DOCSLIB.ORG

Copyright and Use of This Thesis This Thesis Must Be Used in Accordance with the Provisions of the Copyright Act 1968

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Copyright and Use of This Thesis This Thesis Must Be Used in Accordance with the Provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.ukbrought to you by CORE provided by Sydney eScholarship COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Director of Copyright Services sydney.edu.au/copyright ‘As if it never were’: The Construct and Poetics of Time in Anglo-Saxon Literature A. M. Wallace A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences The University of Sydney 2014 Abstract This thesis examines the construction and poetics of time in Anglo-Saxon literature through a holistic approach to works of history, science, exegesis, and poetry. St Augustine conceived of time as distentio animi, the distention of the mind, and the thesis argues that the texts under discussion form responses to the problems of being in time, by looking to the stillness of eternity. Chapter one demonstrates how the scientific, historical, and exegetical works of the Venerable Bede form a sustained project to construct time. In the conversion of King Edwin in the Historia ecclesiastica, the famous flight of the sparrow in the hall emphasises the meaning that Christian time gives to both individuals and communities. Bede’s works both lay the foundation for the poetry of the later chapters and are texts worth studying in their own right. The second chapter investigates two Old English saints’ lives. Elene affects historicity by beginning with a precise date, though incorrect. The duration of the narrative of Andreas comes to a biblically significant forty days. Through study of the likely sources of these poems, it can be seen that the poets made deliberate choices to construct time in their narratives. The poetics of time in these two works suggests that the two are alike both as saints’ lives and in their approaches to time. Temporal markers within Beowulf provide clues to when certain events take place, as the third chapter discusses. The diurnal cycle that structures Beowulf on the micro level continues to the macro, and the poem as a whole depicts the day and the night of Beowulf’s life. The poem also engages in the elegiac mode, defined in chapter four as one in which time is largely unmarked, causing instability. The speakers of the Old English elegies are trapped in the present while their minds experience the distension described by Augustine; they recall memories of the past but to do so is painful. For some, time can come to seem ‘as if it never were’. Table of Contents Preface............................................................................................................................................. 1 Abbreviations and Conventions ...................................................................................................... 2 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3 Contexts: Time and Writing in Anglo-Saxon England ............................................................... 7 Augustine and Beyond: Theoretical Frameworks..................................................................... 17 Overview of Thesis ................................................................................................................... 35 Chapter One: Bede’s Time............................................................................................................ 41 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 41 The Historia ecclesiastica and the ‘Present Life of Man on Earth’ (‘uita hominum praesens in terris’) ........................................................................................................................................ 45 What Went Before (‘quidue praecesserit’) ............................................................................... 64 The Reckoning of Time ............................................................................................................ 75 The Politics of Time.................................................................................................................. 86 What Follows (‘quid autem sequatur’) ..................................................................................... 97 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 106 Chapter Two: Religious Poetry of the Vercelli Book ................................................................. 108 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 108 Performative Historicity in Elene ........................................................................................... 114 Typology and Number Symbolism in Andreas ...................................................................... 141 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 167 Chapter Three: Beowulf .............................................................................................................. 172 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 172 Nostalgia and Community .................................................................................................. 179 ‘When Morning Came’: Night and Day ................................................................................. 181 Ahistoricity and in Geardagum .............................................................................................. 195 Beowulf and The Elegiac Mode .............................................................................................. 199 The Ages of Man and World .................................................................................................. 207 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 219 Chapter Four: The Old English Elegies ...................................................................................... 221 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 221 Genre ....................................................................................................................................... 225 Past, Present, and Future ......................................................................................................... 229 Seasons .................................................................................................................................... 248 Uhta......................................................................................................................................... 256 Conclusion: ‘As if it never were’ ............................................................................................ 259 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 264 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 273 Manuscripts and Archival Documents .................................................................................... 273 Primary Sources ...................................................................................................................... 273 Secondary Studies ................................................................................................................... 277 1 Preface I am extremely grateful to my supervisor, Dr Daniel Anlezark, and to my associate supervisors, Dr Margaret Rogerson and Dr Jan Shaw, for their supervision of this thesis. While the majority of this thesis is formed from new research, a small part of chapter four emerged from research conducted for my MA thesis at the University of Leeds, titled ‘Elegy, Exile, and Extinction: The Lay of the Last Survivor in Beowulf’, supervised by Dr Alfred Hiatt and submitted in 2008. I wish to thank my parents and siblings, Patrick, and the Marlands for their loving support, and Roberta Kwan, Sabina Rahman, and Tahlia Birnbaum for their
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Lesser Feasts and Fasts 2018
    Lesser Feasts and Fasts 2018 Conforming to General Convention 2018 1 Preface Christians have since ancient times honored men and women whose lives represent heroic commitment to Christ and who have borne witness to their faith even at the cost of their lives. Such witnesses, by the grace of God, live in every age. The criteria used in the selection of those to be commemorated in the Episcopal Church are set out below and represent a growing consensus among provinces of the Anglican Communion also engaged in enriching their calendars. What we celebrate in the lives of the saints is the presence of Christ expressing itself in and through particular lives lived in the midst of specific historical circumstances. In the saints we are not dealing primarily with absolutes of perfection but human lives, in all their diversity, open to the motions of the Holy Spirit. Many a holy life, when carefully examined, will reveal flaws or the bias of a particular moment in history or ecclesial perspective. It should encourage us to realize that the saints, like us, are first and foremost redeemed sinners in whom the risen Christ’s words to St. Paul come to fulfillment, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.” The “lesser feasts” provide opportunities for optional observance. They are not intended to replace the fundamental celebration of Sunday and major Holy Days. As the Standing Liturgical Commission and the General Convention add or delete names from the calendar, successive editions of this volume will be published, each edition bearing in the title the date of the General Convention to which it is a response.
    [Show full text]
  • Partners Early Music Vancouver Gratefully Acknowledges the Assistance and Support Of: GOVERNMENT SUPPORT Board of Directors
    partners Early Music Vancouver gratefully acknowledges the assistance and support of: GOVERNMENT SUPPORT board of directors Fran Watters We acknowledge the support of president the Province of British Columbia Chris Guzy vice president Ron Kruschen treasurer FOUNDATIONS Ilia Korkh secretary THE BRENNAN SPANO FAMILY FOUNDATION Sherrill Grace THE DRANCE FAMILY Tony Knox EARLY MUSIC VANCOUVER FUND Melody Mason 2019-20 PRODUCTION PARTNERS Johanna Shapira Vincent Tan EMV’s performances at the Chan Centre are presented in partnership with the Chan Centre for the Performing Arts, with the support of the Chan Endowment Fund at the University of British Columbia. ÷ pacific José Verstappen cm baroque orchestra artistic director emeritus alexander weimann MUSIC director ÷ staff Matthew White executive & artistic director Nathan Lorch business manager Michelle Herrewynen resource development manager PRODUCTION PARTNERS IN VICTORIA BC Jonathan Evans production manager Laina Tanahara marketing & volunteer coordinator CORPORATE SUPPORT Jan Gates event photographer Rosedale on Robson Suite Hotel VANCOUVER, BC Tony Knox Barrister & Solicitor, Arbitrator Tel: 604 263 5766 Cell: 604 374 7916 Fax: 604 261 1868 Murray Paterson Email: [email protected] 1291 West 40th Avenue, Vancouver, B.C. V6M 1V3 Canada Marketing Group www.knoxlex.com We also gratefullyKnox & Co. denotes D.A.Knox Lawacknowledge Corporation the generosity of our many donors and volunteers. marketing & media relations Trevor Mangion thank you! and The Chan Centre Box Office Staff emv ticket office: 604.822.2697 You can be in good company too! The corporate sponsors of Early Music Vancouver give back to their community through the support of our performances and education & outreach programmes. Their efforts 1254 West 7th Avenue, make a meaningful difference for concertgoers and musicians alike.
    [Show full text]
  • An Examination of the Role of Wealhtheow in Beowulf
    Merge Volume 1 Article 2 2017 The Pagan and the Christian Queen: An Examination of the Role of Wealhtheow in Beowulf Tera Pate Follow this and additional works at: https://athenacommons.muw.edu/merge Part of the Other Classics Commons Recommended Citation Pate, Tara. "The Pagan and the Christian Queen: An Examination of the Role of Wealhtheow in Beowulf." Merge, vol. 1, 2017, pp. 1-17. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by ATHENA COMMONS. It has been accepted for inclusion in Merge by an authorized editor of ATHENA COMMONS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Merge: The W’s Undergraduate Research Journal Image Source: “Converged” by Phil Whitehouse is licensed under CC BY 2.0 Volume 1 Spring 2017 Merge: The W’s Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 1 Spring, 2017 Managing Editor: Maddy Norgard Editors: Colin Damms Cassidy DeGreen Gabrielle Lestrade Faculty Advisor: Dr. Kim Whitehead Faculty Referees: Dr. Lisa Bailey Dr. April Coleman Dr. Nora Corrigan Dr. Jeffrey Courtright Dr. Sacha Dawkins Dr. Randell Foxworth Dr. Amber Handy Dr. Ghanshyam Heda Dr. Andrew Luccassan Dr. Bridget Pieschel Dr. Barry Smith Mr. Alex Stelioes – Wills Pate 1 Tera Katherine Pate The Pagan and the Christian Queen: An Examination of the Role of Wealhtheow in Beowulf Old English literature is the product of a country in religious flux. Beowulf and its women are creations of this religiously transformative time, and juxtapositions of this work’s women with the women of more Pagan and, alternatively, more Christian works reveals exactly how the roles of women were transforming alongside the shifting of religious belief.
    [Show full text]
  • The Inscription of Charms in Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts
    Oral Tradition, 14/2 (1999): 401-419 The Inscription of Charms in Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts Lea Olsan Anglo-Saxon charms constitute a definable oral genre that may be distinguished from other kinds of traditionally oral materials such as epic poetry because texts of charms include explicit directions for performance. Scribes often specify that a charm be spoken (cwean) or sung (singan). In some cases a charm is to be written on some object. But inscribing an incantation on an object does not necessarily diminish or contradict the orality of the genre. An incantation written on an amulet manifests the appropriation of the technology of writing for the purposes of a traditionally oral activity.1 Unlike epic poetry, riddles, or lyrics, charms are performed toward specific practical ends and their mode of operation is performative, so that uttering the incantation accomplishes a purpose. The stated purpose of an incantation also determines when and under what circumstances a charm will be performed. Charms inscribed in manuscripts are tagged according to the needs they answer-whether eye pain, insomnia, childbirth, theft of property, or whatever. Some charms ward off troubles (toothache, bees swarming); others, such as those for bleeding or swellings, relieve physical troubles. This specificity of purpose markedly distinguishes the genre from other traditional oral genres that are less specifically utilitarian. Given the specific circumstances of need that call for their performance, the social contexts in which charms are performed create the conditions felicitous for performative speech acts in Austin’s sense (1975:6-7, 12-15). The assumption underlying charms is that the incantations (whether words or symbols or phonetic patterns) of a charm can effect a change in the state of the person or persons or inanimate object (a salve, for example, or a field for crops).
    [Show full text]
  • Reading the Miraculous Powers of Japanese Poetry Spells, Truth Acts, and a Medieval Buddhist Poetics of the Supernatural
    Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 32/: –33 © 2005 Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture R. Keller Kimbrough Reading the Miraculous Powers of Japanese Poetry Spells, Truth Acts, and a Medieval Buddhist Poetics of the Supernatural The supernatural powers of Japanese poetry are widely documented in the lit- erature of Heian and medieval Japan. Twentieth-century scholars have tended to follow Orikuchi Shinobu in interpreting and discussing miraculous verses in terms of ancient (arguably pre-Buddhist and pre-historical) beliefs in koto- dama 言霊, “the magic spirit power of special words.” In this paper, I argue for the application of a more contemporaneous hermeneutical approach to the miraculous poem-stories of late-Heian and medieval Japan: thirteenth- century Japanese “dharani theory,” according to which Japanese poetry is capable of supernatural effects because, as the dharani of Japan, it contains “reason” or “truth” (kotowari) in a semantic superabundance. In the first sec- tion of this article I discuss “dharani theory” as it is articulated in a number of Kamakura- and Muromachi-period sources; in the second, I apply that the- ory to several Heian and medieval rainmaking poem-tales; and in the third, I argue for a possible connection between the magico-religious technology of Indian “Truth Acts” (saccakiriyā, satyakriyā), imported to Japan in various sutras and sutra commentaries, and some of the miraculous poems of the late- Heian and medieval periods. keywords: waka – dharani – kotodama – katoku setsuwa – rainmaking – Truth Act – saccakiriyā, satyakriyā R. Keller Kimbrough is an Assistant Professor of Japanese at Colby College. In the 2005– 2006 academic year, he will be a Visiting Research Fellow at the Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Beowulf the Action of Beowulf "Beowulf" Seamus Heaney
    Introduction to Beowulf 3182 lines in length, Beowulf is the longest surviving Old English poem. It survives in a single manuscript, thought to date from the turn of the eleventh century, though the composition of the poem is usually placed in the eighth or early ninth centuries, perhaps in an Anglian region. The action is set in Scandinavia, and the poem is chiefly concerned with the Geats (inhabitants of Southern Sweden), Danes and Swedes. It falls into two main sections, lls. 1-2199, which describe young Beowulf's defeat of two monsters, Grendel and his mother, at the request of King Hrothgar, and lls. 2200-3182, in which an aged Beowulf, now king, defeats a fire-breathing dragon but is mortally wounded and dies. This coursepack includes three short excerpts from the poem: Beowulf's fight with Grendel (ll. 702b-897), the so-called 'Lament of the Last Survivor' (2247-2266), and the poet's description of Beowulf's funeral (3156-3182). The former consists of the approach of Grendel to Heorot, and his hand-to-hand combat with Beowulf. The second contains the elegaic reflections of a warrior whom the poet imagines to be the sole remnant of a great tribe that once held the treasure now guarded by the dragon which threatens Beowulf's people. The poet powerfully conveys his nostalgia for dead companions and sense that treasure without an owner is worthless. The account of Beowulf's funeral describes a pagan cremation and records the Geats' epitaph for their dead leader. The Action of Beowulf Beowulf opens with a description of the origin and history of the Scylding dynasty, tracing its descent down to Hrothgar, who builds Heorot, a great hall.
    [Show full text]
  • Widsith Beowulf. Beowulf Beowulf
    CHAPTER 1 OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE The Old English language or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest form of English. The period is a long one and it is generally considered that Old English was spoken from about A.D. 600 to about 1100. Many of the poems of the period are pagan, in particular Widsith and Beowulf. The greatest English poem, Beowulf is the first English epic. The author of Beowulf is anonymous. It is a story of a brave young man Beowulf in 3182 lines. In this epic poem, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a band of warriors to save the King of Denmark, Hrothgar. Beowulf saves Danish King Hrothgar from a terrible monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel who sought vengeance for the death of her son was also killed by Beowulf. Beowulf was rewarded and became King. After a prosperous reign of some forty years, Beowulf slays a dragon but in the fight he himself receives a mortal wound and dies. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honour of the dead hero. Though the poem Beowulf is little interesting to contemporary readers, it is a very important poem in the Old English period because it gives an interesting picture of the life and practices of old days. The difficulty encountered in reading Old English Literature lies in the fact that the language is very different from that of today. There was no rhyme in Old English poems. Instead they used alliteration. Besides Beowulf, there are many other Old English poems. Widsith, Genesis A, Genesis B, Exodus, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife’s Lament, Husband’s Message, Christ and Satan, Daniel, Andreas, Guthlac, The Dream of the Rood, The Battle of Maldon etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Pagans, Princes, Priests: the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons | University of Glasgow
    09/30/21 Pagans, Princes, Priests: the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons | University of Glasgow Pagans, Princes, Priests: the Conversion of View Online the Anglo-Saxons 1. McClure, J., Collins, R. & Bede. The ecclesiastical history of the English people: The greater chronicle ; Bede’s letter to Egbert. vol. The world’s classics (Oxford University Press, 1994). 2. Colgrave, B., Mynors, R. A. B. & Bede. Bede’s ecclesiastical history of the English people. vol. Oxford medieval texts (Clarendon P., 1969). 3. Bede, the Venerable, Saint, 673-735 & Webb, J. F. (James F. Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow [in, The Age of Bede: Bede: Life of Cuthbert: Eddius Stephanus: Life of Wilfrid: Bede: Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow: The Anonymous History of Abbot Ceolfrith with The Voyage of St BrendanTranslated by J.F. Webb: Edited with an Introduction by D.H. Farmer: Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow and The Anonymous History of Abbot Ceolfrith translated by D. H. Farmer] (Penguin Classics). (Proquest LLC, 2011). 4. Colgrave, B. & Bede. Two lives of Saint Cuthbert: a Life by an anonymous monk of Lindisfarne and Bede’s prose Life. (Cambridge University Press, 1940). 5. Wallis, F. & Bede. Bede: the reckoning of time. vol. Translated texts for historians (Liverpool University Press, 1999). 1/47 09/30/21 Pagans, Princes, Priests: the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons | University of Glasgow 6. Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. & Bede. Bede’s Ecclesiastical history of the English people: a historical commentary. (Clarendon Press, 1988). 7. Wormald, P. The times of Bede, 625-865: studies in early English Christian society and its historian.
    [Show full text]
  • The Beowulf Manuscript Free
    FREE THE BEOWULF MANUSCRIPT PDF R. D. Fulk | 400 pages | 04 May 2011 | HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS | 9780674052956 | English | Cambridge, Mass, United States The Beowulf Manuscript What we can do is pay attention to top scholars in The Beowulf Manuscript field and make some pretty good guesses. Rather than being composed at a specific time, the poem probably developed out of various influences, especially folk tales and traditions. Parts of it may have originally been performed by court poets or The Beowulf Manuscript bards scops, pronounced "shops," in the Anglo-Saxon who would have sung or chanted their poems to the accompaniment of a The Beowulf Manuscript instrument such as a The Beowulf Manuscript. We can conclude, then, that the work grew out of popular art forms, that various influences worked together, and that the The Beowulf Manuscript may have changed as it developed. During the late s and early s, an American scholar named Milman Parry revolutionized the The Beowulf Manuscript of live performances of epics. He demonstrated convincingly that ancient Greek poems the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed in an oral-formulaic style based on tradition and designed to help the performer produce a long piece from memory or improvise material as he went along. Francis P. Magoun, Jr. XXVIII,demonstrates that the poems were recited The Beowulf Manuscript, more likely, sung or chanted, to audiences in the way that similar works are presented in Beowulf. An example The Beowulf Manuscript the epic itself is the performance of The Finnsburh Episode lines ff. Magoun points out that the bards relied on language specifically developed for the poetry, formulas worked out over a long period The Beowulf Manuscript time and designed to fit the The Beowulf Manuscript demands of a given line while expressing whatever ideas the poet wished to communicate.
    [Show full text]
  • Violence, Christianity, and the Anglo-Saxon Charms Laurajan G
    Eastern Illinois University The Keep Masters Theses Student Theses & Publications 1-1-2011 Violence, Christianity, And The Anglo-Saxon Charms Laurajan G. Gallardo Eastern Illinois University This research is a product of the graduate program in English at Eastern Illinois University. Find out more about the program. Recommended Citation Gallardo, Laurajan G., "Violence, Christianity, And The Anglo-Saxon Charms" (2011). Masters Theses. 293. http://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/293 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Theses & Publications at The Keep. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of The Keep. For more information, please contact [email protected]. *****US Copyright Notice***** No further reproduction or distribution of this copy is permitted by electronic transmission or any other means. The user should review the copyright notice on the following scanned image(s) contained in the original work from which this electronic copy was made. Section 108: United States Copyright Law The copyright law of the United States [Title 17, United States Code] governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the reproduction is not to be used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research. If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that use may be liable for copyright infringement. This institution reserves the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgment, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of copyright law.
    [Show full text]
  • The Textin the Community
    The in the Text Community Essays on Medieval Works, Manuscripts, Authors, and Readers edited by jill mann & maura nolan University of Notre Dame Press Q Notre Dame, Indiana Copyright © 2006 by University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 www.undpress.nd.edu All Rights Reserved Designed by Jane Oslislo Set in 9.9/13.8 Janson by Four Star Books Printed in Hong Kong by Kings Time Printing Press, Ltd. Library of Congress Cataloging in-Publication Data The text in the community : essays on medieval works, manuscripts, authors, and readers / edited by Jill Mann and Maura Nolan. p. cm. Includes index. isbn 0-268-03495-8 (cloth : alk. paper) isbn 0-268-03496-6 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Literature, Medieval—History and criticism. 2. Manuscripts, Medieval—History. I. Mann, Jill. II. Nolan, Maura. pn671.t38 2006 809'.02—dc22 2005035128 ∞This book is printed on acid-free paper. contents List of Illustrations vii List of Contributors xi Abbreviations List xiii Acknowledgments xv Introduction 1 maura nolan 1 Versifying the Bible in the Middle Ages 11 michael lapidge 2 “He Knew Nat Catoun”: Medieval School-Texts and Middle English Literature 41 jill mann 3 Computing Cynewulf: The Judith-Connection 75 andy orchard Q vi R Contents 4 The Contexts of Notre Dame 67 107 a.s.g. edwards 5 The Haunted Text: Ghostly Reflections in A Mirror to Devout People 129 vincent gillespie 6 The Visual Environment of Carthusian Texts: Decoration and Illustration in Notre Dame 67 173 jessica brantley 7 The Knight and the Rose: French Manuscripts in the Notre Dame Library 217 maureen boulton 8 The Meditations on the Life of Christ: An Illuminated Fourteenth-Century Italian Manuscript at the University of Notre Dame 237 dianne phillips Index of Manuscripts 283 General Index 287 list of illustrations plate 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Redeeming Beowulf and Byrhtnoth
    Redeeming Beowulf: The Heroic Idiom as Marker of Quality in Old English Poetry Abstract: Although it has been fashionable lately to read Old English poetry as being critical of the values of heroic culture, the heroic idiom is the main, and perhaps the only, marker of quality in Old English poetry. Considering in turn the ‘sacred heroic’ in Genesis A and Andreas, the ‘mock heroic’ in Judith and Riddle 51, and the fiercely debated status of Byrhtnoth and Beowulf in The Battle of Maldon and Beowulf, this discussion suggests that modern scholarship has confused the measure with the measured. Although an uncritical heroic idiom may not be to modern critical tastes, it is suggested here that the variety of ways in which the heroic idiom is used to evaluate and mark value demonstrates the flexibility and depth of insight achieved by Old English poets through their apparently limited subject matter. A hero can only be defined by a narrative in which he or she meets or exceeds measures set by society—in which he or she demonstrates his or her quality. In that sense, all heroic narratives are narratives about quality. In Old English poetry, the heroic idiom stands as the marker of quality for a wide range of things: people, artefacts, actions, and events that are good, respected, desirable, and valued are marked by being presented with the characteristic language and ethic of an idealised, archaic warrior-culture.1 This is not, of course, a new point; it is traditional in Old English scholarship to associate quality with the elite, military world of generous war-lords, loyal thegns, gorgeous equipment, great acts of courage, and 1 The characteristic subject matter and style of Old English poetry is referred to in varying ways by critics.
    [Show full text]