a major reason why the difference between white and black median levels of homework in students, while small (5.4 vs. 5.6 public and private high schools hours, or a difference of 12 differ so greatly. minutes), is statistically significant. Survey results indicate that many In public elementary school the students receive at least some help race difference of .9 hour is the only with their homework from adults in significant difference for the four their household. About 58 percent different combinations of type of of all students usually receive aid in school and grade level. In general, doing their studies. The greatest girls are reported to do more differentiation in receiving help is homework than boys. between elementary and high In recent years there has been school students, although there is some discussion of differences in ASO a distinction, though far less the educational rigor of public and substantial, between public and private schools. While students in private school students. While high private schools had a median 6.2 school students have more hours of homework per week, those homework than elementary school in public schools had about 5.4 children, they receive less help. It hours. This discrepancy becomes far may be that the age of the student more pronounced when examining is more of a factor than the amount high school students only. Public of homework in influencing high school students had a median parental aid. 6.5 hours of homework per week, while the comparative figure for Census Bureau Report P-20 private high schoolers was 14.2. Of October 1984 21.7 20,TV: The Semimarvelous Educational Medium

tudies show that aggressors and get the notion that today's youngsters mayhem is normal and even proper. spend an average of For example, a 1982 study by the 22 to 30 hours a National Institute of Mental Health week in front of the compiled ovenvhPirning evidence television set. Toddlers watch it that excessive violence on television before they begin to talk. By the leads to aggressive behavior in time young viewers finish high children and teenagers. Similarly, a school, according to David Pearl, 1984 Yale University study found a chief of the National Institute of correlation between program Mental Health's Behavioral Sciences content (as well as the number of Research Bureau, they will have hours spent watching television) devoted 22,000 hours to this passive and children's behaviorwith form of learning and entertainment, preschoolers affected the most. 11,000 hours more than they will But the p'.:ture is not all bleak. A have spent in class. government study found that TV So much TV viewing naturally viewing of no more than two hours has an effect. Critics say that fully per day had a beneficial effect on 80 percent of the shows they watch reading achievement scores for are for adults, most dealing with young children. When viewing time crime, violence, or family crises rose to more than ten hours a day, that children cannot handle as an however, the effects on reading adult would. Studies show that became detrimental. For secondary many children identify with the students, the average viewing time victims of crimes rather than the had a negative effect on reading E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

scores of brighter students but in elementary school children. CTW 207 many cases a beneficial effect for has provided what Hechinger calls less able students. "two rays of hope" for children's Teachers say that television programming. President Joan Ganz affects the attention span of Cooney has announced 20 new youngsters in the classroom, with episodes as part of the "3-2-1 many seeming unable to Contact" series and funding for a concentrate on classroom work for new math program. more than ten minutes at a time. Cable television is proving to Children's programming on the hold great promise for improving commercial networks remains the quality of children's largely confined, as it has been for programming as well as providing many years, to the weekend new outlets for programs. morning hours. Mostly it consists of Nickelodeon, for example, calls animated cartoons, heavily laced itself "The First Channel for Kids" with commercials for toys and and offers 13 hours of nonviolent sweetened cereals. All three programming for children each day. networks also offer educational As for efforts to improve the specials. quality of TV programs for children, "Captain Kangaroo" entered its principals serving on the board of 29th consecutive year on CBS d;7ectors of the National Association simply because every attempt by the of Elementary School Principals network to pull it off the air has have urged interested parents and produced a bombardment of letters educators to write letters to the of outrageone of the kw networks and local stations examples of how effective the ublic protesting programs they find can be hen sufficiently aroused. offensive and praising .garticularly Yet, according to New York outstanding shows. Both the Times writer Fred Hechinger, networks and local stations report children's programming must that they rarel> hear from the largely depend on public television. public one way or the other, and "The networks have virtually thus must be guided by the handful abandoned children's programs," of viewers who determine the Hechinger says. "Public television, Neilson ratings. which continues to offer a few good NAESP notes that not many children's programs, suffers from a people realize that Congress grants severe financial drought." free use of the airways to ''ublic Broadcasting System broadcasters and frequently holds stations currently dt*_,ote some five hearings on proposed changes in daytime hours each weekday to federal laws governing the industry. children's programs, most of them Community action groups can originally underwritten with federal request time to present their views funds. They include "Mister Rogers' at these hearings. Neighborhood," and the Children's Members of Congress have Television Workshop (CTW) spoken out in support of children's programs "Electric Company," programming. Representative "Sesame Street," and "3-2-1 Timothy Wirth (D-CO), chairman Contact," a science program for of the House Subcommittee on 219 T V

208 Telecommunications, Consumer Educators and parents who want Protection and Finance, has to plan ahead for educational charged that the networks seek programming should write or call complete deregulation "so that the networks or other programming there will be no check on what they providers directly to gain are doing" for children. He information on scheduled programs introduced legislation requiring the and specials. Following are some networks to reserve one hour a day addresses and telephone numbers for children. And in August 1984, that may be helpful. Senator Frank R. Lautenberg (D-NJ) introduced a bill requiring Networks television broadcasters to schedule at least one hour of educational ABC children's programming per day. He 1330 Avenue of the Americas points to statistics showing that the New York, NY 10019 number of hours per week devoted 212/887-7777 to children's programming has declined from 10 to 4 hours over CBS the past 10 years. 51 West 52nd Street Today a number of national New York, NY 10019 organizations are strong public 212/975-4321 interest advocates, working with the television industry and the NBC government, as well as through the 30 Rockefeller Plaza courts, to upgrade programming. New York, NY 10020 Among the most prominent of these 212/664-4444 advocates are Action for Children's Television, Accuracy in Media, the Public Television National Black Media Coalition, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting National Coalition on TV Violence, 1111 16th Preet, NW and the Telecommunications Washington, DC 20036 Research and Action Center. 202/293-6160 KIDSNET, a new project expected to begin operation in 1986, will Public Broadcasting Service offer a computerized clearinghouse 475 L'Enfant Plaza, SW to improve the quality and quantity Washington, DC 20024 of children's radio and television 202/488-5000 programs. Community groups can have the Children's Television Workshop greatest impact on cable TV, since (CTW) cable franchises are awarded and One Lincoln Plaza renewed by local government New York, NY 10023 officials. Communities that know 212/595-3456 what they want in the way of educational and public service Cable Television programs have the clout to get it simply by choosing a franchisee Nickelodeon that will provide it. Warner Amex Satellite 220 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Entertainment Co. Washington, DC 20005 209 1133 Avenue of the Americas 202/783-4406 New York, NY 10036 212/944-5481 Action for Children's Television 46 Austin Street Home Box Office Newtonville, MA.02160 1271 Avenue of the Americas 617/527-7870 New York, NY 10020 212/484-1000 National Black Media Coalition 1802 T Street, NW The Learning Channel (ACSN) Washington, DC 20009 1200 New Hampshire Avenue, NW 202/387-8155 Suite 240 Washington, DC 20036 202/331-8100 National Council for Children and Television Cable Satellite Public Affairs 20 Nassau Street Network (C-SPAN) Suite 200 400 North Capitol Street, NW Princeton, NJ 08540 Washington, DC 20001 609/921-3639 202/737-3220 Prime Time School Television The Disney Channel 60 East Huron Street 4111 West Alameda Chicago, IL 60611 Burbank, CA 91505 312/787-7600 213/840-1874 Teachers Guides to Television KidVid Network 699 Madison Avenue ARP Films New York, NY 10021 342 Madison Avenue 212/688-0033 New York, NY 10173 212/867-1700 Telecommunications Research and Some Resource Groups Action Center P.O. Box 12038 Accuracy in Media Washington, DC 20005 1341 G Street, NW 202/462-2520

221 oThe American Library

here are over 100,000 project of a public nature, that for a libraries in the subscription library." Thus in 1731 United States today, came the founding of the Library routinely patronized Company of Philadelphia, which by more than half of some 40 years later Franklin the country's adult population and described as "the nr,ther of all the most of its young. North American subscription Together these far-flung libraries, now so numerous." repositories circulate some two In effect the subscription library billion books, not to speak of vast was a corporation, enlisting a numbers of tapes, phonograph monetary contribution from each records, cassettes, pictures, and shareholder for the purchase of photographs. Clearly, the American books to be used for communal library is a basic fixture of our purposes, and establishing the national life. regulations for their circulation and Its beginnings go back to a use. person who contributed so much to These so-called "social libraries" our nation's remarkable evolution, flourished for over a hundred years, Benjamin Franklin. When still in to widespread acclaim. As the years his 20s Franklin proposed to his passed, however, politicians, fellow members of the Philadelphia orators, and private individuals Junto that they expand their alike lost no occasion to point out individual libraries by "clubbing our :hat the newly formed Republic books. Soon afterward he began called for the enlightment of all its what he described as his "first citizens. Surely, they argued, 222 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

wealth alone could not be the basis the Dewey Decimal System, the 211 for the diffusion of knowledge. It system of classification used today was in this spirit that in 1803 a New by most American libraries and by England bookseller and author libraries in many countries abroad. named Caleb Bingham donated a Out of the Philadelphia meeting collection of books for the free use came a decision to form a of the children of his permanent organization. Thus was birthplaceSalisbury, Connecticut. born the American Library His project was a landmark, for it so Association, with Melvil Dewey impressed the citizens of Salisbury devising its motto: "The best that they ultimately authorized the reading for the greatest number at town selectmen to expend tax the least cost." money to maintain and enlarge Mr. Meanwhile the money that had Bingham's handsome gift. begun to flow to libraries from taxes Hesitantly, the idea of public was for a time outshone by private support for libraries caught on: New philanthropy. The greatest York state in 1835 passed enabling contribution came from the legislation permitting school donations of Andrew Carnegie, districts to raise funds for the Scottish-born and reared in a purchase of books, and within little Pennsylvania mill town. His more than a decade several other benefactions not only helped to states had copied the New York establish about 2,800 libraries in example. the English-speaking world but by Of greater impact was the stimulating public authorities to adoption of state legislation provide matching funds, led to a authorizing cities and towns to transition from the patrician nature establish free, tax-supported public of library support during the libraries. In 1848, Massachusetts nineteenth century to the more passed a law granting such egalitarian mode of the twentieth. authorization to the city of Boston, As the power of private and a year later New Hampshire philanthropy waned, it was perhaps passed similar legislation applying inevitable that the trail of American to any city in the state. library development would in time By 1876 American libraries had lead to the largest of the public become so widespread that a purses, that of the federal national conference was held in government. Congress had itself Philadelphia to give those created the greatest of the nation's responsible for their operation an libraries, the Library of Congress, opportunity to exchange ideas and and in 1956 enacted the Library plan for future developments. Services Act. Signed into law by The session was called together President Dwight Eisenhower, this by one of the leading librarians in pioneer legislation authorized the nation's historyMelvil Dewey. federal funds for the extension of An 1874 graduate of Amherst public library services to those College, Dewey had remained at the communities having fewer than college for two years as a librarian, 10,000 inhabitants. Then during the focusing on the problems of library 1960s came federal support for all filing and cataloging. The resultwas public libraries regardless of their '223 AMERICANLIBRARY

212si7,3, for libraries in the colleges and 1983 funded the programs at the universities (via Title II-A, the 1981 levels$2 million for college Higher Education Act of 1965), and and university libraries and $60 for the development of libraries in million for public libraries. In 1984, the public schools (through Title II, Congress eliminated the program the Elementary and Secondary serving 2,000 libraries in higher Education Act of 1965). With the education institutions, instead exception of those supported by voting $6.8 million to advance business and industry, all types of scholarship and train librarians for libraries were thus covered by some 40 major research libraries. federal legislation, though the level However, funding for public of support to be made available each libraries rose dramatically, to $80 year has been and remains a subject million in 1984 and $118 million in of much debate. 1985. A new programLibrary In 1981 the federal program to Services to Indian Tribessets assist school libraries was included aside 2 percent of the $118 million by Congress in the block grant to to improve public libraries operated states created by Chapter II of the by Indian tribal councils. Education Consolidation and Meanwhile new needs and Improvement Act. Along with a pressures have been bringing major number of other elementary and changes in the character of the secondary education programs, the library. Americans are confronted school library program thus lost its by a "knowledge explosion" that has identity in the pooling of programs in turn produced what might be and funds. States may use block called a "publications avalanche." grant money to assist libraries so Drugstores, airline and train long as the activity falls in one of terminals, cigar counters, the three broad categories supermarkets, and a vast number of authorized by Chapter II: basic bookstores make reading fare skills instruction, educational available in amounts that stagger improvement and support services, the imagination. and special projects. At the same time, while graphic For the college and university records continue to be important, library program and the public the impact of television and other library program, the Reagan electronic mediaabove all the Administration requested zero. computerhas made the operation funding for four consecutive years, of the library far different than it 1982-85. Congress in 1982 and was only a few decades ago.

224.. Current Bookson 213 Education

Against Mediocrity: The Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Humanities in America's High Washington, DC 20036; 296p., Schools, edited by Chester Finn, Jr., $18.95. For those who attended a project of the Educational country schools, this book will have Excellence Network of Vanderbilt deep personal interest; for those University's Institute for Public who didn't, it is a "window on the Policy Studies and supported by the past." Through more than 400 National Endowment for the photographs and a text that Humanities, Holmes & Meier describes both the architecture of Publishers, 30 Irving Place, New schools and the learning that took York, NY 10003; 276p., $11.50 place inside them, the book explains paper. Contributors to the volume how country schools fit into the articulate the importance of fabric of American society. Much of humanities studies, for students as the content is previously well as society as a whole. They unrecorded. A special section deals address such issues as academic with country schools as they are discipline versus methodological today, some restored and some preparation for teachers, how being reused. humanities get lost in the structure of schools, and ideal versus actual Becoming Readers in a Complex offerings currently in English, Society, edited by Alan Purves and history and foreign languages. Olive Niles, 83rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of America's Country Schools, by Education, University of Chicago Andrew Culliford, National Trust Press, 5801 South Ellis Avenue, for Historic Preservation, 1785 Chicago, IL 60637; 312p., $20.00.

1 225 CURRENT BOOKS 214Focusing on reading from the Legal Rights of Children, edited by middle school years on, this volume Robert Horowitz and Howard examines possible causes for the Davidson, Shepard's/McGraw-Hill, decline in reading performance and P.O. Box 1235, Colorado Springs, responses to it. A major point is CO 80901; 674p., $70.00 plus that new technologies, such as the postage and tax. Although dealing computer, create a dependence on with a technical subject, the volume reading, rather than decrease its is a highly readable description of importance. "Making sense out of the law and the issues involved with print" (their definition of thz, real children's rights. Of particular meaning of reading) is explored, as interest to educators are chapters is the theme that becoming a good on the legal rights of adolescents, reader is a never-ending process. family child abuse, children living apart from their parents, the juvenile justice system, education Developing Character: rights, and education of Transmitting Knowledge, by handicapped children. Edward Wynne, Herbert Walberg and others, Thanksgiving Statement Group, c/o ARL, 2605 West 147th Street, Posen, IL 60649; 36p., The Nature of the Child, by Jerome $4.00. Endorsed by 27 educators, Kagan, Basic Books, Inc., 10 East scholars, and others, the 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022; "Thanksgiving Day Statement" calls 309p., $22.50. In a blend of science for schools to reassume their role of and philosophy, Kagan, professor of teaching morals as part of the developmental psychology at learning process. The statement Harvard University, challenges advocates higher academic many assumptions about child standards, grouping by ability, and development. Early childhood graduate training for teachers. experience, for example, does not permanently stamp a person; rather, human beings change Horace's Compromise: The constantly, and experiences take on Dilemma of the American High new meanings throughout life. He School, by Theodore Sizer, argues that children are cosponsored by the National "biologically" capable of acquiring Association of Secondary School moral standards and that the family Principals and the Commission on has less influence on the Educational Issues of the National experiences of the child than Association of Independent Schools, traditionally believed. Throughout Houghton Mifflin Company, 2 Park the book, Kagan relates his views to Street, Boston, MA 02108; 241p., situations within schools as well as $16.95. This report by the former within families. dean of the Harvard Graduate School of Education, based on two years of visits to public and private OffAir Videotaping in Education, schools, emphasizes the point that by Esther Sinofsky, R.R. Bowker educational reform begins at the Co., 205 East 42nd Street, New school level. York, NY 10017, 163p., $27.50. 226 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986 AM With an estimated half-million early 1930s brought school 215 teachers using television programs supporters together, and coupled off -air in their classrooms, some with New Deal policies, the schools guidelines seem in order. This book became a center for social cohesion, provides a historical perspective on although the policies were showing the debate over taping of TV signs of inadequacy as the nation programsthe producer's side as entered World War II. The authors well as the educator viewpoint. say the scarcity of resources today, Examined are the "fair use" compared to what the country doctrine, the duration of copyright, could provide, "threatens to dim how to arrange for legal taping, and the vision" of the schools as an penalties for illegal taping. Also "energizing dream of social included are the text of copyright justice." laws, guidelines, a glossary, and a bibliography. Redefining General Education in The Paideia Program: An the American High School, by Educational Syllabus, Mortimer Gordon Cawelti and Arthur Roberts; Adler, Macmillan Publishing Co., Association for Supervision and 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY Curriculum Development, 10022; 238p., $4.95 paper. The 225 North Washington Street, third and last book in the Paideia ?iexandria, VA 22314; 160p., $8.50. Group project, this one is aimed at In this summary of the experiences teachers who want to adopt the of 17 high schools that formed a Paideia ideas for their classrooms. network to restructure their core The Paideia proposals would provide curriculums, the authors point out one track of education for all that careful examination and students, with common learning of compromise play an important role a quality curriculum. Different in the change process. The report authors explore how to teach provides guidelines for schools English and literature, math, seeking to make long-term science, history, social studies, curriculum changes. foreign language, the fine arts, the manual arts, the world of work, and School Discipline: Order and physical education. Other chapters Autonomy, by Ellen Jane tell how to structure a Paideia Hollingsworth and others, Praeger school and grading policies. Publishers, 383 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10017;174p., $24.95. Public Schools in Hard Times: The A report of a research study on Great Depression and Recent Years, schools in Wisconsin, the book by David '1'),ack and others, Harvard concludes that serious discipline is University Press, 79 Garden Street, uncommon, as perceived by Cambridge, MA 02138; 267p., students and teachers, and that $20.00. In both the Depression and discipline systems are the chaotic changes of today, the "unpredictable," a factor acceptable basic stability of public education to the "dynamics of school life." shines through, contend the There are problems of enforcing authors. Fiscal retrenchment in the discipline, however, such as "22 7 CURRENT BOOKS

216discrimination on the basis of Washington Street, Alexandria, VA "perceivea iev..! of intelligence." 22314; 145p., $9.50. The authors Also, schools find it hard to cope begin with descriptors of the nature with troubled students. The of teachingthat style is researchers add that the inclination personalized, rewards are derived of junior and middle schools to from students, teaching and respond to the diversity of their learning links are uncertain, the students by enforcing order may be knowledge base is weak, goals are harmful to students. vague and conflicting, control norms are necessary, professional Self-Discipline, Schools, and the support is lacking, and teaching, in Business Community, by Amitai the final analysis, is an art that Etzioni for the National Chamber cannot be made scientific. The Foundation, 1615 H Street, NW, authors explore in detail the Washington, DC 20062; 47p., $8.50. environment of an elementary Behind many of the employer school classroom and a secondary complaints about the lack of school classroom, with case studies preparedness of high school for both. Also examined are the graduates for work, says Etzioni, nature of school leadership and lies the absence of "character what researchers have to say about development." Many of today's school improvement. Their theme young people have not developed is that each school is different enough self-discipline to cope with ideas may come to the school "and rules and routines, he says. He then a host of other factors are makes a distinction between unleashed." discipline and self-discipline. The former tends to produce "passive, Teacher Unions in Schools, Susan compliant workers," while the latter Moore Johnson, Temple University produzes workers who are creative, Press, Broad and Oxford Streets, take the initiative, and become Philadelphia, PA 19122; 253p., more actively involved in their $29.95. The organizational impact work. His report suggests steps of teacher unionization on schools schools should take to improve has been considerable, says the self-discipline, including more author, but it is neither as extreme research on the ways to strengthen nor as uniform as many would character traits such as suppose. Different schools will independence, more challenging experience different results from curriculum, more opportunities for collective bargaining, she says, and students to do analytical reasoning, teachers and principals tend to and the improvement of students' remake policies stemming from study skills and habits. collective bargaining to suit their past practices or current Teachers, Their World, and Their preferences. Work: Implications for School Improvement, by Ann Lieberman Teaching Reading and Writing and Lynne Miller, Association for Together, by Carol Smith and Karin Supervision and Curriculum Dahl, Teachers College Press, Development, 225 North Teachers College, Columbia

228. .. EDUCATION ALM A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

University, 1234 Amsterdam and Johnson Years, by Hugh Davis 217 Avenue, New York, NY 1e027; Graham, University of North 196p., $16.95. Now that computer Carolina Press, P.O. Box 2288, programs have sparked the linking Chapel Hill, NC 27514; 280p., of reading and writing with young $22.00. Taking the view that federal children, this book adds a policies under Presidents Kennedy philosophical as well as practical and Johnson sought to help the basis to the interest. By deliberately bottom one-fifth of the nation's tying the two together, say the school childrenand basically authors, teachers can show students failedthe author seeks to find out the mutual benefits of thoughts and why. These initiatives were "vastly language. The book provides overwhelmed" by the social tides strategies and specific activities for around them, Graham says, and linking reading and writing "ina were never funded adequately. natural way." However, he says, another contributing factor was that they The Uncertain Triumph: Federal were accompanied by inhibiting Education Policy in the Kennedy controls.

I

229 8PR--An Education Priority

or the information such a plan needs to include these age of the 1980s, a elements: priority item on the The PR messages that are to be agenda of everyone communicated to the various concerned with publics education's continued progress is The methods by which each such the challenge of winning public message is to be conveyed commitment and support. newsletters, printed In practice, "public must be announcements, brochures, films, understood to include many slide/tape presentations, flyers, "publics," internal and external. memos, news releases, speeches, Prominent among them are etc. parents, community leaders, civic Arrangements for internal officials, taxpayers, teachers, communications, through such support staff members, and methods as discussions, open studentsthe various groups of house/receptions, parent-teacher people whose opinions and feelings conferences, seminars, staff directly bear on a school's meetings, team projects, telephone operation. conversations, workshops, etc. Winning the approval of these The next step, of course, is to publics calls for a PR plan developed execute the plan. A professional by each district superintendent or public relations person can probably school building principal in concert do the job most effectively, but with his or her total staff, both really, PR is a game that almost support and professional. Basically anyone can play. The basic 2 3.0 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

requirement is simply a devotion to person to be turned to for inside 219 fact rather than hyperbole. Contrary information and opinion. What to a large body of public opinion, such people say to their friends and sound PR is a matter of reliable, neighbors can build support for a straightforward communication, school or turn people off, create not con artistry. confidence in a district or arouse In any case, with the messages suspicion. having been determined, the Building on a foundation of staff practice of PR consists of arranging support and cooperation, good for audiences to hear those public relations can be stimulated messages. The most effective way of by means of a number of specific reaching mass audiences is through activities. newspaper and TV publicity, and that means establishing contacta Principals Can... telephone call is all it takes to start Put together a slide/tape the ball rollingwith education cassette program about editors and reporters. school to show parents and the Plans and messages and press community. releases and slide programs Develop a school slogan or theme. notwithstanding, good PR for any Produce videotapes of school school or school district or other programsreading, math, the arts, education entity must begin with etc.for showing to parents, the involvement and participation community groups, churches, and of every person who works in the service clubs. school building, district agency, Turn the staff and visitors "on" association, or whatever. They and with unmistakable enthusiasm their superiors need to be aware about the school and the students' that in the long run, they represent achievements. "school." They are seen by the Know what's going on public as being both the school's districtwide and build an informal representative and "an authority" communications network with on everything that takes place in other principals and with leaders of the school (or district or parent groups. agency)its policies, goals, Establish a building newsletter practices, standards: the works. issued on a regular scheduleone "You should know," people tell full of names and reports of them "after all, you work there." activities. The "you should know" concept Prepare a hand-out map of the applies to everyone from the school for parents and visitors with principal and building secretary and teachers' names and room numbers classroom teachers to the and an indication of "Where custodian, students, school bus visitors startfrom!" drivers, volunteers, substitute Visit the local media and invite teachers, food service people, and representatives to visit the school; all others who work at the school. A emphasize the school's strong person importantly involved in points; don't assume people know. education becomes in the public eye Arrange for members of the board a spokesman for educationa of education and other community '23.1 P R

220 leaders (along with the During the school year send superintendent) to visit the school "happy grams" or "good news and spend some time in the bulletins"or make "good news" classrooms with students and telephone calls to parents. teachers. Make parents feel at ease about Regularly keep in touch with state asking questions or raising representatives and Members of problems, particularly keeping in Congress; send them the school mind the situation of single parents newsletter; invite them to school or two career parent families. activities; keep them informed about the impact of school Dealing with the Media legislation they have been Keep in mind that the media begin involved with. with a bias in your direction. The reporters have children, and they Teachers Can.. . want their children to receive the Help parents prepare for best possible education. So if a teacher conferences by sending school or district or agency is doing them a summary of items to be good things, they want to know discussed and ask them to prepare a about it. What they do not want is a list of questions. snow job. Don't try to be cute with At open house events, the media, and do not seek coverage arrange that self-portraits or of a program or event or Polaroid pictures be on students' achievement unless what you are chairs for the guidance uf parents talking about is truly significant. and guests. Here are some tips to consider in Become involved with parents and regard to media relationships: the community through social Take the time to get acquainted activities, church, athletic events, with the newspaper and TV and membership in local clubs and reporters who cover education in groups. your community. Talk with them Keep parents abreast of what is about their interests, needs, and going on in the classroom, requirements. Telephone or visit especially noting such departures them regularly, making sure you from the norm as extra homework have something significant to tell or long-term assignments. them. Communicate in simple language Learn their deadlines and the --steadfastly avoid educational form in which they want to receive jargon. information from you. Talk with Be informed about education them about this. issues. Invite reporters and editors to Help students get noticed in the school to tour your operation and community by arranging for discuss the programs with members displays of their work (and of the staff and students. Ask the information about their reporters for their suggestions aL.hievements) in banks, libraries, about ways you can help.them get a and other public places. meaty education story. Return telephone calls and Regularly feed the media ideas for respond to notes promptly. stories about the education 232 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

program, though be sure the story PR approaches include the 221 ideas have substance. Try mailing a following: weekly tip sheet of story ideas. Be positivetell about the good For students things the students are achieving Provide a "time-out-hour" once a and explain in uncomplicated month during v-t..ich interested language your plans for helping the students discuss topics of general students do even better. school concern and develop ideas Respond promptly to a reporter's for submission to the principal. or editor's requests for information; Make sure that students receive don't stall them in order to have recognitionthrough items placed time to write a prepared statement on bulletin boards, certificates of unless, of course, you are dealing achievement, letters to parents, etc. with an especially delicate matter, and not only for academic in which case take all the time the contributions to the school or situation calls for. community. Requesting a retraction of a story Establish principal "rap" sessions you feel is incorrect seldom if ever in individual classrooms. gets results, so instead call the Organize a student/faculty reporter and provide ideas and exchange day to give students and suggestions of ways you can help staff an opportunity to learn how the reporter develop accurate the other half lives. stories. Conduct a student attitude survey IP- -n a reporter calls, give all developed by a joint committee of your information in a positive and teachers and students. open manner. Answer what you Use the "buddy" system of can. Do not try to "go off the assigning a student to each new record," in your remarks. student for the first week; have a Invite members of the media to packet of information ready to serve on a panel at a PTA or PTO distribute to each newcomer. meeting and discuss coverage of school news. For Parents Remember the old saw that says, Send newsletters and other "Don't argue with someone who communications on a regular buys ink by the barrel." These schedule; build in feedback people are in the business of selling questions, perhaps providing a newspapersnot operating schools. Coupon. Prepare and circulate parent handbooks or flyers on such topics PR for Certain Publics of critical concern as discipline, While the media can do a great deal drug abuse, and parent-teacher to help schools, school districts, conferences, and on district and other entities get through to policies, rules, and regulations. their "publics," much also can be Invite parents to have lunch at done through direct the school cafeteria with the communic Ion. With regard to principal and teachers. schools and those most directly Organize a breakfast club for concerned with them, worthwhile working parents offering coffee and P R

222a Danish with the principal and staff watchers in anti-vandalism at 7:00 a.m. campaigns. Similarly arrange for special Provide churches with conferences and programs during announcements about school evening hours. activities for their bulletinsjoin Stimulate block "coffees" forces with churches to meet arranged by parents and attended by critical community concerns. the principal and/or teachers to Place the school newsletter in informally talk about the school barber shops or other places where program. people gather. Issue tip sheets on ways parents Encourage a two-way flow of can help their children learn at communication between schools home, including advice on doing and the community by identifying homework. "key communicators" and seeing to Encourage the PTA or PTO to set it that they receive a steady flow of up a (*welcome wagon" to tell new information about the school as parents and residents about your background for alerting you to school. community concerns. Make "good news" phone calls, Have an outdoor bulletin board congratulating parents on their marqueeto "advertise" not just children's special achievement. school activities but the school program. For Nonparents Provide realtors in the community with brochures about For Board of Education Members the school and district and arrange Be sure members of the board of tours, using the ther:-.i: To sell a education are on the mailing list for house--sell a school." your newsletter. Identify senior citizens in the Invite the board members to a school's area and invite them to potluck supper and informal participate as volunteers, aides, evening with principal and staff for tutorshelping write newsletters open-ended discussion. and working with students. Invite board members to visit the Provide service clubs with school and see a videotape/slide/ speakers- perhaps including a tape cassette program designed to panel of two or three students acquaint parents and the talking about the school program ur community with the school's goal: about their feelings about school; and with school activities. invite clubs to hold meetings at the Send notes of appreciation to school and then tour the facilities board members for particular and visit with staff and students. actions they have taken to help the Develop a School/Business school. partnership through an Send them copies of school Adopt-a-School program. materialsreports about new Invite people who live in the programs, handbooks, Rte. immediate vicinity of the school Attend board meetings and as building to attend school affairs and appropriate provide information enlist their support as school about the school program.

, 234 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985 - 1986 Invite members of the board to at which the instructional staff 223 take part in a block "coffee." discusses various aspects of the Invite individual board members school program. to discuss their background and Provide human relations training their responsibilities on the board for total staff. with the students in an information Provide "coffee break rooms" for session. all staff not just teachers and Invite the board to hold one of its administrators. regular meetings in your school Schedule meetings with support building and encourage staff, staff to underscore their value to students, parents, and neighbors to the school district. attend. Encourage the cafeteria staff to develop an orientation program for For Support Staff new first graders. Regularly include members of the After field trips, follow-up with support staff in meetings of the school bus drivers; discuss the overall school staff to exchange importance of their relationships ideas, review communication plans, with students, parents, and the etc. community at large. Include support staff in an awards Include support staff in special program that recognizes years of school activities. service and contributions to the Get everyone involved in teacher community. orientation sessionsfor example, Provide inservice training ask the school secretary to describe programs for support staff members office procedures.

Now is Your Time! Bargain prices will be advanced March ist, '99.Write at once for bargain circular. Our Magic Lanterns and Stereopticons in use by thousands of lantern experts. J. B. COLT & COMPANY, Dept. E 7, 5-7.9 West 39th Street, New York. (-235 224 Landmark Dates in American Education 4

1635 1647 Establishment of Boston Latin With "Ye Old Deluder Satan" Act, School marked the beginning of Massachusetts established town public education in North America. schools to redress the legal inconsistency of compelling parents 1636 and masters to educate children in Harvard College, first higher the absence of a formal school education institution in the English structure or qualified teachers to do colonies, was founded (primarily to it. train clergymen). 1779 1642 As governor, Thomas Jefferson A Massachusetts Act required proposed a statewide system of compulsory education of children public schools in Virginia, a by parents and masters of young proposal defeated by the legislature. apprentices, with instruction to include religious principles, colonial laws, and a useful trade. 1785 The law did not, however, provide A Land Ordinance for governance of for schools. By 1671, all New the Northwest Territory set aside a England colonies except Rhode parcel of land in each six-square- Island had similar laws. mile township for a public school. 236 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

1787 senator Horace Mann as secretary. 225 The Northwest Ordinance His eloquent advocacy led to a reaffirmed the 1785 Ordinance, statewide system of free public holding that "schools and the schools, a systematic approach to means of education shall be forever education subsequently adopted by encouraged" in the western lands. other states. These land grants for schools are regarded by many as the first 1845 general aid to education by the The nation's first state association federal government. of teachers was organized in Rhode Island. 1795 The University of North Carolina 1857 was chartered as the first state Gallaudet College, this country's university. only liberal arts college for the deaf, had its beginnings with the 1821 establishment in Washington, D.C., of Columbia Institution to serve Emma Willard founded Troy (N.Y.) handicapped students. The name of Female Seminary as the first the private, coeducational college women's college in the United was changed in 1894 to honor States. Thomas H. Gallaudet, pioneer American educator of the deaf. 1833 Oberlin College admitted women to 1860 become the first coeducational Elizabeth Peabody founded the first college. kindergarten in the United States for English-speaking children after 1836 German immigrants introduced the William Holmes McGuffey concept in classes taught in published the first in a series of German. readers for elementary and secondary pupils stressing moral 1862 and ethical values in poetry and The First Morrill Act, sponsored by prose by distinguished American Congressman (later Senator) Justin and English authors. By 1920, 122 Morrill of Vermont, authorized million copies had been sold. The states to sell 10 million acres of book is still in use in some federal land and use the proceeds to localities, although it has recently establish land-grant colleges for been criticized by a number of research and instruction in education organizations for being agriculture and mechapical arts. archaic and sexist. 1865 1837 The Federal Freedman's Bureau was Massachusetts created the state founded to care for freed slaves in board of education and named state the South. With grants to g3,7 LANDMARK DATES

226 missionary societies to build and already in place, the high school staff schools, the bureau provided was needed to bridge the gap. elementary education to some 250,000 black children and adults before its abolition in 1870. 1890 The Second Morrill Act provided annual federal support for Shaw University and Virginia Union were founded to provide higher land-grant college programs. education for black students. 1900 1867 Creation of the College Entrance Congress created the Department of Examination Board provided an Education as an independent federal instrument for uniformity in agency to collect and distribute college entrance examinations. information on the condition of American education. Heading the 1917 department as U.S. Commissioner The Smith-Hughes Act authorized of Education was Connecticut federal funds to improve vocational education reformer Henry Barnard. education below college level Fearing federal control of assistance viewed by many as the education, Congress in 1868 first federal categorical aid to downgraded the Department of education. Education to a bureau in the Department of the Interior. 1944 Philanthropist George Peabody The Servicemen's Readjustment Act established the Peabody Fund with (G. I. Bill) provided college, $2 million to improve public technical, and on-the-job training schools in the South. By for World War II veterans. Under concentrating, in a few established this and similar bills for veterans of schools, on improvements that the wars in Korea and Vietnam, could be adopted by others, the 27.5 million ex-servicemen and fund influenced grant policies of women were educated. many private foundations. The Fulbright Act, sponsored by Senator J. William Fulbright of 1873 Arkansas, provided fellowships for St. Louis made kindergarten a part American students, teachers, and of its public school system. scholars to study abroad.

1874 1953 In theKalamazoo Decision, Having earlier been upgraded from Michigan's Supreme Court upheld Bureau of Education to Office of the right of a community to tax Education, the federal education citizens for support of high schools, agency became a unit in the new ruling that since elementary Department of Health, Education, schools and a state university were and Welfare. 28 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 1954 Congress in 1981 reauthorized 227 In Brown v. Board of Education, Title I as Chapter I of the Education the U.S. Supreme Court ordered Consolidation and Improvement districts with dual school systems Act. Funding for school year for black and white children to 1983-84 was $3.16 billion. desegregate with "all deliberate speed." The Higher Education Act included programs to strengthen academic programs of colleges and 1955 universities, including black The first White House Conference institutions. The Guaranteed on Education was held. Student Loan Program provided low-interest loans to help 1958 financially needy college students. The National Defense Education ActAmerica's response to the 1966 1957 Soviet launching of Sputnik, The International Education Act the first earth-orbiting satellite strengthened education resources provided federal aid to improve in international studies and instruction in physical sciences and research. infrequently taught foreign languages. 1972 In an Education Amendments Act, 1963 Congress authorized nonrepayable' grants to needy students to attend The Higher Education Facilities Act college or postsecondary technical authorized federal aid for construction and rehabilitation of schools. The Education Amendments also included the college and university facilities. Indian Education Act to address the special education needs of Indian The U.S. Supreme Court ruled children and adults. unconstitutional state laws requiring recitation of the Lord's Prayer or Bible verses in schools. 1973 The Rehabilitation Act (Section 504) prohibited discrimination 1965 against physically, mentally, or Congress passed the Elementary emotionally handicapped persons in and Secondary Education Act, schools and other federally assisted ending a 20-year debate on the institutions. constitutionality of major federal aid to education. Title I, the largest 1974 and most significant section of the In Lau v. Nichols, the Supreme Act, addressed the special learning Court ruled that schools receiving needs of disadvantaged children. By federal funds must provide 1980, schools in poor appropriate programs to assist neighborhoods received $3 billion a Oriental and other year to aid 5 million children. non-English-speaking students.

<2j 9 LANDMARK DATES

228 1975 to states and communities for any The Education for All Handicapped school activity related to basic Children Act (Public Law 94-142) skills, school improvement, and mandated "a free appropriate special projects. Congress education" for handicapped reauthorized Title I of the children in "the least restrictive Elementary and Secondary environment," preferably in Education Act of 1965 as Chapter I cl,srooms with nonhandicapped of the new legislation but declined pupils. to include it in the block grant.

1978 1982 In a landmark reverse InNorth Haven Board of Education discrimination case, the Supreme v.Bell, the U.S. Supreme Court Court ordered a California medical ruled that Title IX of the Education school to admit Alan Bakke, a white Amendments of 1972 applies to who claimed the quota system for women employees of schools and admission of blacks had blocked his colleges as well as to students. acceptance. The Court upheld the Title IX prohibits discrimination on affirmative action concept but the basis of sex in any education stressed the need for a more flexible activity receiving federal aid. The approach. decision upholds the Title IX regulation as originally formulated by the Department of Health, 1980 Education, and Welfare and now The Department of Education was administered by the Department of established as the 13th Education. Cabinet-level federal agency. 1983 1981 A number of national studies Secretary of Education Terrel H. identified serious problems Bell withdrew bilingual regulations confronting American education to implement the 1974Lau v. and led to calls for reform at all Nicholsdecision. Proposed by the government levels. Among the Carter administration, the studies were: regulations would have required schools to teach an estimated 3.5 A Nation At Risk: The Imperative million children in their native for Educational Reform,by the language until they acquired National Commission on English proficiency. Excellence in Education; Action for Excellence,by the Congress enacted the Education Education Commission of the Consolidation and Improvement States; Act. Chapter II consolidated 42 A Place Called School,by John I. small elementary and secondary Goodlad; education programs with funds Making the Grade,a report of the totaling some $500 million. These Task Force on Federal Elementary block grant funds became available and Secondary Education Policy, =240 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

20th Century Fund; and studies (see 1983 above). Forty-one 229 High School: A Report on states have raised high school Secondary Education in America, graduation requirements. Carnegie Foundation for the Twenty-four states have lengthened Advancement of Teaching. the school day or year or devoted more of the standard school day to Congress voted $20 million to academic subjects. Forty-two states help Chicago desegregate its have raised teacher certification schools. The vote came after a requirements. federal court judge had blocked distribution of student aid and Conservative Senate opponents other Department of Education defeated the Civil Rights Act of funds until, in his view, the U.S. 1984, which would have reversed government lived up to a 1980 the Supreme Court's decision in commitment to help Chicago Grove City College v. Bell. That with its desegregation costs. decision held that federal funds President Reagan vetoed the $20 could be denied only to the specific million appropriation, saying he program found to discriminate wanted the higher courts to against women or minorities. decide the constitutional issue of Previously, an institution risked whether the judge had the power losing all federal funds. The Act to hold funds for student aid and would have restored institution- other nondesegregation purposes. wide accountability if one or more programs discriminated. 1984 One day before the veto deadline, Once court-ordered desegregation President Reagan signed the plans have been carried out, Department of Education's 1985 Norfolk, Virginia and other school appropriation bill. At $17.6 billion, districts should be allowed to end it was the highest ever, some $2 elementary school busing. So billion more than the argued the Department of Justice in Administration requested. Major a brief filed in the Fourth U.S. increases are in college student aid. Circuit Court of Appeals. Norfolk's school board approved a Secretary of Education Terrel H. reduced-busing plan in 1983, citing Bell announced his resignation two the need to stem white flight. days after the President's landslide Justice said white flight was a reelection victory. As his successor, legitimate reason to abandon President Reagan selected William busing. A federal district court has J. Bennett, chairman of the upheld the plan, and higher court National Endowment for the concurrence would provide a Humanities. He supports stronger precedent to reduce or end busing. school discipline, tuition tax credits, merit pay and competency The Department of Education tests for teachers, and greater reported positive responses by states emphasis on a liberal arts to education's problems as outlined curriculum. in A Nation At Risk and other 241 230Pathfinders in Education

Daniel Adams, 1773-1864: Amos Bronson Alcott, 1799-1888: Massachusetts physician. Adams Father of Louisa May Alcott (Little became alarmed by the lack of Women). Alcott founded schools adequate school textbooks and that stressed spiritual values as a wrote the most widely used means of "awakening the soul" of arithmetic texts of those available in students. His approach was not well the early 1800s. received in Massachusetts in the 1830s, yet Ralph Waldo Emerson Henry Brooks Adams, 1838-1918: called him the greatest man of Great-grandson of John Adams. intellect he had known. Henry Adams became famous as a historian and for his autobiography, William Andrus Alcott, 1798-1859: The Education of Henry Adams, Considered the father of health and also made significant education. William Alcott replaced contributions to education. As crude wooden benches with seats professor of medieval history at and established ventilated Harvard, he developed modern classrooms, edited the first weekly historical research techniques and periodical for children, and wrote introduced the seminar method of the first health book in language teaching. that children could understand. Louis Agassiz, 1807-1873: Swiss emigrant; zoology teacher at Edward Ellis Allen, 1861-1950: Harvard. Agassiz believed that Teacher of blind children in the students should learn from personal United States and England. Edward observations of plant and animal Allen persuaded Boston public life, not just from books. Virtually schools in 1913 to begin classes for every outstanding teacher of natural sight-impaired children, a plan soon history in the late nineteenth adopted by other school systems in century was an Agassiz pupil or the United States and Canada. An disciple. early supporter of Braille, he 2 1,2 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 sponsored scientific research in the that position he created the task 231 psychology of blindness and sought force whose report. on A Nation At to elevate teaching of blind students Risk was a key element in touching to a professional level. off a national education reform movement. He is a former Henry H. Barnard, 18114900. Commissioner of Higher Education General assembly delegate and first for Utah and was that state's chief state school officer in Superintendent of Public Connecticut. Henry Barnard worked Instruction from 1963 to 1970. with Horace Mann and others for statewide systems of public schools Mary McLeod Bethune, 1875-1955: that would reduce variations in The fifteenth and first freeborn of quality and availability of education 17 children of former slaves. within and among states. Publisher Bethune received scholarships to go for many years of a distinguished to college and dedicated her life to teacher-training periodical, the education of black children. In American Journal of Education, he 1904, she founded a school for served as first U.S. Commissioner of black girls in Daytona, Florida, later Education (1867-70). known as the coeducational Bethune-Cookman College. She Catherine Beecher, 1800-1878: served as adviser on black issues to Advocate of education for women. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman Catherine Beecher founded and as a United States Hartford Female Seminary, an representative to the founding institution that emphasized small United Nations conference in San classes, the relationship of general Francisco. principles across disciplines, and motivation of students to seek Ernest L. Boyer, 1928- : learning outside textbooks. American educator. Boyer is president of the Carnegie Alexander Graham Bell, 1847 1922: Foundation for the Advancement of American inventor and educator. Teaching, Princeton, New Jersey, Although his fame as inventor of and author of that organization's the telephone overshadowed his recent report entitled High School: contributions to the education of A Report on Secondary Education the deaf, he was also teacher and in America. He was the principal in a school for deaf twenty-third U.S. Commissioner of students. Bell developed improved Education from 1977 to 1980, and teaching techniques and became Chancellor of the State University of the leading authority on education New York from 1970 to 1977. of the deaf in the United States and England. NIcholcs Murray Butler, 1862-1947: President of Columbia University Terrel H. (Ted) Bell, 1921- : for 44 years. Butler had a central American educator. Now a professor role in founding its Teachers of Education at the University of College and enhancing the Utah, Bell was U.S. Secretary of professionalism of teacher Education from 1981 to 1984. In education. i43 PATHFINDERS

232George Washington Carver, president of Harvard, scientist, 1864?-1943: Agronomist and atomic expert, and ambassador to agricultural chemist. Carver was West Germany, Conant turned in born to slave parents and worked later life to the study of public his way through college. He was education. In The American High invited by President Booker T. School Today (1959), he advocated Washington of Tuskegee Institute in the comprehensive high school, Alabama to become the institute's influencing public policy in this director of agricultural research. direction for many years. Carver's experiments in soil management and crop production convinced farmers that they should grow sweet potatoes and peanuts to replenish soil nutrients depleted by John Dewey, 1859-1952: America's cotton. In this way he helped to best known education philosopher save the agricultural economy of of the twentieth century. Dewey the South. He also produced believed that education must build hundreds of peanut oy-products, on the child's interests, provide including ink, dyes, linoleum, classroom flexibility to enable synthetic rubber, and plastics. His students to do their own thinking, example encouraged young blacks and allow teachers to serve as to complete their higher education guides and helpers rather than as and enter scientific fields. taskmasters. Teaching at the University of Chicago and later at Columbia University, he Kenneth B. Clark, 1914-1983: revolutionized education by Psychologist. Kenneth Clark earned stressing the need to foster all a doctorate in psychology from facets of a child's mental growth. Columbia University in 1940, taught at Hampton Institute, and examinedwith Gunnar Myrdal at Hampton Institutethe role of W.E.B. Du Bois, 1868-1963: blacks in the United States, a Educator, editor, historian, and project that resulted in the advocate for black equality. After monumental study entitled An earning a PhD from Harvard American Dilemma. In 1950, Clark University, Du Bois taught history published a report showing that and economics at several colleges, school segregation impeded the gaining a national reputation as an educational and social progress of ely champion of full social and both black and white children. The economic equality for`blacks. He Supreme Court prominently cited used his compelling powers of the report in its Brown v. Board of persuasion as an educatorlater as Education decision (1954) a writer, editor, and political adviser outlawing school segregation. to black leadersto promote the civil rights cause. Du Bois was recipient of honorary degrees from James B. Conant, 1893-1978: several American universities and American educator. Renowned as was the first black to be elected to 244 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 vummamlle the National Institute of Arts and leadership in school desegregation 233 Letters (1943). Disillusioned by and standards of excellence. During American policies towards blacks, his presidency of the Carnegie he moved to and became a citizen Corporation (1955-65), that of Ghana at age 94. organization funded James B. Conant's study of the American Charles W. Eliot, 1834-1926: high school and development of the President of Harvard for 40 years. "new math." As Secretary of Health, At that institution, Eliot demanded Education, and Welfare, he was the that science as well as humanities architect of numerous "Great be a part of liberal education. He Society" education programs. abolished required courses and introduced the elective systeman John I. Goodlad, 1920- : approach modified by his American educator. Dean of the successorsand raised entrance Graduate School of Education, standards. As other colleges University of California at Los followed suit, high schools were Angeles, and Director of Research, required to raise their standards. Institute for Development of Elict advocated foreign languages Educational Activities, Inc., and mathematics in the student's Goodlad is the author or coauthor seventh school year, an idea of more than 15 books on adopted by junior high schools educational issues, of which the nationwide. most recent is A Place Called School. Thomas H. Gallaudet, 1787-1851: Pioneer in education of the deaf. William Rainey Harper, 1856-1906: Having studied the sign method of Founder of the junior college communication in Europe, movement. As president of the Gallaudet founded the first school University of Chicago, Harper in the United States for the deaf: divided it into a senior college for American Asylum for Deaf Mutes in juniors and seniors, and a junior Hartford. For a half century, his college for freshmen and school was the primary training sophomores. Suggesting to school center for teachers of the deaf. officials in nearby Joliet, Illinois, Gallaudet College, founded in 1857 that they provide two years of and still the only liberal arts college classroom work beyond high for the deaf in Arnerica, was named school, he inspired them to begin in his honor. such a program. He accepted graduates of the two-year program John W. Gardner, 1912- : in the university's senior college. Psychologist, teacher, author, government adviser, Cabinet officer, William Tony Huns, 1835-1909: and citizens' advocate. John School administrator. As St. Louis Gardner has been a major force in school superintendent, Harris was improving the quality of the one of the most foresighted American experience. In education, administrators of the late he haL combined a commitment to nineteenth century. He introduced excellence in the classroom with art, music, and industrial arts into 2'4 5 PATHFINDERS 234the school curriculum and made St. Horace Mann, 1796-1859: Father of Louis the first school system to add America's public school system. kindergartens. He served longer as Horace Mann was the first chief U.S. Commissioner of Education state school officer in Massachusetts (1889-1906) than did any other (1837-1848), where he began his person to hold that position. effort to educate rich and poor alike in neighborhood schools run by Mark Hopkins, 1802-1887: A qualified-teachers. His eloquent graduate physician turned professor advocacy led to greater tax support philosophy at Williams College. for the public schools, higher Later president of that institution, teacher salaries and standards, and Hopkins was famed not only as a compulsory attendance laws. By scholar and writer but especially as 1848, 24 of 30 states in the Union a teacher. He was in fact the hero of had followed the Massachusetts the statement by President James A. example and named a chief state Garfield that "the ideal college is school officer to improve public Mark Hopkins on one end of a log education. and a student on the other." Benjamin Mays, 1895-1984: Teacher Harold Howe II, 1918-: American and religious leader. Mays, son of educator. Known for his dedication slave parents, served for 27 years to academic rigor and reform as (1940-67) as president of teacher, principal, superintendent, Morehouse College. He was and research institute director, spiritual and education adviser to Howe served as U.S. Commissioner Martin Luther King, Jr., and others of Education (1966-68) during the who later led the civil rights period of rapidly expanding federal movement. aid to education that began with passage of the Elementary and William Holmes McGuffey, Secondary Education Act of 1965. 1800-1873: American educator and Later Howe was the Ford clergyman. McGuffey influenced Foundation's vice president for generations of children through his education; since 1982, he has been readers, which emphasized moral senior lecturer at the Harvard and ethical values as expressed in Graduate School o: Education. poetry and prose by distinguished American and English authors. By Francis Heppe!, 1916-: Innovator 1920, 122 million copies had been in teacher training. Keppel was sold. The book is still in use in Dean of the Harvard Graduate some areas, despite criticisms by a School of Education (1948-62) and number of educators that it is U.S. Commissioner of Education outdated. (1963-65). As commissioner, he was able to mediate the differences Antonia Pantoja, 1922- : between parochial and public school Champion of civil rights and groups and frame the legislation educational opportunity for Puerto that became the landmark Ricans, both at home and on the Elementary and Secondary U.S. mainland. Pantoja established Education Act of 1965. ASPIRA (to aspire) in New York City 246 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 in 1961 to help Puerto Rican youth George I. Sanchez, 1906-1972: 235 develop leadership skills oriented Elementary school teacher, college toward service ar.c1 social change in professor, author, textbook editor, their communities. She is the and federal government adviser. author of numerous studies and During the 1930s and '40s, Sanchez articles, and creator of a publishing worked virtually alone for bilingual house that produces textbooks for education for Spanish-speaking elementary schools on Puerto Rican children in the schools of Texas and contributions to American life. LI other southwestern states. During 1978, she cofounded the Graduate his 32 years as professor of Latin School for Community Amer ican education at the Development in San Diego; she is University of Texas, he saw bilingual president of that school. education become an integral part of public education, not only in the Elizabeth P. Peabody, 1804-1894: Southwest but across the nation. Founder of the first kindergarten in the United States (in Boston, in 1860). Peabody studied in Europe Sequoya, 1770?-1843: Cherokee the early childhood education linguist. Sequoya made it his methods of Friedrich Froebel, lifework to develop a system of founder of the kindergarten writing for the Cherokee people. movement, and devoted her life to The system he devised proved so starting public and private simple to learn that thousands of kindergartens and lecturing and children were able to read and write writing on the subject. in a few months. So great was his contribution to Indian literacy that Joseph Mayer Rice, 1857-1934: Oklahoma chose his statue to Physician and educator. Rice was represent the state in Statuary Hall one of the first education in the nation's capitol building. The researchers, studying school giant redwood trees in California systems in the United States and are named sequoias in his memory. Europe to assess teaching methods, particularly as they related to the time students spent on each Anne Sullivan, 1866-1936: Teacher. learning task. He believed research Partially blind herself and a teacher could help schools better reward of genius at Perkins School for the children for their efforts to learn by Blind in Boston, she taught Helen analyzing how teachers presented Keller, both blind and deaf, to read subject matter. and write Braille within two years by repeatedly pressing the manual Ellen H. Richards, 1842-1911: First alphabet into her palm. woman admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Ellen Richards Lewis B. Terman, 1877-1956: remained at M.I.T. to develop and Father of the testing movement in teach a sanitary engineering the United States. Terman program and to establish home introduced the IQ test and economics as an academic pioneered the study and testing of discipline. gifted children. ::,24 7 PATHFINDERS

236Edward L. Thorndike, 1874 -1 °'9: elected to the Navajo Tribal Council Father of education psychology. and fought for better educational Thorndike saw measurement as the programs, tribal control of schools, key to scientific progress in and roads to make schools education and developed methods accessible. In 1964, she was to measure student memor, rate of awarded the Presidential Medal of learning, conditions for effective Freedom, the nation's'highest learning, and the influence of civilian honor. heredity on intelligence.

Noah Webster, 1758-1843: Ralph W. Tyler, 1902-: Pioneer in Educator, journalist, and compiler applying scientific methods to of Webster's Dictionary. As a educational research. Tyler teacher in Goshen, New York, developed both the concept and Webster was unhappy with texts for research model for the National students because they ignored Assessment of Educational American culture and ideas. He Progress, the federally funded began a lifelong effort to encourage program that gives the nation an education based on the American ongoing profile of student experience. His "Blue-Backed achievement. In 1953 he became Speller" (1783) has never been out director of the Center for Advanced of print, and his American Study in Behavioral Sciences, Dictionary of the English Language Stanford University, California, (1828), which included spelling and where he is now director emeritus. grammar that reflected the living language rather than artificial rules, gave American English its own Booker T. Washington, 1856-1915: identity and vitality. First president of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Washington built that institution into a citadel of higher Emma Hart Willard, 1787-1870: education for black students. He Early advocate of higher education championed vocational education for women. In 1821, Willard and for a generation was the most founded the first women's college, influential spokesman for black Troy Female Seminary in New York, Americans. and by quiet but firm persuasion convinced the legislature to fund women's colleges throughout the Annie Dodge Wauneka, 1910- : state. Navajo educational advocate. Wauneka was famous for her efforts to bring education and modern Ella Flagg Young, 1845-1918: First health care to the Navajo woman to be elected president of reservation, and worked throughout the National Education Association. the 1930s and '40s to establish day Ella Young was.one of few women schools there so that young school administrators in the late children would no longer have to go nineteenth century, and was to distant boarding schools. In Chicago's superintendent of schools 1951, she became the first woman when she assumed the NEA post. 248 Special Occasions for 1985237

January Jan. 1 New Year's Day

Jan. 14 Ratification Day Anniversary of the ratification in 1784 of the Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the American Revolution and established the United States as a sovereign power.

Jan. 15 Birthday of Martin Civil rights leader, winner of 1964 Luther King, Jr. Nobel Peace Prize. b. 1929; assassinated April 4, 1968. Beginning in 1986 will be a federal holiday celebrated the third Monday in January.

Jan 17 Birthday of Benjamin Oldest signer of the Declaration of Franklin Independence, scientist, author, philosopher; b. 1706, d. 1790.

Jan. 19 Birthday of Robert E. Confederate general; b. 1807, Lee d. 1870.

Jan. 21 Inauguration Day Terms of the President and the Vise President end at noon and terms of their successors begin. 24g* SPECIAL OCCASIONS 238Jan. 27 Vietnam War Cease-Fire Agreement signed in 1973 ending American military involvement in the Vietnam War.

Jan. 30 School Nurse Day Sponsored by the National Association of School Nurses, Inc., 7395 S. Krameria St., Englewood, CO 80112.

February Feb. 1 National Freedom Day Commemorates the 1865 signing of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.

Feb. 2 Groundhog Day Some have it that on this day, if the groundhog sees its shadow, six weeks of winter will follow; otherwise expect spring weather.

Feb. 6 Birthday of Ronald Fortieth president of the U.S.; Reagan b. 1911.

Feb. 8 Boy Scouts of America Commemorates organization's Day founding in 1910.

Feb. 10-16 National FHA/HERO To focus attention on the activities Week and goals of the Future Homemakers of America, 1910 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.

Feb. 12 Birthday of Abraham Sixteenth president; b. 1809, Lincoln assassinated 1865. Observed on different dates in February in some states.

Feb. 12 Birthday of Charles Author and naturalist Charles Darwin Robert Darwin, best known for his bookThe Origin of Species, expounding the theory of evolution; b. 1809, d. 1882.

Feb. 14 St. Valentine's Day

Feb. 15 Birthday of Susan B. Reformer and advocate of women's Anthony suffrage; b. 1820, d. 1906. 250 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Feb. 16-23 Future Farmers of Sponsored by the Future Farmers of 239 America Week America, Box 15160, Alexandria, VA 22309.

Feb. 17 PTA Founders' Day Sponsored by the National PTA, 700 N. Rush St., Chicago, IL 60611.

Feb. 20 Anniversary of Glenn's On this date in 1962 John Glenn Space Flight became the first American to orbit the earth, in spacecraft Friendship 7.

Feb 20 Frederick Douglass Day American journalist and antislavery leader; d. 1895; birthdate unknown.

Feb. 22 George Washington's Observance on the third Monday in Birthday (Traditional) February is set by federal law; actual birthday is February 22; b.1732, d. 1799.

Feb 24 Gregorian Calendar Day Pope Gregory XIII issued a Papal Bull on Feb. 24, 1582, correcting the Julian Calendar. The new calendar, which was named (or him, became effective on Oct. 4, 1582. It is the most widely used calendar today.

March Mar. 1-31 National Music in Our Sponsored by the Music Educators Schools Month National Conference, 1902 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.

Mar 1-31 National Nutrition Sponsored by the American Dietetic Month Association, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.

Mar. 1-7 National Physical Sponsored by the National Education and Sports Association for Sport and Physical Week Education, 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.

Mar. 3 Adoption of National On this date in 1931 "The Star . Anthem Spangled Banner" was adopted as our national anthem. Written 1814 by Francis Scott Key. . ,. 251 SPECIAL OCCASIONS

240 Mar. 4 Birthday of Casimir Polish-born brigadier general and Pulaski chief of cavalry in the American Revolution; b. 1748, d. 1779.

Mar. 10-16 Girl Scout Week Sponsored by the Girl Scouts of the U.S.A., 830 Third Ave., New York, NY 10022.

Mar. 11 Johnny Appleseed Day Honors John Chapman, better known as Johnny Appleseed, planter of orchards and conservationist.

Mar. 14 Birthday of Albert Physicist known for Theory of Einstein Relativity; b. 1879, d. 1955.

Mar. 17 23 Camp Fire Founders' Sponsored by Camp Fire, Inc., 4601 Week Madison Ave., Kansas City, MO 64112.

Mar. 17 St. Patrick's Day Commemorates Ireland's patron saint.

Mar. 20 First Day of Spring Vernal equinox occurs at 11:14 a.m. Eastern Standard Time.

April Apr. 1 April Fools' Day

Apr. 2 International Children's Celebrated on Hans Christian Book Day Andersen's birthday; information from Children's Book Council, 67 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.

Apr. 5 Good Friday Commemorates Christ's crucifixion, death, and entombment.

Apr. 6-7 Pesach, or Passover First day of eight-day Jewish (First Days) celebration of the deliverance of the Jews from slavery in Egypt.

Apr. 7 Easter

Apr. 13 Birthday of Thomas Third president; b. 1743, d. 1826. Jefferson Proclaimed education by the state a fundamental article of democratic 252 faith. E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Apr. 14-20 Bike Safety Week Sponsored by Optimist 241 International, 4494 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63108.

Apr. 14-20 Mathematics Education Sponsored by National Council of Week Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.

Apr. 14-20 National Boys Club Sponsored by the Boys Clubs of Week America, 771 First Ave., New York, NY 10017.

Apr. 14-20 National Library Week Sponsored by the American Library Association, 50 E. Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611.

Apr. 15 Patriot's Day Commemorates Battle of Lexington and Concord in 1775.

Apr. 18 Paul Revere's Ride The "midnight ride" of Paul Revere started at about 10 p.m. on this day in 1775.

Apr. 21-27 National YWCA Week Sponsored by the National Board of the YWCA, 726 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.

Apr. 23 Birthday of William William Shakespeare, poet and Shakespeare dramatist in Elizabethan England, was born on this date in 1564 and also died on this date in 1616.

Apr. 26 Arbor Day A day designated for planting trees. Sponsored by the National Arbor Day Foundation, 100 Arbor Ave., Nebraska City, NE 68410.

Apr. 28 Daylight Saving Time At 2:00 a.m., clocks should be Begins advanced one hour, except where state legislatures provide exemption.

May May 4 Birthday of Horace Honors the "father" of the Mann American public school system; b. 1796, d. 1859. 253 . r. SPECIAL OCCASIONS

242 May 5-11 Teacher Appreciation Sponsored by the National PTA, 700 Week N. Rush St., Chicago, IL 60611 to honor the important contribution of teachers in educating children.

May 5 First Manned American On this date in 1961, Alan B. Space Flight Shepard, Jr. became the first American in space.

May 8 Teachers' Day Sponsored by National Education Association, 1201 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036. Observed in Florida on third Friday in May.

May 8 VE Day Germany surrendered to Allied forces in 1945, ending World War II in Europe.

May 8 World Red Cross Day Honors Jean Henri Dunant, who originated the idea of the Red Cross. Sponsored by the American Red Cross, 17th and D Sts., NW, Washington, DC 20006.

May 11 Native American Day Formerly American Indian Day.

May 12-18 Girls Club Week Sponsored by the Girls Clubs of America, Inc., 205 Lexington Ave., New York, NY10016.

May 12 Mother's Day Since 1914 observed on the second Sunday in May.

May 18 Armed Forces Day Observed by presidential proclamation.

May 20 Victoria Day Canadian national holiday.

May 21 Ramadan I Beginning of Moslem Holy Month commemorated by fasting.

May 25 Birthday of Ralph WaldoAmerican author and philosopher; Emerson b. 1803, d. 1882.

May 27 Memorial Day Observed in remembrance of those who died in war. 25 . E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5- 1 9 8 6

May 29 Birthday of Patrick American Revolutionary leader and 243 Henry orator known for his declaration: "I know not what come others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me deathl" b. 1736, d. 1799.

June June 5 World Environment DayObserved annually on anniversary of the opening of the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. Information from the U.N. Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, NY 10017.

June 9 Children's Day Observed the second Sunday in June to focus attention on the needs of America's children.

June 14 Flag Day America's Stars Ind Stripes flag was adopted by the Continental Congress on this day in 1777.

June 15 Magna Carta Day Anniversary of the signing by King John in 1215 of the Magna Carta, the first charter of English liberties.

June 16 Father's Day

June 21 First Day of Summer Summer solstice occurs at 6:44 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time.

June 28 Treaty of Versailles Formal ending of World War I in 1919.

July July 1 Canada Day Also called Dominion Day, celebrates the confederation of Canadian provinces into the Dominion of Canada in 1867.

July 4 Independence Day Commemorates Declaration of Independence adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1776.

July 14 Bastille Day Commemorates capture of the Bastille in France in 1789. 25 SPECIAL OCCASIONS 244July 16 First Atomic Bomb At 5:30 a.m. on this date in 1945, Exploded the first atomic bomb was detonated at the Alamagordo Air Base in New Mexico.

July 20 Moon Landing Anniversary of the first landing on the moon by Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr., in 1969.

July 27 Birthday of Jose Celso Honors eminent Puerto Rican Barbosa doctor, patriot, and educator; b. 1857, d. 1921.

August Aug. 14 VJ Day Commemorates the surrender in 1945 of Japan to the Allies ending World War II.

Aug. 26 Women's Equality Day Marks certification in 1920 of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting sex discrimination with regard to voting.

September Sept. 1 30 PTA Membership Month Sponsored by the National PTA, 700 N. Rush St., Chicago, IL 60611.

Sept. 2 Labor Day Legal holiday in all states and Canada in honor of working men and women.

Sept. 3 Anniversary of Treaty of Signed in Paris on this day in 1783 Paris to end the Revolutionary War.

Sept. 5 Anniversary of First Assembled in Philadelphia in 1774, Continental Congreos attended by 56 delegates representing 11 colonies.

Sept. 8 Grandparents' Day A day for showing appreciation to grandparents.

Sept. 15 16 Mexican Independence Celebrates Mexico's independence Days from Spain.

Sept. 16 Hjriat Year or New. Year Moslem New Year's Day. EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985- 1986

Sept. 16 Mayflower Day The "Mayflower" departed this day 245 from Plymouth, England, in 1620.

Sept. 16-17Rosh Hashanah Jewish New Year.

Sept. 17 Citizenship Day and Marks the adjournment of the Sept. 17-23 Constitution Week Constitutional Convention on September 17, 1787. Presidential proclamations set aside this day and week for observance.

Sept. 22 First Day of Autumn Autumnal equinox occurs at 10:07 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time.

Sept. 25 Yom Kippur Holiest Jewish observance; Day of Atonement.

October Oct. 6-12 Fire Prevention Week Sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.

Oct. 6-12 National 4-H Week To promote activities of 4-H Clubs. Sponsored by the Cooperative Extension Service, Room 5035-S, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250.

Oct. 6 12 National Metric Week Sponsored by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1906 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091, to encourage the use of the metric system.

Oct. 6 12 National School Bus Sponsored by the National School Safety Week Transportation Association, P.O. Box 2639, Springfield, VA 22152.

Oct. 12 Columbus Day Anniversary of Columbus' sighting (traditional) of New World in 1492.

Oct. 13 19 National Handicap Sponsored by the National Easter Awareness Week Seal Society, 2023 W. Ogden Ave., Chicago, IL 60612.

Oct. 13-19 National School Lunch Observed by annual,presidential Week proclamation.

,4,5,7. SPECIAL OCCASIONS

246Oct. 14 Canadian Thanksgiving

Oct. 14 Columbus Day, observedHonors Columbus and all other discoverers.

Oct. 24 United Nations Day Set aside by annual presidential proclamation to commemorate the founding of the U.N. in 1945. Information from Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York, NY 10017.

Oct. 27 Standard Time resumed At 2:00 a.m., clocks moved back one hour except where state legislatures provide exemption.

Oct. 31 Halloween Evening before All Saints or All Hallows Day.

Oct. 31 National UNICEF Day By presidential proclamation. Sponsored by U.S. Committee for UNICEF, 331 E. 38th St., New York, NY 10016.

November Nov. 5 Election Day

Nov. 11 Veterans Day Anniversary of Armistice ending World War I; honors veterans of all American wars.

Nov. 11-17 National Children's Sponsored by the Children's Book Book Week Council, Inc., 67 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003.

Nov. 17 23 American Education Calls attention to the needs and Week achievements of American schools. Information available from National Education Association, 1201 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036.

Nov. 28 Thanksgiving Day

December Dec. 8-15 Hanukkah Jewish Feast of Lights, lasting 8 days. 258 E D U C A T I O N ALMANAC1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Dec. 10 Human Rights Day Commemorates the adoption of the 247 Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Dec. 15 Bill of Rights Day Anniversary of the adoption of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution in 1791.

Dec. 17 Wright Brothers First On this day in 1903, brothers Powered Flight Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first powered aircraft. Orville Wright made the first successful flight, near Kitty Hawk, NC.

Dec 20 Louisiana Purchase Day Anniversary of the sale by France in 1803 of its 827,987 square-mile Louisiana Territory, a deal by which the United States nearly doubled in size.

Dec. 21 First Day of Winter Winter solstice occurs at 5:08 p.m. Eastern Standard Time; shortest day of the year.

Dec. 25 Christmas Day

259 248The National Assessment of Educational Progress

he National assessment policy committee made Assessment of up of representatives of state and Educational Progress local education agencies, state (NAEP) is a legislatures, professional education continuing national associations (including NAESP), survey of the knowledge, skills, and the business community. understanding, and attitudes of The National Assessment gathers young Americans in major areas of information concerning the degree learning taught in school. to which educational goals are NAEP was brought into being in being met and makes this 1968 following three years of information available to the deliberation by an exploratory publicparticularly to persons in committee appointed by the the field of educationso that Carnegie Corporation of New York problem areas can be identified, and chaired by one of education's priorities established, and progress most distinguished statesmen, over a period of time determined. Ralph W. Tyler, now Director Emeritus of the Center for NAEP's Purpose Advanced Study in the Behavioral NAEP's primary purposes are to Sciences. carry out the assessment of the Funding came initially from performance of children and young Carnegie and later from the Ford adults in the basic skills of reading, Foundation. Today NAEP is mathematics, and communications; supported entirely by the U.S. and to disseminate the information Department of Education and to the federal government, the governed by an independent general public, and other priority 260 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5- 1 9 8 6

audiences. To achir'2 this end, the age and grade group is administered 249 National Assessment carries out the to about 2,600 respondents. following activities: Depending on the total numberof Collects and reports at leastonce exercises included in the every five years data assessing the assessment, this means that performance of students at between 60,000 and 90,000 various age or grade levels in individuals participate inan reading, writing, mathematics, assessment. and seven other areas; Six groups of studentsare Periodically reports dataon included in each assessment: changes in the knowledge and 9-year-olds, 13-year-olds, skills of students and adultsovek 17-year-olds, and students in grades time; 4, 8, and 11. Periodically, NAEP Prepares special research reports also surveys the performanceof on educational issues as the need out-of-school 17-year-olds (early for additional nationwide graduates and dropouts) and adults information arises; aged 26 to 35. Provides technical assistanceto Over a period of time, state and local education agencies achievement trends can be in using Nationai Assessment discerned that provide important data. information for the decision-making process. Why an Assessment? Every year billions of dollarsare NAEP Reports spent on education in the United Results are reported nationallyfor Statesbut facts about the example, the percentage of all effectiveness of this expenditureare 9-year-olds responding correctly sparse. National Assessment is for each exercise assessed atan age. designed to gather information that In addition, results are providedfor will help legislators, educators, and other categories: sex, race, other policymakers arrive at geographic regions, community informed decisions. size, community type, and levelof parental education. NAEP's Governance More than 125 National NAEP is managed by the Center for Assessment reports have been the Assessment of Educational produced and moreare in the Progress, an activity of Educational process all the time. The reports Testing Service (ETS) on behalf of and information about current the Department of Education's publications are available from the National Institute of Education. National Assessment Offices, Responsibility for the design and Princeton, NJ 08541. Someare conduct of the assessment lies with available from the Superintendent the assessment policy committee. of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, in Washington, DC. Student Participation In addition, all reportsare entered National Assessment exercises are in the ERIC system andare divided into booklets at eachage available at 600 ERIC depositories and grade, and each exercise foran around the country. oED's EducationIndicators

he need is easily What is the truth? What should stated and we be looking for? Which facts and disarmingly simple. figures make a difference and which along with all the don't, and what should we be reports and studies, reporting to the public to help them the media attention, and the spate understand? How can we tell what of statistics, a set of easily to fix if we don't know what's understood education indicators is broken? needed to summarize how Those are the questions that led education is doing. Are our schools the Educational Leaders' getting better or worse? Are Consortium, a group of 16 major students today learning more or national education associations, to less? Are we moving toward appoint a task force to work with excellence or heading for trouble? the National Center for Edczation We need reliable benchmarks of Statistics to identify some key our progress. Some note that indicators of educational progress. Scholastic Aptitude Test scores just After extensive study, initial measui e college aptitude, not recommendations were made in school system successbut they 1984 and the task force began are used anyway as an overall working with Department of measure of educational excellence. Education (ED) staff members High school graduation rates are charged with publishing an initial cited one day and dismissed the draft of indicators for public next. Employers say young people comment. can't add and subtract, while The goal might very roughly be experts say our technology leads the described as the development of a world. People responding to opinion tool for measuring education's polls characteristically say that "Gross National Product, an schools nationwide are pretty instrument that might be as useful dismal but that their local schools in examining the progress of our are very good. schools as such indicators as the 262 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Dow Jones Average and the shortage (by field) 251 Standard and Poors Index are in Average teacher salaries indicating the condition of the Teacher earningscomparisons financial markets. with other professions Indicators being considered by Public school library stock the Department of Education Task books per pupil Force provide an interesting Microcomputers in public schools summary of facets of schooling Public opinion ratings regarded by a group of prominent Comparison of public and teacher analysts as important. They include opinions of problems the following: Leader: hip/expectations/climate Teacher job satisfaction National Assessment of Education Student attendance Progress results in reading, Crime/violence mathematics, and science Use of time outside the school Public/private school Homework and student achievement cumulative grade averages SAT and ACT scores, national Enrollments by type of trends curriculum SAT and ACT scores, state trends Student mobility International comparisons in Student population reading characteristics International comparisons in Student enrollments by age mathematics State required Carnegie units Syntheses of state assessment national trends results State required Carnegie units Carnegie units earned (by subject) by subject areas High school graduation rates High school graduation Secondary education attainment national trends (by state) Testing in'grades 1-6 and high Plans for seniors for first year school graduation (by state) after high school Teacher certification Adult literacy requirements Remedial education at Teacher competency testing postsecondary level Teacher incentives Current expenditures per pupil Teacher attendance Public school fiscal efforts Student enrollments Current expenditures in percentages of school age comparison with other countries population Pupil/teacher ratios Span of administrative Pupil/staff ratios responsibility Class size Community participation Teacher verbal abilitySAT School bond and levy passage scores rates Teacher verbal abilityGRE Instructional process scores Academic learning time Profile of the teaching force Functional literacy Teacher supply/demand and Computer literacy Z6 3 252The National Teacher of the Year Program

Each spring one person is selected year become the candidates for the from among several million National Teacher of the Year. Once American elementary and secondary the candidates are known, the classroom teachers t., illustrate Council of Chief State School excellence in teaching. This Officers (a national sponsor along National Teacher of the Year, who is with the Encyclopaedia Britannica chosen in order to honor sound Companies and Good Housekeeping teach;Hg practices rather than any magazine) appoints a committee to single "best" teacher, is recognized review these state nominees. The at a White House ceremony. committee then chooses four The search for National Teacher finalists, conducts intensive of the Year begins at the state level. interviews, and names one as Within each state, any school National Teacher of the Year. The elementary through secondary teacher is notified each year in can nominate a candidate for state March. teacher of the year. States generally Information about the program is have their own methods for available from the Council of Chief selection, but a committee of State School Officers, 379 Hall of distinguished educators is the the States, 400 North Capitol typical route. Street, Washington, DC 20001, These 50 state teachers of the (202) 624-5883. 264 American Education 253 Week

After World War I, America's achievements of American schools. Selective Service Agency came up Usually, the National Education with two dismal statistics: about 25 Association announces a theme for percent of our draftees were the week. How the seven days are illiterate and another 29 percent observed is largely a local matter. were physically unfit. To bring these Schools and school districts use the and other education-related week in many ways: to bring problems to national attention,a parents into the school, make campaign was begun in 1919 by the students more aware of what American Legion, the National schools are doing for them, and Education Association, and the U.S. strengthen community support. Office of Education. Also, the week gives educators and In 1923, the campaign becamean citizens an opportunity to air issues annual observance known as affecting local schools such as American Education Week, budget decisions, curriculum, and celebrated on the first full week student discipline. preceding Thanksgiving. Two more Whether used as an occasion to sponsors have since joined the reaffirm support for the schoolsor effort: the PTA in 1938 and the as a platform for public discussion, National School Boards Association American Education Week is in 1980. essentially a nat,'Inal occame:, 'or The observance begins with a acknowledging tht. gyp.,, .de of national proclamation drawing education. attention to the needs and 2V'5 25,National Distinguished Principals Progam

ointly organized and principal from Puerto Rico and two sponsored by the U.S. each from private education, Department of Department of Defense Overseas q Education and the Schools, and schools abroad National Association associated with the U.S. of Elementary School Principals, Department of Stateall chosen by the National Distinguished panels representing those entities. Principals program is based on two The call for nominations is issued important research findings: in early spring by the U.S. Secretary First, that children's taste for of Education and the Executive learning is essentially set in the Director of NAESP. Selections are beginning school years; and second, made by- mid -June and those chosen that more than any other single attend an awards banquet and other factor, it is the leadership of the ceremonies in Washington, D.C. in principal that determines a school's October. quality. The program honors principals While nominations are handled from every state and the District of only by NAESP's state affiliates, Columbia chosen by their peers in general information may be NAESP's state affiliates as being obtained from NAESP itself at 1920 representative of exemplary K-8 Association Drive, Reston, VA leadership. Also honored are 266 22091, (703) 620-6100. The Pledge of 255; Allegiance to the Flag

I pledge allegiance to the flag of the America." Congress officially United States of America and to the endorsed the pledge in 1945. republic for which it stands, one President Eisenhower in 1954 nation under God, indivisible, with signed a law adding the words liberty and justice for all. "under God." No changes have Using this current official since been made. version, or slightly different Authorship was debated for many wording, schoolchildren for years, and standard references still generations have repeated the differ on the subject. Youth's stirring pledge to the flag, an Companion claimed in 1917 that affirmation of faith in America. the original draft had been written Most states by law call for its use on by one of its executives, James B. appropriate occasions in public Upham, who later condensed and schools, though exceptions on refined it with staff assistance. religious grounds have been upheld Francis Bellamy, a former editorial by the U.S. Supreme Court. writer on the magazine, claimed The pledge first appeared in a authorship in 1923. The United September 1892 issue of Youth's States Flag Association (1939) and Companion, a weekly magazine the Library of Congress (1957) published in Boston. A month later, supported Bellamy's claim. it was used in the dedication Whoever wrote it, the pledge is a ceremony for the World's Fair rousing tribute to the Stars and Grounds in Chicago. Two national Stripes, which first became f:zig conferences (1923-1924) associated with our education changed the wording slightly. For system when it was flown over a example, "my flag" became "the schoolhouse in Colrain, flag of the United States of Massachusetts, in 1812. 267 Frequently Told Jokes at Education Conventions

The parents of a kindergarten xcused to go out back, don't stay student were greatly upset because so long." their little boy had not yet uttered a word. After consulting with the If a principal's bookshelf contained child's teacher, principal, school a row of volumes that were psychologist, and their own medical collected at the rate of one a year specialists, the parents had almost for each year of his career, they given up hope that their child might read, from left to right: would ever speak. One morning, Teaching As a Career; The however, the child said matter of School-Aged Child; Practical Child factly, "This oatmeal is too hot." Psychology; Fathoming the Grade The parents jumped for joy, shed School Mind; Whither Our tears of happiness, hugged their Children.? Administration and son, and then asked him why he Supervision for Better Schools; The hadn't said something before. He Urban Principal; Peace of Mind Can replied, "Up to now everything's Be Yours; How to Come to Terms been all right." with Life; UlcersCause, Detection, and Treatment; How to Some time ago a businessman told Retire at an Early Age. the story of his return to visit a oneroom schoolhouse in upstate New York after having been away A kindergarten teacher was lining for more than 25 years. He drove up her children to go to an out to the spot where he assembly and one little boy was remembered the schoolhouse to be, really bugging her. She was trying and there it was, looking just as it to be as pleasant as possible, but had when he was a pupil there. He pretty soon she lost patience with looked in the front window, and him and said, "Johnny, I want you who should he see but his old to go to the end of the line." He teacher, Mrs. Franklin, standing in turned around and she got busy front of the room. Taking a deep with something else but a minute breath, he opened the door, walked later he was right beside her again, down the room, and stood in front "Johnny," she said, "I thought I of the teacher's desk. She looked told you to go to the end of the him over with a cold eye and said, line." He looked at her and replied, in a voice he remembered well, "I tried to but there was already "Bob Jackson, the next time you are somebody there." 268 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

The board of education was A superintendent from a western 257 interviewing for the position of state had quite a large hill, almost a superintendent. They had three mountain, behind his office. finalistsa philosopher, a math Sometimes he would stand just at major, and a business manager. The the edge of a sheer precipice last question they asked was, "How contemplating the world and its much is two and two?" The problems and how things were philosopher went into a long going in the education business. discourse on the philosophy of One day while standing on the edge mathematics and the closest he of this precipice, he slipped and could come was somewhere started to fall. Just as he went over between four and five. The math the edge, he grabbed a tiny, little major got out his calculator and branch. There he was hanging over said, "Ladies and gentlemen, I can this sheer cliff with nothing unequivocally state that it's four." between him and a long fall but this The business manager gotup and branch; nobody else was up there. whispered in the board chairman's He didn't know what to do, so he ear, "Come on out in the hall." kept hanging on with both hands to Once they were there, he said to the that twig. Eventually, out of board chairman, "This two and two, desperation, he looked up toward what do you want it to addup to?" the sky and asked, "Is there anybody up there that can help One principal recently told the story about the husband of a newly me?" Much to his surprise, a voice married teacher. Upon introducing answered, "Yes, my son, I can help the substitute teacher who had you." Vastly relieved, the taken over his wife's class while the superintendent said, "Well, help young couple were on their me, help me." And the voice said, "First, my son, I will need to know honeymoon, the husband made this if you have faith." Well, the remark: "Meet Miss Anderson. She substituted for my wife while we superintendent was no dumb were on our honeymoon." bunny; he said, "Yes, yes, I have faith. Help me." The voice said, "My A youngster went fishing for the son, if you have faith, let go of the first time with his father, a twig." The superintendent thought principal. They anchored their boat about that awhile, looked up toward near the middle of the Ohio River, the sky and implored, "Is there and the father remarked to the son, anybody else up there that can help "I certainly hope we find a school of me?" fish." When the fish began to bitea short time later, the youngster said, "Dad, do you think we are in a In working with the state school of fish?" The father said, department of education and with "Yes." A few minutes later the its seemingly endless red tape, one youngster hauled into the boat one school administra.to: noted that the of the ugliest, meanest looking river perfect department of education mud cats ever caught and said bureaucrat is the man who manages proudly, "Dad, I think I've caught to make no decisions and escape all the superintendent." responsibility. 2:6 CALENDARS 258 1985 JANUARY JULY SMTWTFS SMTWTFS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9101112 7 8 910111213 13141516171819 14151617181920 20212223242526 21222324252627 2728293031 28293031

FEBRUARY SMT'IVIF S SMTWTFAUGUST S 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 1112 1314 15 16 11 121314 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

MARCH SEPTEMBER SMTWTF S SMTW TF S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10111213141516 8 91011121314 1718192021223 15161718192021 24252627282930 22232425262728 31 2930

APRIL OCTOBER S MT W T F S SMTWTFS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 910111213 6 7 8 9101112 14151617181920 13141516171819 21222324252627 20212223242526 282930 2728293031

MAY SMTWTFS SMTWTFNOVEMBER S 1 2 3 4 1 2 5 6 7 8 91011 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12131415161718 10111213141516 19202122232425 17181920212223 262728293031 24252627282930

JUNE SMTWTF S DECEMBER 1 SMTIVTFS 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11121314 15 8 91011121314 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 15161718192021 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 22232425262728 30 , 293031 '270 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 1986 259 JANUARY SMTWTFS SMTWTFJULY S 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 78 910 11 67 79101112 121314 151617 18 13 141s;16171819 192021222324 25 20 212223242526 262728293031 27 28293031

FEBRUARY AUGUST SMTWTF S SMTWT FS 1 1 2 2 34 5 6 7 8 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21',2 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

MARCH SMTWTF S SEPTEMBER 1 SMTWTF S 234 56 7 8 1 2 345 6 9 10 1112 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 30 31 28 29 30

APRIL OCTOBER SMTWT FS S M T W T FS 1 2 34 5 1 2 34 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5 67 89 10 11 13 1415 16 17 18 19 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 10 20 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31

NOVEMBER SMTWTFSMAY SMTWTF S 1 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4 5 67 89 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 11 12 13 14 1516 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 30

JUNE SMTWTFS SMTWTFSDECEMBER 1 2 34 5 67 1 2345 6 8 9 10 111213 14 7 8 9 10 1112 13 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 29 30 28 29 30 31 211 oIndex

A

ABC (American Broadcasting Company), 208 Abramson v. Anderson, 149 Accuracy in Media, 208, 209 Action for Children's Television, 208, 209 Action for Excellence, 28 Adams, Daniel, 230 Adams, Henry Brooks, 169, 230 Adams, James Truslow, 169 Adams and Arapahoe Counties, Piraker v., 150 Adler, Mortimer, 215 Administrators, Public school, 114, 126, 129-130, 175 numbers of, 23, 130 rating of, 16, 109 See also "Education Profiles of the States, 55-107 Adult education, 15, 128, 179, 186 Africa, 17 Against Mediocrity. The Humanities in America's High Schools, 213 Agassiz, Louis, 230 Agriculture, Department of, 32, Agulland v. Treen, 151 Alabama, 3, 4, 55, 150, 232 Alaska, 56 Alcohol and drug abuse, 28, 109, 111, 125, 126, 181 as legal issue, 158 272 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Alcott, Amos Bronson, 169, 230 261 Alcott, William Andrus, 230 Aldridge, Bill G., 147 Alexander, Beck v., 150 Alexander, Lamar, 2 Allen, Edward Ellis, 230 Allen, Mueller v., 151, 229 Allen, Ronald A., 134 Ambach, Gordon M., 87 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, 128 American Association for Adult and ContinuingEducation, 128 American Association for Counseling andDevelopment, 128, 166 American Association for Higher Education, 129 American Association of Colleges for TeacherEducation, 129 American Association of Community andJunior Colleges, 129 American Association of School Administrators,129-130, 167 American Association of School Personnel Administrators,130 American Association of University Professors, 130 American Asylum for Deaf Mutes, 233 American Council on Education, 130 American Council on the Teaching of ForeignLanguages, Inc., 131 American Education, 161 American Educational Research Association, 131,161, 163 American Federation of Teachers, 2, 131-132, 161, 162,174 American High School Today, The, 232 American Home Economics Association, 132 American Industrial Arts Association, 132 American Legion, 253 American Library Association, 132, 211 American Samoa, 137 American School Board Journal, 9 American School Counselor Association, 133, 164 American Spectator, The, 9 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association,7, 133 American Statistical Association, 133 Americans United for Separation of Church andState o. Grand Rapids School District, 151 American Vocational Association, 133 America's Country Schools, 213 Amphitheater School District, Civil Rights Divisionv., 153 An American Dilemma, 232 A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for EducationalReform, 8, 9, 17, 28, 176-177 Anderson, Abramson v., 149 Andringa, Robert, 137 Anthony, Edward, 2 A Place Called School, 233 Appalachia Educational Laboratory, x 2 73 INDEX

262Argenbright, Ed, 81 Argentina, 17 Arizona, 57, 153 Phoenix, 198 Arizona Court of Appeals, 153 Arkansas, 37, 58, 149 Little Rock, 27 Arthur v.Nyquist,152 Asbestos, 5 ASPIRA, 234 Association for Childhood Education International, 133, 162 Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 133 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 133-134, 163, 215, 216 Association for the Advancement of International Education, 134 Association of American Colleges, 134 Association of School Business Officials, 134 Association of Teacher Educators, 134 Austin Independent School District, Marvin H. v.,154 Australia, 17, 21, 147

B

Bacon, Francis, 169 Bakke, Alan, 228 Ballard, Joseph, 7 Ballou, Hosea, 169 Barnard, Henry, 25, 61, 94, 169, 226, 231 Barzun, Jacques, 169 Basic skills, 215, 216-217 Bateman, Linda C., 136 Bauer, Gary, 2 Beck v. Alexander,150 Becoming Readers in a Complex Society,213 Beecher, Catherine, 1631 Bekken, Bonnie, 162 Belgium, 20, 147 Bell, Alexander Graham, 169, 231 Bell,North Haven Board of Education v.,153, 228 Bell, Terrel H., 1, 10, 28, 29, 176, 228, 231 Bender v. Williamsport Area School District,151 Benjamin, Ernest, 130 Benton, Robert D., 70 Berliner, David, 6 Berman v. Philadelphia Board of Education,159 Bethune, Mary McLeod, 231 274 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 Bilingual education, 27, 86, 178, 187-188, 228, 235 263 Bingham, Caleb, 211 Black Americans, 145, 170, 231, 232, 234, 236 Blackburn, Harold L., 71 Black/white distinctions, 28, 96, 119-120, 155, 205 Blaunstein, Phyllis L., 142 Blind children, Education of, 188-189, 230, 235 See also Handicapped children, Education of Block grants, 178, 212, 228 Blondell, Beverley, 161 Boards of education, See School Boards Bob Jones University v. United States, 153 Boorstin, Daniel, 170 Boose, Robert E., 74 Boren, David, 3 Borton, Terry, 166 Boston Latin School, 23, 224 Bottoms, Gene, 133 Boyd, Richard A., 79 Boyer, Ernest L., 231 Brace, Michele J., 164 Braille, 230, 235 Brandt, Ronald, 163 Brennan, William J., 159 Bromery, Connally v., 158 Brookline School Committee, Doe v., 155 Brouillet, Frank B., 103 Brown, Arch S., 130 Brown, Rexford, 168 Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 27, 227, 232 Brunelle, Robert L., 84 Burkholder, Daniel, Burningham, G. Leland, 99 Business involvement, 1, 30 Busing, school, 27, 28, 110, 152, 199 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 231 Brum, Martinez v., 159 Byrnside, 0. J., 142

C

Cable television, 208-209 See also Television Caffiero, Piscataway Board of Education v,, 158 275 INDEX 264California, 2, 27, 59, 152, 155, 160 Los Angeles, 152 California Supreme Court, 27, 160 Cameron, Donald, 144 Canada, 17, 20, 132, 136, 147, 168 See also "Education in Canada," 200-203 Cannon, Daniel G., 139 Career education, 111 Career-ladder plans, See Merit pay for teachers Carnegie, Andrew, 211 Carnegie Corporation, 233, 248 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 177, 204, 231 Carson v. Orleans Parish School Board, 159 Carter, Cindy, 163 Carter, Jimmy, 176 administration, 28, 228 Carver, George Washington, 232 Cawelti, Gordon, 134, 215 CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System), 208 Censorship, 149, 157, 159 Census, Bureau of the, 14, 17, 32, 35 Center for the Assessment of Educational Progress, 249 Chapter I, II, See Education Consolidation and Improvement At of 1981 Chief State School Officers, 25, 135, 234 the first, 61, 231 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Child abuse, 174 Child-care centers, See Day care Children's Television Workshop, 207-208 China, 20 Church and State, 149-151 See also Prayer in the schools Civil rights, 156, 157, 232 Civil Rights, U.S. Commission on, 4, 86 Civil Rights Act of 1965, 155, 157, 183 Civil Rights Division v. Amphitheater School District, 153 Civil War, the, 55, 79, 88 Clark, Kenneth B., 170, 232 Clausen, Thomas, 73 Close-up Foundation, 181 Cole, Robert W., Jr., 167 Collective bargaining, 131, 145 College Entrance Examination Board, 177, 226 Colon lo, 60 Columbia University, 26, 231 Teachers college, ix, 231 Commager, Henry Steele, 170 Commerce, Department of, 17 276 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Community involvement, 25, 222, 253 265 in Head Start, 195 Competency testing, 52-53 for administrators, 175 for teachers, 18 Compulsory schooling, 25, 224 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Computers in the schools, 30, 118, 133 Conant, James, 137, 232, 233 Connecticut, 25, 61, 226, 231 Salisbury, 211 Hartford, 233 Connell, Hartzell v., 160 Connolly v. Bromery, 158 Cook, June, 163 Cooney, Joan Ganz, 207 Cooperman, May v., 151 Cooperman, Saul, 85 Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 208 Council for Advancement and Support of Education, 135 Council for Exceptional Children, 7, 135, 164 Council of Chief State School Officers, 135-136, 175, 252 Council of Educational Facility Planners International, 136 Council of the Great City Schools, 136 Council on Financial Aid to Education, 30 County Hills Christian Church v. Unified School District No. 512, Johnson County, 150 Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education, 152 Crime and Violence, 18, 158 in TV, 206 Current Index to Journals in Education (ERIC), See "ERIC. Education's Burgeoning Resource File," 191-193 Curriculum, 25, 28, 215 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Curtis, Mark H., 134

D

Dahl, Karin, 216 Davidson, Howard, 214 Davis, S. John, 102 Day care, 144, 174, 195 after school, 4 Deaf children, Education of, 188-190, 225, 231, 233 legal issues, 153 Decentralization of school districts, See Schvol district consolidation Defense, Department of, 32 277 INDEX 266DeLayo, Leonard J., 86 Delaware, 21, 62 Denmark, 20 Desegregation, 27, 151-152, 183, 199, 227, 229, 233 See also Integration; and "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Developing Character: Transmitting Knowledge, 214 Dewey, John, 26, 170, 232 Dewey, Melvil, 211 Dickinson, Emily, 170 Disadvantaged children, Education of, 22, 27, 30, 178, 179-180, 186, 194-195, 196, 217, 227 See also "Head Start: A New Lease on Life," 194-195 Discipline, 28, 109-111, 122, 125, 126, 215 Discrimination, 22, 153, 155, 227 reverse, 228 Distributive Education Clubs of America, 136 District of Columbia, 29, 63, 137, 199, 225 Dodd, Christopher, 4 Doe, Tyler Independent School District v., 156 Doe v. Brookline School Committee, 155 Downey, Greg, 162, 164 Dropouts, See Students, dropout rates Drug abuse, See Alcohol and drug abuse Dublinske, Stan, 7 DuBois, W. E. B., 232 Duffy on behalf of Duffy v. Las Cruces Public Schools, 150 Duncan, Verne A., 92

E

Earhart, J. Troy, 94 Early childhood education, vii-x, 9 See also "Head Start; A New Lease on Life," 194-195; and "Preschool Education: State Support Grows," 196-198 Economic Opportunity Act, 27 Edgerton, Russell, 129 EdPRESS, 136 Education, U.S. Commissioner of, 231, 234 the first, 25, 231 Education, U.S. Department of, 8, 10, 29, 30, 32, 118, 157, 179, 204, 228, 248, 250, 251, 254 See also "The U.S. Department of Education," 176-178 Education abroad, 17, 20 See also individual nations Education Amendments Act of 1972, 227 Title IX, 153, 183, 228 Education Amendments Act of 1978, 157, 181 278 EDUCATION ALMANAC 1985-1986

Education Commission of the States, 28, 30, 136-137, 168, 175, 177 261 Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981, 190, 199, 227, 228 Chapter I, 179, 180, 183, 228 Chapter II, 178, 180, 181, 185, 212, 228 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142), 6, 7, 27, 153, 154, 155, 156, 189, 228 Education of the Handicapped Act (P.L. 91-230), 188-190 Education of the Handicapped Act (P.L. 98-199), 190 Education reform, 8-10 See also "Education P;ofiles of the States," 55-107 Education Resources Information Center, See ERIC Education Writers Association, 137 Educational assessment, See "The National Assessment of Educational Progress," 248-249; and "ED's Education Indicators," 250-251 Educational Leader's Consortium, 250 Educational Research Service, Inc., 17, 125, 138, 164 Educational technology, See Computers in the schools Eighth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 149, 154 Einstein, Albert, 170 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 211, 255 Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, 27, 190, 212, 227 Chapter I (formerly Title I), 27, 157, 227 Chapter II (formerly Title II), 212 Elementary Schooling, viii-x, 118, 122, 140, 203 enrollments, 15, 35-39 See also "Toward A-1 K-8 Schools," 203-204 Eleventh U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 155 Eliot, Charles W., 233 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 170, 230 England, vii, 20, 24 Environmental Protection Agency, the, 5 ERIC Clearinghouses, 193, 249 See also "ERIC: Education's Burgeoning Resource File," 191-193 Essex Junction Prudential Committee, Rutz v., 157 Esty, John C. Jr., 141 Ethiopia, 17 Etzioni, Amitai, 216 Evans, Jerry L., 67 Evolution, 149, 151 Excellence movement, the, 6, 8-10, 175 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Eyre, Gary, 28

F

Fannin v. Williams, 151 Faubus, Orval, 27 .279 1 INDEX

268 Featherstone, Joseph, 10 Federal aid to education, 21-22, 24, 27, 179-190, 194, 199 to buildings and facilities, 181, 227 to higher education, 26, 212 land grants, 22, 26, 225, 226 for curriculum development, 29 to libraries, 211 state grants, 4 Feistritzer, Patricia, 165 Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 151, 154, 155, 158 Fink v. Board of Education of Warren County School District, 149 Finn, Chester, Jr., 6, 213 First U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 151 Fischer, John, ix Fisher, James L., 135 Florida, 2, 64, 159 Florida Appeals Court, 159 Folks, John M., 91 Follow Through, 194 Ford Foundation, 234, 248 Forest Lake, MN School District, Pratt v., 149 France, 17, 20 Franklin, Benjamin, 24, 170, 210 Frazier, Calvin M., 60 Fris, J., 168 Froebel, Friedrich, 25, 235 Frost, Robert, 170 Fulbright, William J., 226 Fulbright Act, 226 Funding for public schools, 21, 25, 31 state, 25, 54 local, 21, 54 See also Federal aid to education, and "Federal Programs to Aid Elementary Education," 179-190 Futrell, Mary Hatwood, 145 Future Business Leaders of America, 138 Future Farmers of America, 138 Future Homemakers of America, 138

G

Gaddis, Hal D., 145 Galbreath, Nodar v., 159 Gallaudet, Thomas H., 225, 233 Gallaudet College, 225, 233 Gallup, George, 105, 110, 126 280 15UUCAT1ON ALMANAC 1985- 1986

Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes Toward the PublicSchools, 14, 16, 30, 269 108-117, 126 Gardner, Dwayne E., 136 Gardner, John W., 233 Garfield, James, 170, 234 Gates, James D., 144 George Washington University, 196 Georgia, 3, 65, 155, 159 Georgia Association of Retarded Citizensv. MacDaniel, 155 Georgia Supreme Court, 159 Gerry, Martin, 7 G.I. Bill (Servicemen's Readjustment Act), 26,226 Gifted students, 14, 235 Gill, Donald G., 68 Glass, Gene V., 161 Goldsborough, H., 168 Goodlad, John I., 233 Goodyear, Rodney K., 166 Goose Cleek Independent School District, Hortonv., 158 Gorman, Tish, 162 Gough, Deborah, 164 Governors (state), 1, 2, 137 Grace, Springdale School District v., 154 Graham, Hugh Davis, 217 Graham, Patricia A., 170 Grand Rapids School District, Americans United for Separation of Church and State v., 151 Graubard, Stephen R., 163 Great Britain, 200 Great Society programs, 22, 27, 194, 233 Greece, 20 Greene, Leon E., 167 Greer, Jeptha V., 135 Griggs v. Commonwealth, 157 Gross National Product, U.S., 17 Grover, Herbert J., 105 Grubbs, Kaelin v., 153 Guam, 147 Guaranteed Student Loan Program, 184, 227 Gubser, Lyn, 133 Gulliford, Andrew, 213 Gurule v. Salt Lake City Board n, Education, 158 H

Haley, Frances, 144 Handicapped children, Education of, 6-7, 9, 14, 22,27, 30, 135, 178, 179, 188-190, 196, 227

.281 INDEX

270 enrollments, 7, 27, 42 legal issues, 153-156 Hansen, James 0., 96 Harper, William Rainey, 233 Harris, C. Coleman, 138 Harris, Louis, 126 Harris, William Tony, 233 Harris Poll, 127 Harrison, Charles, 137 Hartford Female Seminary, 231 Hartzell v. Connell, 160 Harvard College, 24, 224 Harvard University, 230, 232, 233 Graduate School of Education, 234 Hatanaka, Francis M., 66 Hawaii, 66, 155 Hawaii Department of Education v. Katherine, 155 Head Start, 4, 27, 179, 186 See Also "Head Start: A New Lease on Life," 194-195 Health and Human Services, Department of, 4, 179, 195 Health and nutrition, 143-144, 194 Hechinger, Fred, 207 Heckler, Margaret, 4 Henri Tatro, Irving Independent School District v., 156 Higher education, 16, 23, 29, 129, 134, 179, 224 enrollments, 15, 36 for Blacks, 226, 227, 231, 234, 236 for the handicapped, 189-190 for libraries, 212 for Native Americans, 182 for women, 25, 26 Higher Education Act of 1965, 183-184, 185, 212, 227 Higher Education Facilities Act, 227 High School, See Secondary schooling High School. A Report on Secondary Education in America, 10, 229 High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 197 Hoart, Helen, 167 Holliday, Albert E., 165 Hollings, Ernest, 2 Hollingsworth, Ellen Jane, 215 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr., 171 Homework, 109, 117, 122-123, 126 See also "Homework," 205 Honig, Bill, 59 Hoover, Herbut, 171 Hopkins, Mark, 234 Horace's Compromise; The Dilemma of the American High School, 214 Hornbeck, David W., 75 282 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Horowitz, Robert, 214 271 Horton v. Goose Creek Independent School District, 158 Howe II, Harold, 234 Hudson Central School District Board of Educationv. Rowley, 153 Hufstedler, New Jersey v., 48 Humanities studies, 213, 233 Husk, Samuel B., 136

Idaho, 2, 67 Illegal aliens, 156 Illinois, 2, 6, 68, 154, 198 Chicago, 199, 229 Joliet, 233 Illiteracy, 16, 32, 253 Imig, David G., 129 Immigrants, 25, 26, 225 Impact aid, 181 India, 17, 20 Indiana, 69 Evansville, 198 Indian Affairs, Bureau of, 32, 56 See also Native Americans Indian Education Act, 182, 227 See also Native Americans Institute for Educational Leadership, 138-139 Integration, 27, 28, 110 See also Desegregation International education, 133, 185, 227 International Reading Association, 139 Iowa, 70, 149, 198 I.Q. tests, 155, 235 Iran, 17 Iroquois Confederacy, 170 Irving Independent School Distrkt v. Henri Tatro, 156 Island Trees Union Free School District Board of Educationv. Pico, 159 Italy, 20, 147

J

Jackson, Shirley, 149 Jaffree, Ishmael, 3 Jaffree v. Board of School Commissicners of Mobile County, 3, 150 James Plyler, Superintendent of Tplei Independent School District,v. Doe, 156 2S3 INDEX

272Japan, 17, 20 Jefferson, Thomas, 63, 171, 224 Johns Hopkins University, 118-119 Johnson, Lyndon, 22, 27, 171, 194, 217 Johnson, Susan Moore, 216 Johnson City School District, Quackenbush v., 154 Johnson County School District, County Hills Christian Church c., 150 Johnson Foundation, 204 Jordan, June B., 164 Junior college movement, 233 Justice, Department of, 3

K

Kaagan, Stephen S., 101 Kaelin v. Grubbs, 153 Kagan, Jerome, 214 Kalamazoo Decision (1874), 25, 226 Kansas, 71, 150 Kamstein v. Pewaukee School Board, 157 Katherine, Hawaii Department of Education v., 155 Keene, William B., 62 Keller, Helen, 235 Kennedy, Donald, 171 Kennedy, John F., 171, 217 Kent, Rockwell, 171 Kentucky, 72, 151 Kentucky Supreme Court, 151 Keppel, Francis, 234 KIDSNET, 205 Kindergarten(s), x, 9, 25, 143, 196-198, 226 enrollment, 14-15, 35, 37, 41, 198 mandatory by state, 56, 62, 65, 73, 77, 80, 92, 96, 102 transportation to, 159, 198 the first in U.S., 225, 235 See also Early childhood education, and "Preschool Education: State Support Group," 196-198 King, Martin Luther Jr., 234 Kirby, William, 98 Klein, Edward, 5 Koerner, Thomas F., 166 Kohn, Rendall-Baker v., 156 Korea, 17, 147 Kurtzman, Lemon v., 4 Kurzius, Ann, 166 284 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

L 273

Labor, Department of, 32 Land-grants for schools and colleges, 22, 26, 225, 226 Landsmann, Leanna, 165 Larry P. v. Riles, 155 Las Cruces Public Schools, Duffyon behalf of Duffy v., 150 Latchkey children, 4 Latin America, 17, 20 Lautenberg, Frank R., 208 Lau v. Nichols, 27, 227, 228 Lawson, John H., 76 Leatherbury, Leven C., 162 Legal Rights of Children, 214 Leibowitz, Margaret S., 162 Lemon v. Kurtzman, 4 Leone, Fred C., 133 Lewis, Anne C., 163 Libaries, 132-133, 184-185, in public schools, 17, 159, 184 See also "The American Library," 210.212 Library of Congress, 211 Library Services and Construction Act, 184-185, 211 Liddell, Louisa, 138 Liddell v. Board of Education, 152 Lieberman, Ann, 216 Lincoln, Abraham, 171 Lipsitz, Lawrence, 164 Literacy, 17, 30, 235 abroad, 17 Longer school day, 29, 60, 63, 74, 78, 116, 117 Longer school year, 29, 60, 68, 78, 83, 90, 116, 177 Los Angeles Board of Education, Crawfordv., 152 Lotteries for school finance, 60, 63 Louisiana, 73, 151, 159 New Orleans, 199 Louisiana Court of Appeals, 154 Louisiana Supreme Court, 151 Loundsbury, John H., 165 Lowell, James Russell, 171 Low-income families, 4 See also Disadvantaged children, Education of Lutjeharms, Joseph E., 82

M

McDaniel, Charles, 3, 65 MacDaniel, Georgia Association of RetardedSgs,v., 155 INDEX

274McDonald, Alice, 72 McDonough, Patrick J., 128, 133 McElrath, Robert L., 97 McFadden, Joan, 132 McGuffey, William Holmes, 225, 234 McKenzie, Floretta, 63 MacKown, Judith, 166 McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, 149 McPike, Liz, 161 McWethy, Patricia, 140 Madison, James, 171 Maeroff, Gene I., 171 Magnet schools, 199 Mahlmann, John J., 139 Maine, 74 Making the Grade, 28, 228 Mallory, Arthur L., 80 Mann., Horace, 25, 76, 172, 225, 231, 234 Marcuccio, Phyllis R., 167 Marburger, Carl, 143 Martin, Lucy Prete, 163 Martinez v., Bynum, 159 Marvin H. v. Austin Independent School District, 154 Maryland, 5, 75 Baltimore, 197 Massachusetts, 21, 24, 25, 76, 158, 197, 211, 224, 225, 230, 234, 235 Boston, 25, 211, 230 Massachusetts Appeals Court, 158 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 235 Master teacher concept, See Merit pay for teachers Mathematics, See Science and mathematics Maxwell, John C., 144 Mays, Benjamin, 234 May v. Cooperman, 151 Media in education, See "PR-An Education Priority," 218-223 Melendez, Sarah, 139 Mencken, H.L., 172 Merenda, Daniel, 147 Merit pay for teachers, 1-2, 10, 29, 109, 122, 124, 126 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Mexico, 17, 99 Meyers, Father John F., 143 Michigan, 25, 77, 226 Grand Rapids, 151 Ypsilanti, ix, 197 Michigan Supreme Court, 25, 226 Microcomputers in the classroom, 51 See also "Microcomputers in the School," 118-121 286 E D U C A T I O NA L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Middle colonies, 24 275 Middle Eastern nations, 20 Middle Schools, 140, 141, 145 See also Elementary schooling Migrant education, 183 Miller, Edward D., 138 Miller, Lynne, 216 Milonas, Williams v., 156 Minnesota, 78, 149, 151, 197, 229 Minorities, Education of, 9, 28, 179, 195 Alaskans, 175 Asians, ix, 27, 36, 227 Blacks, ix-x, 27, 63, 155, 174, 197, 226, 231 See also Black Americans non-English speaking, 22, 27, 179, 198, 227 Puerto Ricans, 234-235 Spanish speaking, 27, 64, 174, 235 American Indians, See Native Americans, Minority enrollment, 40 Minority teachers, 152 Mississippi, 79 Missouri, 80, 152, 154 St. Louis, 55, 152, 199, 226, 233 Mitchell, Ronald, 139 Mobile County Board of School Commissioners, Jaffreev., 3, 150 Montana, 81, 137 Morehouse College, 234 Morgan v. O'Bryant, 151 Morrill, Justin, 26, 225 Morrill Act, the first (1862), 26, 225 the second (1890), 226 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 2, 3 Mueller v. Allen, 151, 229 Music Educators National Conference, 139, 165 Myrdal, Gunnar, 232

N

National Art Education Association, 139 National Assessment of Educational Progress, 9, 15, 32, 236, 248-249 National Association for Bilingual Education, 139 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 139 National Association for Women Deans, Administrators,and Counselors, 140 National Association of Biology Teachers, 140 National Association of Elementary School Principals, 9, 140-141, 163, 167, 178, 203, 207, 254 INDEX

276National Association of Independent Schools, 141, 214 National Association of Pupil Personnel Administrators, 141 National Association of Secondary School Principals, 9, 141-142, 166, 214 National Association of State Boards of Education, 142 National Black Media Coalition, 208, 209 National Business Educational Association, 142 National Catholic Educational Association, 143, 165 National Center for Education Statistics, 2, 32, 175, 198, 250 National Coalition on TV Violence, 208 National Commission on Excellence in Education, vii, 28, 30, 177 National Committee Arts for the Handicapped, 180 National Committee for Citizens in Education, 143 National Community Education Association, 143 National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 30, 143-144, 167, 253 National Council for Accreditation in Teacher Education, 129 National Council for the Social Studies, 144, 167-168 National Council of Teachers of English, 144 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 144, 162, 165 National Defense Education Act of 1958, 26, 144-145, 227 National Distinguished Principals Program, 178 National Education Association, 2, 9, 144-145, 166, 253 first woman president, 236 National Gay Task Force v. Board of Education, 153 National Institute of Education, 191-192, 249 National Institute of Mental Health, 145, 206 National Middle Scho6 Association, 145, 165 National Opinion Research Center, 13 National PTA, See National Congress of Parents and Teachers National School Boards Association, 120, 145-146, 162, 164, 253 National School Public Relations Association, 146-147, 163 National School Volunteer Program, 147 National Science Foundation, viii, 32, 177 National Science Teachers Association, 147, 167 National Teacher of the Year Program, 126, 136 Native Americans, 22, 81, 91, 170, 175, 179, 181.182, 227, 235, 236, Early schools for, 59, 67, 71, 74, 77, 78, 82, 86, 91 enrollments, 40 libraries for, 212 Nature of the Child, The, 214 NBC (National Broadcasting Company), 208 Nebraska, 82 Negley, Harold H., 69 Netherlands, the, 17, 20 Nevada, 83, 137 New England, 23, 25, 65, 224 New Hampshire, 84, 211 New Jersey, 5, 6, 85, 151, 157, 158 New Jersey Supreme Court, 157, 15 Z88 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

New Jersey v. Rufstedler, 157 277 New Jersey v. T.L.O., 158 Newman, John Henry, 172 New Mexico, 86 Las Cruces, 150 New York, 5, 21, 87, 197, 198, 211, 236 Buffalo, 152, 199 Goshen, 236 New York City, 199, 234 Troy, 25 Nigeria, 17 Niles, Olive, 213 Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 155 Nodar v. Galbreath, 159 North Carolina, 88 North Dakota, 89 North Haven Board of Education v. Bell, 153, 228 Northwest Ordinances of 1785 and 1787, 21, 24, 55, 68, 224-225 Nursery schools, 69, 196-198 enrollments, 14, 35, 37-38, 41, 198 Nywist, Arthur v., 152

0

Oberlin College, 225 O'Bryant, Morgan v., 151 Off-Air Videotaping in Education, 214 Ohio, 90 Cleveland, 199 Okinawa, 147 Oklahoma, 91, 153 Oregon, 92 Orleans Parish School Boards, Carson v., 159

P

Packer, James S., 133 Packwood, Robert, 2 Paideia Program: An Educational Syllabus, The, 215 Panama, 147 Pantoja, Antonia, 234 Parents, 24, 28, 108, 110, 115, 125, 126, 143, 174, 221 and handicapped children, 7, 154-155, 156, 157 Parks v. Parkovic, 154 Parnell, Dale, 129 Parsons, Gordon E., 134 289 INDEX

278PBS (Public Broadcasting System), 207-208 Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, 25, 225, 235 Peabody, George, 226 Pearl, David, 206 Peltason, Jack W., 130 Pennsylvania, 93, 149, 159, 211 Philadelphia, 5, 159, 199, 210 Warren County, 149 Pennsylvania Superior Court, 159 Pennsylvania Supreme Court, 149 Per pupil expenditures, See "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Perry Preschool Program, the, ix Pewaukee School Board, Karnstein v., 157 Phay, Robert, 167 Phi Delta Kappa, 30, 108, 111, 126, 147-148 Phi Delta Kappan, 166 Philadelphia Board of Education, Berman v., 159 Philippine Islands, 147 Phillips, A. Craig, 88 Pico, Island Trees Union Free School District Board of Education v., 159 Pierce, William F., 135 Pinker v. Joint Dist. No. 28J of Adams and Arapahoe Counties, 150 Piscataway Township Board of Education v. Caftlero, 158 Poland, 17 "Poll of Teachers' Attitudes Toward the Public Schools," 126 Fowell, Lewis F., 150, 152 .'raft v. Independent School District No. 831, Forest Lake, Minnesota, 149 Prayer in the schools, 3, 149, 150, 227 Preschool, See Kindergartens; Nursery Schools Price, Kathleen, 166 Principals, 65, 123-124, 125-127, 140, 141, 203-204, 219, 254 attitudes of, 123-124 competency testing, 175 for salaries, See "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 See also, "Meet the Nation's School Principals and Teachers," 122.124; and "National Distinguished Principals Program," 254 Private schools, 2-3, 24-25, 178, 205 enrollment, 25, 36, 198 preprimary, 35, 198 higher education, 153 Catholic, 56, 57, 73, 119 legal issues, 151, 154, 155, 156-157 Public opinion on education, 13-15, 28, 30 toward taxes for schools, 10, 14, 16 See also, "Three Polls of Teachers and Principals," 125-127 Public/Private school distinctions, 3, 156-158 Public relations in the schools, See "PR-An Education Priority," 218-223 Public Schools in Hard Times. The Great Depression and Recent Years, 215 2°0 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6 Puerto Rico, 137, 147, 234 279 Pupil-teacher ratio, See Student-teacher ratio Purves, Alan, 213 Pushmataha, 172

Q

Quackenbush v. Johnson City School District, 154

R

Randall, Ruth, 78 Rand Corporation, 2 Raynolds, Harold, Jr., 56 Razor, Jack E., 128 Reading Is Fundamental, 181 Reagan, Ronald, 1, 2, 4, 10, 172, 176, 229 administration, 2, 5, 28, 29, 30, 178, 194, 212 Redefining General Education in the AmericanHigh School, 215 Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 27, 154, 155, 227 Religion and education, 2-3, 4, 149-151 See also Prayer in the schools Rendall-Baker v. Kohn, 156 Reynolds, Pamela Schrom, 167 Rhode Island, 94, 224, 225 Ricci, Smith v., 157 Rice, Joseph Mayer, 235 Richards, Ellen H., 235 Rickover, Hyman, 172 Riles, Larry P., v., 155 Rioux, J. William, 143 Rivera, Charles R., 168 Roberts, Arthur, 215 Roberts, Jack L., 164 Robinson, Glen E., 138 Robinson, Smith v., 156 Roemhild v. State, 159 Rogers, Will, 172 Roosevelt, Theodore, 172 Rose, Lowell C., 147 Rotter, Joseph C., 164 Rowley, Hudson Central School District Board ofEducation v., 153 Rueckel, Patricia, 140 Runkel, Phillip E., 77 Russell, Bertrand, 172 29.E INDEX

280Russell, William 1., 131, 163 Rutz V. Essex Junction Prudential Committee, 157

S

Salett, Stanley, 143 Salk polio vaccine, 144 Salmon, Paul B., 130 Salt Lake City Board of Education, Gurule v., 158 Sanchez, George I., 235 Sanders, Ted, 83 Sansted, Wayne, 89 Santayana, George, 172 Sava, Samuel G., vii, 140 Scebold, C. Edward, 131 Scholastic Aptitude Tests, 15, 250 School administrators, See "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 School Boards, 114, 126, 142, 145-146, 222 local, 16 legal issues, 27, 149, 150, 152, 153 state, 6, 25, 225 legal issues, 149, 150, 153 See also "Recent Court Rulings Affecting the Schools," 149-160 School buildings and facilities, 5, 136, 150, 181, 227 School Discipline: Order and Autonomy, 215 School district consolidation, 19 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 School districts, 31, 138, 145-146, 198, 199 legal issues, 28, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154 School enrollments, 35-42 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 School environment, 5, 230 School Facilities Child Care Act, 4 School reform, vii-x, 1, 2, 8-10, 29 See also "The Excellence Movement," 8, and "Education Profile of the States," 55-107 Schools abroad, U.S., 144, 145, 254 Schroeder, Patricia, 4 Science and mathematics, viii, 29 See also Curriculum Science and Mathematics Teacher Development Act of 1984, 29, 178 Scokin v. Texas, 155 Secondary schooling, vii, 8-9, 26, 119, 177 enrollments, 14, 36-39 achievement, 16 Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 152, 154 292 EDUCATION i t. M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Segregation, 27, 111, 232 281 See also Integration; Desegregation; and "Education Profilesof the States," 55-107 Selective Service System et al., Applicantsv. John Doe at al., 158 Self-discipling, Schools, and the Business Community,216 Sequoya, 91, 235 Service Employees International Union, 5 Sex education, 157 Shaffer v. Board of School Directors, 159 Shanker, Albert, 2, 131-132 Shannon, Thomas, 145 Shaw University, 226 Shepard, Lorrie, 161 Simon, Lynn 0., 106 Sinofsky, Esther, 214 Single-parent families, 4, 197 Sixth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 151, 153 Sizer, Theodore, 214 Slavery, 225-226, 232 Smith, Carol, 216 Smith, Margaret A., 93 Smith, Marilyn, 139 Smith, Mary Lee, 161 Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, 26, 226 Smith v. Ricci, 157 Smith v. Robinson, 156 South, The, 2, 27, 119, 225-226 Southern colonies, 24 South Africa, 17 South Carolina, 9, 95, 198 Lexington County, 5 South Dakota, 96 Southern Governors' Association, 2 Soviet Union, 17, 20, 26, 56 Spahr, Frederick T., 133 Spain, 17 Special education, See Handicapped children, Education of Springdale School District No. 50 of Washington Countyv. Grace, 154 Sputnik, 26, 28, 227 Standards for Quality Elementary Schools, 203 Starkweather, Kendall, 132 State role, the, 5, 8, 21, 25, 29, 35, 142, 175 See also "Education Profiles of the States," 55-107 Stephensen, Robert, 135 Stevenson, Harold W., ix Student(s), 125-127, 221 attitudes, 122-124 achievement, 15, 28 293 INDEX

282 assessment, 175, 248-249 dropouts, 9, 174-175, 249 enrollment, 35-42 rights of, 157-158, 159, 214 Student-teacher ratio, 70, 203-204 Sullivan, Anne, 235 Sweden, 20

T

Tatro v. State of Texas, 154 Taxes for public schools, 3, 25, 115, 226 willingness to pay more, 10, 14, 16, 59, 81, 96, 106 See also Funding for public schools Taylor, Rebecca Gries, 165 Teacher Colleges, 6, 129 Teacher(s), 12, 25, 122-123, 125-127, 144-145, 185, 220, 252 attitudes, 122-123 certification, 29 in computers, 119 competency testing, 18, 29, 122 education, 6, 29, 126, 129, 177, 203 evaluation, 29, 113 salaries, 49, 109 supply and demand, 6, 18, 43-48, 111 militancy, 110 Teachers, Their World, and Their Work: Implications for School Improvement, 216 Teacher Unions in Schools, 216-217 Teaching Reading and Writing Together, 216 Teague, Wayne, 55 Technology, educational, 79, 118 See also "Microcomputers in the School," 118-121; and 'TV: The Semimarvelous Educational Medium," 206-209 Telecommunications Research and Action Center, 208, 209 Television, 144, 215, 206-209 Tennessee, x, 2, 97 Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals, 153, 156 Terman, Lewis B., 235 Texas, 9, 98, 154, 155, 156, 198, 235 Dallas, 199 Textbooks, 25, 151, 177, 225, 230 free, 76, 91, 99 Thailand, 147 Ai The Nation Responds; Recent Efforts to Improve Education, 29 Third U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, 151, 157, 159 Thomson, Scott B., 141 294 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Thoreau, Henry David, 172 283 Thomdike, Edward L., 236 Time magazine, 14 Tirozzi, Gerald N., 61 Title IX, See Education Amendments Act of 1972 Treen, Aqui land v., 151 Tremper, Paul, 143 Trilling, Lionel, 173 Troy Female Seminary, 25, 225, 236 Truby, Roy, 104 Tuition tax credits, 2-3, 151, 178, 229 Tunis, Harry B., 162, 165 Turlington, Ralph D., 64 Tursman, Cindy, 167 Tuskegee Institute, 232, 236 Twain, Mark, 173 Twentieth Century Fund, 28, 177 Tyack, David, 21.5 Tyler, Ralph W., 16, 236, 248 Tyler Independent School Districtv. Doe., 156

U

Uncertain 7'riumph Federal Education Policy in the Kennedyand Johnson Years, The, 217 Unions and teachers, 131, 216 Unified School District Johnson County, County Hills ChristianChurch, v. 150 United Kingdom, 17, 147 United States, Bob Jones University v., 153 U.S. Catholic Conference, 2 U.S. Congress, 4, 5, 21, 24, 26, 29-30, 32, 176, 178, 194, 199, 207,212, 226-229 U.S. Constitution, 21, 24 First Amendment, 149, 150, 151, 157 Fourth Amendment, 158 Tenth Amendment, 21 Thirteenth Amendement, 238 Fourteenth Amendment, 27, 152, 156, 158 Nineteenth Amendment, 244 U.S. District Court, Colorado, 150 U.S. District Court, Eastern Arkansas, 149 U.S. District Court, Eastern Missouri, 152, 154 U.S. District Court, Eastern Wisconsin, 157 U.S. District Court, Kansas, 150 U.S. District Court, New Jersey, 151 U.S. District Court, New Mexico, 150

A. 295 INDEX

284U.S. District Court, Northern Illinois, 154 U.S. District Court, Southern Iowa, 149 U.S. District Court, Tennessee, 150 U.S. Senate, 2 Senate Children's Caucus, 4 U.S. Supreme Court, 3, 4, 27, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 227, 229, 232 University of Arizona, 6 University of Chicago, 26, 213, 233 University of Michigan, ix University of North Carolina, 25, 167, 225 University of Texas, 235 Usdan, Michael, 139 Utah, 2, 99 Salt Lalfe City, 158 Utah Supreme Court, 158

V

Vandalism,SeeCrime and violence, Vanderbilt University, 6, 213 Venters, Tommy R., 58 Vermont, 26, 101, 225 Vermont Supreme Court, 157 Veterans, 26, 226 Violence,SeeCrime and violence, Virginia, 102, 157, 224 Virginia Supreme Court, 157, 170 Virginia Union College, 226 Virgin Islands, 137, 181 Vocation,' education, 26, 76, 133, 175, 186, 226 Vocatiol 3ducation Act of 1963, 186

W

Walberg, Herbert, 214 Wallace v. Jaffree, 3 Walter, Franklin B., 90 Warner, Carolyn, 57 Warren County School District, Fink v.,149 Washington, 103, 152 Seattle, 152 Washington, Booker T., 236 Washington v. Seattle School District No. 1,152 Wauneka, Annie Dodge, 173, 236 Webster, Daniel, 173 296 E D U C A T I O N A L M A N A C 1 9 8 5 - 1 9 8 6

Webster, Noah, 173, 236 285 Wedgeworth, Robert, 132 Weicker, Lowell, 2 Wells, H.G., 173 West Germany, 17, 20, 147 West Virginia, 104 Wherry, John H., 146 Whitehead, Alfred North, 173 Will, George F., 173 Willard, Emma, 25, 225, 236 Williamsport Area School District, Benderv., 151 Williams, Charlie G., 95 Williams, Fannin v., 151 Williams v. Milonas, 156 Williford, Frederick L., 136 Wilson, Charles M., 141 Wilson, Woodrow, 173 Wirth, Timothy, 173, 207 Wisconsin, 105, 157, 160 Milwaukee, 199 Wisconsin Supreme Court, 160 Wise, Arthur, 2 Woerner, Robert, 143 Wolk, Ronald A., 163 Women, 140, 145, 183, 231, 234, 235, 236 discrimination against, 153 higher education for, 25, 36, 225, 235, 236 as single parents, 4 Woodruff, Bobby J., x World War I, 26, 253 World War II, 20, 21, 26, 226 Wright, Dorothy, 162 Wyoming, 106

Y

Yale University, 206 Yankelovich, Skelly & White, 14 Yaris v. Special School District, 154 "Ye old deluder Satan," 24, 76, 224 Young, Ella Flagg, 236 Young, Brigham, 173

297