SPECIAL REPORT: EXPLORING JULY 2020

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SIX DECADES OF DISCOVERY WHAT’S NEXT 2 Mars Milestones 20 : Getting to Mariner 26 Looking for Life 4 Viking 28 The Science of 6 Pathfinder 32 Next Giant Leap: Humans on 8 Mars Odyssey ON THE COVER The Mars 2020 robotic mission, 10 Mars Exploration Rovers with the Perseverance rover, not only will seek signs of habitable conditions on Mars in the 12 ancient past but also will search for signs of past microbial life itself. Another milestone will be 13 deployment of the helicopter, the first aircraft to attempt powered flight on 14 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter another . (Photo: NASA/JPL-Caltech) 16 Maven 17 Insight 18 Mars 2020

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 1 Mars Milestones

tarting with in 1962 and culminating with the launch of Mars 2020 in July, NASA has seen many Smilestones in Mars exploration. Today, a science fleet of robotic studies Mars from all angles. Three NASA spacecraft are in at Mars and two are at work on the surface.

Two spacecraft engineers stand with three generations of Mars rovers developed at NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Front and center is a of , left is a working sibling to and , and right is test rover .

This collage shows the variety of found at landing sites on Mars. The elemental composition of the typical, reddish soils was investigated by NASA’s Viking, Pathfinder, , and Curiosity missions using X-ray . The Mars Exploration Rover Spirit’s landing region is seen in both pictures at top; Viking’s landing site is shown at lower left; and a close-up of Curiosity’s Crater target called “Portage” is at lower right.

NASA at Mars: 20 Years of 24/7 Exploration 50 Years of Mars Exploration We Persevere JURIK PETER/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM IMAGE: BACKGROUND

2 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Mars Milestones Mariner

ith launches spanning the 1960s and early 1970s, the Mariner spacecraft were relatively small Wrobotic explorers, each weighing less than half a ton (without onboard rocket propellant).

Mariner 3 and 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first fly-bys of Mars. , which launched in 1964, collected the first close-up photographs of another planet, showing lunar-type impact craters.

In this wide-angle image, the dark areas tend to lie on the downwind side of the crater floors.

Mariner 9 launched in and became the first artificial satellite of Mars when it arrived and went into orbit. It revealed a very different planet than expected — one that boasted gigantic volcanoes and a canyon stretching 3,000 miles across its surface. More surprisingly, the relics of ancient riverbeds were carved in the landscape of this seemingly dry and dusty planet. Mariner 9 exceeded all primary photographic requirements by photo- mapping 100 percent of the planet’s surface.

BACKGROUND IMAGE: JURIK PETER/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM IMAGE: BACKGROUND Mariner 4 Team Sees First Image of Mars Five Ways Mariner 4 Changed Mars Exploration

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 3 Mars Milestones Viking

ASA’s Viking Project found a place in history when it became the first U.S. mission to land a Nspacecraft () safely on the surface of Mars in 1976 and return images of the surface. Viking also obtained the first soil sample on another planet.

This is the first photograph ever taken on the surface of Mars. It was obtained by Viking 1 just minutes after the spacecraft landed successfully on July 20, 1976.

First panoramic view by Viking 1 from the surface of Mars.

Viking: Mars Trailblazer Viking 40th Anniversary

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2011 Curiosity

2005 Spirit & Opportunity

2020 Perseverance

optimaxsi.com/space 585.265.1020 | [email protected] Mars Milestones Pathfinder

ars Pathfinder landed on July 4, 1997. It was designed as a technology demonstration of a new Mway to deliver an instrumented and the first-ever robotic rover (Sojourner) to the surface of Mars. Pathfinder used an innovative method of directly entering the , assisted by a parachute to slow its descent through the thin Martian atmosphere and a giant system of to cushion the impact.

This image of Sojourner was acquired during its second day on Mars. From landing until the final data transmission in September 1997, returned 2.3 billion bits of information including more than 16,500 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and soil. Findings from instruments on both the lander and the rover suggest that Mars was at one time in its past warm and wet.

Noontime on September 18, 1998. Sojourner’s middle right wheel is raised above the surface. Sojourner is over 12 m from the lander, a mission record.

Mars Pathfinder: 20th Anniversary Special Mars Pathfinder and Sojourner Rover

6 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Mars Milestones Mars Global Surveyor

ars Global Surveyor began its prime mapping mission in March 1999 and has continued to observe Mthe planet from a low-altitude, nearly polar orbit ever since.

Mars Global Surveyor has generated high-resolution images that document gullies and debris flows, suggesting that occasional sources of liquid water — similar to an aquifer — were once present at or near the surface of the planet.

This image from Mars Global Surveyor depicts an orbital view of the north polar region of Mars. The ice-rich polar cap (the quasi-circular white area at center) is approximately 621 miles across. The dark, spiral-shaped bands are deep troughs that are in shadow. To the right of center, a large canyon almost bisects the ice cap. The canyon is about the length of the Grand Canyon and up to 1.2 miles deep.

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 7 Mars Milestones Mars Odyssey

he mission is NASA’s longest-lasting spacecraft at Mars. Its mission includes Tmaking the first global map of the amount and distribution of chemical elements and minerals that make up the . The orbiter’s extended operations continue today. Images and other measurements from Mars Odyssey help identify potential landing sites for rovers and landers.

This panorama was made from images taken by Odyssey from April 2003 to September 2005. The orbiter’s Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) instrument combines a 5- visual imaging system with a 9-wavelength imaging system.

This image acquired by Odyssey is the first THEMIS image of Mars. It shows the at the south pole of Mars. The extremely cold, circular feature in blue is the ice cap at a temperature of about -120 °C (-184 °F). The cold region in the lower right shows the nighttime of Mars. This image covers a length of more than 3,900 miles, spanning the planet from limb to limb.

This map of an area within the Arabia region on Mars shows where hydrologic modeling predicts locations of depressions that would have been lakes (black), overlaid with a map of the preserved valleys (blue lines) that would have been streams. Research findings in 2016 interpret the valleys as evidence for flows of liquid water that occurred several hundred million years after the ancient lakes and Mars Pathfinder: 20th Anniversary Special streams previously documented on Mars.

8 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT SR Ulbrich Ad 0720.qxp 7/8/20 6:13 PM Page 1 Mars Milestones Mars Exploration Rovers

n January 2004, two robotic geologists named Spirit and Opportunity landed on opposite sides of IMars. Special abrasion tools, never before sent to another planet, have enabled scientists to peer beneath the dusty and weathered surfaces of rocks to examine their interiors. Spirit and Opportunity each found evidence for past wet conditions that possibly could have supported microbial life.

In January 2004, twin rovers Spirit and Opportunity landed on opposite sides of Mars. Both exceeded their planned 90-day mission lifetimes by many years. Spirit lasted 20 times longer than its original design until its final communication to in 2010. Opportunity continues to operate more than a decade after launch, breaking the record for extraterrestrial travel in 2015 by rolling more than 26 miles.

A Tale of Two Rovers Opportunity Completes its Mission 11 Years and Counting: Opportunity on Mars

10 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Mars Milestones

Mars Exploration Rovers

This close-up view of a target rock called “” was acquired by the microscopic imager on the arm of Opportunity in 2004. These mineral and other textures in this rock provided evidence about wet environmental conditions in the ancient past at Opportunity’s landing site.

Opportunity catches its own late-afternoon shadow in this dramatically lit view eastward across Crater.

4 Rover’s-Eye View of a Three-Year Trek on Mars The Challenge of Two Launches Snapshots of Mars

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 11 Mars Milestones Phoenix

he Phoenix lander studied its surroundings after landing on a Martian arctic plain on May 25, 2008. TDuring its mission, Phoenix dug into an ice-rich layer near the surface. It checked samples of soil and ice for evidence about whether the site was ever hospitable to life.

The Phoenix mission was the first chosen for NASA’s Scout program, an initiative for smaller, lower-cost spacecraft. To analyze soil samples collected by its robotic arm, Phoenix carried tiny ovens and a portable laboratory. Selected samples were heated to release volatiles that were examined for their chemical composition and other characteristics.

This image shows a portion of the spacecraft’s deck after deliveries of several samples to instruments on the deck. In the center and right foreground is the Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer. On the left is the Microscopy, Electrochemistry, and Conductivity Analyzer.

Mission Update: Phoenix

12 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Mars Milestones Mars Science Laboratory

art of NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission, Curiosity was the largest and most capable Prover ever sent to Mars when it landed in August 2012. Its electrical power source has already far exceeded its required operating lifespan on Mars’ surface of at least one full Martian year (687 Earth days).

7 Minutes of Terror

The image shows the first sample of powdered rock extracted by the rover’s drill. The image was taken after the sample was transferred from the drill to the rover’s scoop. In subsequent steps, the sample was sieved and portions of it delivered to the Curiosity’s First Five Years of Science on Mars Chemistry and instrument and the Sample Early in its mission, Curiosity found chemical and mineral Analysis at Mars instrument. evidence of past habitable environments on Mars. Curiosity carries the biggest, most advanced instruments for scientific studies ever sent to the Martian surface.

Curiosity’s Challenges and Achievements

Curiosity Rover Hits Paydirt This mission was the first to use a new entry, descent, and landing system. Instead of the landing systems of past Mars missions, MSL descended on a parachute then, during the final seconds before landing, the landing system — the “skycrane” touchdown system — fired rockets to allow it to hover while a tether lowered Curiosity to the surface. The rover landed on its wheels, the tether was cut, and the landing system flew off to crash-land a safe distance away. The guided entry system was capable of delivering a much larger rover onto the surface.

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 13 Mars Milestones Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

ars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) launched in August 2005 and carried the most powerful camera Mever flown on a planetary exploration mission for homing in on details of Martian terrain, spotting objects as small as a dinner plate. MRO is also the first installment of an “interplanetary Internet” — the first link in a communications bridge back to Earth.

This artist’s concept of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter features the spacecraft’s bus facing down toward Mars. The large silver circular feature above the spacecraft bus is the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft’s main means of communicating with both Earth and other spacecraft. The long, thin pole behind the bus is the Shallow Subsurface (SHARAD) antenna. The large instrument (covered in black thermal blanketing) in the center is the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera.

A towering dust devil casts a serpentine shadow over the Martian surface in this image acquired by the HiRISE camera in 2012. The view covers an area about four-tenths of a mile across. North is toward the top. This shows scalloped depressions in Mars’ region, one of the area’s The length of the dusty whirlwind’s shadow indicates distinctive textures that prompted researchers to check for underground ice. More than that the dust plume reaches more than half a mile in 600 MRO overhead passes provided data for determining that about as much water as height. The plume is about 30 yards in diameter. the volume of Lake Superior lies in a thick layer beneath a portion of this region.

MRO: Seeing Mars Better Than Ever 10 Years of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Water Flowing on Present-Day Mars

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206.37x273.05.indd 1 03.07.2020 1 6:02: 21 Mars Milestones MAVEN

ars Atmospheric and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) is obtaining critical measurements of the Martian Matmosphere to help understand dramatic on the Red Planet over its history. MAVEN was the first spacecraft ever to make direct measurements of the Martian atmosphere.

An artist’s rendition of MAVEN orbiting Mars.

The first demonstration of the ability of MAVEN to relay data from a Mars surface mission included this and several other images from the Curiosity rover. MAVEN carries an UHF designed for communicating with robots on the surface, relaying data between Mars rovers or landers and Earth. MAVEN’s Imaging UltraViolet Spectrograph obtained this image of Mars in July 2016. The greenish cast of the planet is a combination of the reflection of the surface plus the atmospheric scattering. The pink region at the south pole shows where ozone is absorbing ultraviolet light — the same property of ozone that protects life on Earth from harmful UV radiation.

NASA MAVEN: NASA’s Next Mission to Mars MAVEN: Investigating Mars Studying on Mars

16 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Mars Milestones InSight

he InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) mission Tplaced a single geophysical lander on Mars in November 2018 to study its deep interior. It is designed to address one of the most fundamental issues of : understanding the processes that shaped the rocky of the inner (including Earth) more than four billion years ago.

A seismic event was detected by InSight on April 6, 2019. Three distinct kinds of sounds were heard, all detected as ground vibrations by the spacecraft’s : noise from Martian wind, the seismic event itself, and the spacecraft’s robotic arm as it moves to take pictures. This event is the first likely recorded by InSight.

The robotic arm on InSight deployed its Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3) instrument on the Martian surface in February 2019.

This image from the robotic- arm-mounted Instrument Deployment Camera shows the instruments on the spacecraft’s deck. In the foreground, a copper- colored hexagonal cover protects a seismometer that measures .

InSight Lander NASA’s InSight Mars Mission Marsquake Heard by InSight

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 17 Mars Milestones Mars 2020

he Mars 2020 Perseverance rover is based on the Curiosity rover and its proven landing system. The Tmission addresses high-priority science goals for Mars exploration including key questions about the potential for , focusing on signs of past microbial life itself.

In this illustration, Perseverance uses its Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry (PIXL) to analyze a rock on the surface of Mars. PIXL uses a focused X-ray beam to analyze the chemistry of features as small as a grain of sand. Perseverance also introduces a drill that can collect core samples of the most promising rocks and soils and set them aside in a “cache” on the surface of Mars. A future mission could potentially return these samples to Earth. Behind the Spacecraft

Building the Mars 2020 Rover

Perseverance is scheduled to launch on July 30 and land on Mars in February 2021.

Landing Mars 2020

Mars 2020 Science Goals A Mars helicopter, Ingenuity, is a small, autonomous rotorcraft that will travel with Perseverance to demonstrate the viability and potential of heavier-than-air vehicles on the Red Planet. More than 1,500 individual pieces of carbon fiber, flight-grade aluminum, silicon, copper, foil, and foam went into Ingenuity, which will become the first aircraft to attempt powered flight on another planet.

18 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT SR New England Wire Ad 0720.qxp 7/8/20 6:27 PM Page 1 PERSEVERANCE: Getting to Mars

he Mars 2020 mission atmosphere about 125 kilometers addition to providing engineering data, duplicates most of Curiosity’s (about 78 miles) above the surface and a suite of cameras and a microphone entry, descent, and landing ends with the rover safe and sound on will give people on Earth a dramatic (EDL) system and much of its the surface of Mars. sense of the ride down to the surface of Trover design. The mission advances Memorable videos depicting this the Red Planet. several innovations that include “Seven Minutes of Terror” for the 2012 Like Curiosity, the Mars 2020’s guided sensors to measure the atmosphere, landing of Curiosity went viral online entry, descent, and landing system cameras, and a microphone. but used computer-generated provides the ability to land a very large, Perseverance will have the ability to animations. No one has ever “seen” the heavy rover on the surface of Mars in a land in more challenging terrain than skycrane maneuver — a parachute more precise landing area than was Curiosity, making more rugged sites opening in the Martian atmosphere, the possible before Curiosity’s landing. eligible as safe landing candidates. rover being lowered down to the Perseverance carries a microphone surface of Mars on a tether from its with which to record the sounds of Entry, Descent, and Landing descent stage, the bridle between the descent. This microphone records audio The EDL phase begins when the two being cut, and the descent stage as the rover descends to the surface.

spacecraft reaches the Martian flying away after rover touchdown. In Sounds could include friction of the SPACE MARTIN LOCKHEED

20 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT The (left) and back shell (below) comprise the aeroshell for NASA’s Mars 2020 mission. Both components are nearly 15 feet (4.5 meters) in diameter. The aeroshell will encapsulate and protect the Mars 2020 rover and its descent stage both during their deep space cruise to Mars and during descent through the Martian atmosphere, which generates intense heat.

atmosphere, the wind, and the sounds of landed in the general vicinity of areas Instead of deploying as early as dust displaced as the rover lands. targeted for study but precious weeks possible, Range Trigger deploys the Engineers are optimizing this microphone and months can be used up just traveling parachute based on the spacecraft’s for space from easily available, store- to a prime target. The Mars 2020 mission position relative to the desired landing bought hardware. It is unlikely it will work team has a strategy to put the rover on target. That means the parachute could beyond landing. If it does survive, the the ground closer to its prime target than be deployed early or later, depending on sounds of the Martian winds and sounds was ever before possible. how close it is to its desired target. If the of the working rover — such as the The key to the new precision landing spacecraft were going to overshoot the wheels turning, the motors that turn its technique is choosing the right mo­ landing target, the parachute would be head, or the heat pumps that keep it ment to pull the “trigger” that releases deployed earlier. If it were going to fall warm — could be audible. the spacecraft’s parachute. A capability short of the target, the parachute would called Range Trigger on Mars 2020 will be deployed later, after the spacecraft Range Trigger time the parachute’s deployment. Ear­ flew a little closer to its target. It’s hard to land on Mars, and even lier missions deployed their parachutes The Range Trigger strategy could harder to land a rover close to its prime as early as possible after the spacecraft deliver Perseverance a few miles closer

LOCKHEED MARTIN SPACE MARTIN LOCKHEED scientific target. Previous rovers have reached a desired velocity. to the exact spot in the landing area

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 21 PERSEVERANCE: Getting to Mars

This artist’s concept shows the skycrane maneuver during the descent of NASA’s Curiosity rover to the Martian surface.

that scientists most want to study. The hazardous terrain have been off-limits atmosphere on its parachute. That technology reduces the size of the due to the risks of landing. For past Mars allows the rover to determine position landing ellipse (an oval-shaped landing missions, 99% of the potential landing relative to the ground with an accuracy area target) by more than 50%, area (the landing ellipse) had to be free of about 200 feet (60 meters) or less. allowing the mission team to land at of hazardous slopes and rocks to help Here’s how it works: First, orbiters some sites where a larger ellipse would ensure a safe landing. create a map of the landing site be too risky because of more hazards Terrain-Relative Navigation helps including known hazards. The rover on the surface. Perseverance land safely on Mars, then stores the map in its computer. It could shave off as much as a year especially when the surface below is While descending on the parachute, the from the rover’s commute to its prime full of hazards such as steep slopes and rover takes pictures of the approaching work site. Another potential advantage large rocks. In prior missions, the surface. To determine where it’s of Range Trigger is that it would reduce spacecraft carrying the rover estimated headed, the rover quickly compares the the risk of any future Mars sample its location relative to the ground landmarks it identifies in the images return mission because it would help before entering the Martian with its onboard map. If it’s heading that mission land closer to samples atmosphere, as well as during entry, toward dangerous ground up to about cached on the surface. based on an initial guess from 985 feet (300 meters) in diameter radiometric data provided through the (about the size of two professional Terrain-Relative Navigation Deep . That technique baseball side by side), the rover It takes two things to reduce the risks had an estimation error prior to EDL of can change direction and divert itself of entry, descent, and landing: accurately about 0.6 to 1.2 miles (about 1-2 toward safer ground. knowing where the rover is headed and kilometers), which grows during entry. an ability to divert to a safer place when Using Terrain-Relative Navigation, MEDLI2 headed toward tricky terrain. Until now, Per­severance will estimate its location This next-generation sensor suite for

many potential landing sites with while descending through the Martian EDL collects temperature and NASA/JPL-CALTECH

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PERSEVERANCE: Getting to Mars

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P17172963 Looking for Life MSL [Mars Science Laboratory] was past life in a way that I think hasn’t really very successful doing that, starting in been done since Viking. Yellowknife Bay early in the mission. Tech Briefs: Tell us about the sample Tech Briefs: What are the four core collection process. What makes a objectives for Perseverance? sample scientifically compelling?

Williford: The first one is Williford: As you can imagine, there’s a determining if life ever existed on Mars, lot to that. Right after we land, the first the second one is astrobiology, the thing we’re going to do is try to third is geology, and the fourth is understand in a basic sense what that preparing for human exploration. environment was. Of course, we chose the The first one is understanding if there site because we’re fairly sure that there was one or more habitable was a lake there in the crater. We’re going he Mars 2020 mission addresses environments in our exploration area to start to use the tools of field geology to high-priority science goals for using an approach very similar to what understand right where we are. Mars exploration including MSL did and asking those same If those rocks had water and then got learning more about the potential questions: Were there different types of hit with a giant rock from space, all that Tfor life on Mars. Tech Briefs spoke with habitable environments? Were there energy would have set up what we call NASA’s Ken Williford, Mars 2020 Deputy different habitable sub-environments? impact-generated hydrothermal Project Scientist, to learn more about the Was the shore of the lake different from systems. The water would start to flow science capabilities of Perseverance. the middle of the lake where there’s through fractures in the rocks and some surface habitable environments? dissolve different minerals, setting up Tech Briefs: Perseverance will be After asking all those questions, we take little micro environments where landing at Crater, where it will the next step in astrobiology and we are microbes could possibly survive. That’s explore a site that is likely to have been directly seeking signs of ancient life. a type of habitable environment. Given habitable. How does this focus build on We’re doing that very explicitly. Where the environment, the conditions under the “follow the water” theme that guided MSL has some great capabilities to detect which a rock formed, and given what previous Mars Exploration missions? signs of life if it encountered some, it is we think we know based on the not as much of a core focus of the evidence we see, we’ll understand more Ken Williford: The focus for this mission. Curiosity’s mission was really about the history of that rock. mission is more complicated than that. about determining for the first time if Many things happened to that rock in It’s about determining evidence for there were habitable environments. With the billions of years since it was habitability in a way that went beyond Mars 2020, we’re looking for evidence of deposited and all of those things have the simple “follow the water” for Spirit an impact on that rock. All the and Opportunity, where we were processes have affected whether any charged with just looking for a signs of life could be preserved — confirmation that there was water at all. whether they’re organic molecules or And for Curiosity, we wanted to inorganic concentrations of biologically understand whether there was water important elements, relationships but also how long that water had been between biologically important there and the chemistry of that water. minerals, and other sorts of things.

Perseverance will use its drill to core rock and soil samples that will be collected and stored on the Mars surface for future missions to retrieve and return to Earth. NASA and the are solidifying concepts for a Mars

sample return mission. NASA/JPL-CALTECH

26 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Tech Briefs: So, the environment of of the rocks there have been destroyed. being measured can be minerals or Mars has a lot to do with the types and On Earth, it’s extremely rare to find organic matter. quality of samples. rocks older than say, three and a half SuperCAM uses laser-induced billion years. On Mars, many of the breakdown spectroscopy that involves Williford: The environment, of course, rocks on the surface are older than that shooting a laser at a rock that can be has to be habitable for there to be signs including the rocks we’ll explore with up to 7 meters away. It’s really a of life but then on top of that, we need Perseverance. That’s a time when life with a laser beam coming out to analyze and preserve those signs of was starting to take hold on Earth. The of the middle of it. That telescope life. And there are certain things working ability to just understand what the mirror is collecting all the light that against us, like the harsh radiation geology was like and what the comes back. It has a spectrometer that environment. Mars lost its atmosphere a conditions were like on the surface of provides elemental composition of the very long time ago, so the surface of another during that rock, similar to PIXL, but from a longer Mars is much more hammered by cosmic time is a huge bonus. distance away. rays and other kinds of radiation that tend to destroy signs of life. Tech Briefs: Perseverance will house Tech Briefs: What environmental The locations we choose are the ones science instruments for mineralogy, infor­­mation will Perseverance be that would have the best chance of environmental measurement, and looking for that could affect future preserving signs of ancient life. As we chem­ical measurement. How will they human ? combine all those things, we look for be used to investigate Mars’ geologic little niches where habitability is record? Williford: In addition to the desire of maximized. We want to know that the the scientific community to just better rocks have been protected from some of Williford: There are two main understand the current weather on the processes that destroy biosignatures instruments on the rover’s turret. PIXL Mars, every time we get to the surface and those spots make the best samples. is a micro-focused x-ray fluorescence with weather instruments, it really im­ Mars sample return is much bigger spectrometer that sends an x-ray beam proves our dataset about speeds and than astrobiology. It gives us our first that can focus on rock features as small temperatures. That is very important to opportunity to scientifically choose as a grain of salt and builds a map of future human exploration and samples from another planet and study the elemental composition of the rock. understanding those conditions. them. Our only other opportunity to On the other side of the turret, study pieces of extraterrestrial bodies SHERLOC uses a UV laser of the same Tech Briefs: What’s next for Mars came from either samples brought back spot size (100 micrometers). It is a exploration after this mission? from the or that fell fluorescence and Raman spectrometer. on Earth. It’s incredibly valuable to It hits the surface with that laser across Williford: The next giant step is Mars understand the evolution of the solar the same area that PIXL does. But now sample return. We’re collecting samples system in various ways. instead of measuring the elemental that will be returned to Earth; however, A great thing about Mars is that it composition, it measures the light color none of those follow-up missions are preserves rocks from a time when most composition. The molecules that are officially fully funded yet. We still talk about it as a plan and a hope but it’s being taken very seriously and NASA and ESA [European Space Agency] are cooperating on plans to get the samples back to Earth.

This image shows a concept model of NASA’s orbiting sample container, which will hold tubes of Martian rock and soil samples to be returned to Earth through a Mars sample return campaign. At right is the lid; at bottom left is a model of the sample-holding tube. The sample container will keep contents at less than about 86 ˚F (30 ˚C) to

NASA/JPL-CALTECH preserve the Mars material in its most natural state.

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 27 The Science of Mars 2020

An artist’s rendering of the SuperCam instrument. SuperCam fires a laser at mineral targets that are beyond the reach of the rover’s robotic arm and then analyzes the vaporized rock to reveal its elemental composition. (NASA)

ASA’s Mars Exploration Pro- discovery-driven science strategies Call it a rock vaporizer if you really want to. gram has a long-term, that provide continuity in Mars science But SuperCam is much more than that. One systematic exploration plan for exploration themes. of the science instruments onboard the Red Planet. Mars missions The science strategy for the program Per­severance, SuperCam is set to find rocks Nbuild on each other, with discoveries is to seek signs of life. The Mars 2020 of interest on Mars and look for signs of life. and innovations made by prior mission’s Perseverance rover contributes See the Tech Briefs interview with SuperCam missions guiding what comes next. to this strategy as well as to the inventor Roger Wiens at www.techbriefs.

Mars missions are guided by evolving, program’s four long-term science goals. com/blog. NASA NASA/JPL-CALTECH

28 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT Goal 1: Determine Whether Life cache with the most compelling rock rover’s instruments are looking for Ever Existed on Mars core and soil samples, and demonstrate evidence of ancient habitable The mission of the Per­severance technology needed for the future environments where microbial life could rover focuses on surface-based studies human and robotic exploration of Mars. have existed in the past. of the Martian environment, seeking Leveraging discoveries from past Mars preserved signs of biosignatures in rock missions about water and habitability Goal 3: Characterize the samples that formed in ancient Martian on Mars, Perseverance represents a environments with conditions that shift toward directly seeking signs of Perseverance is designed to study might have been favorable to microbial past microbial life. the rock record to reveal more about life. It is the first rover mission designed the geologic processes that created and to seek signs of past microbial life. Goal 2: Characterize the modified the Martian and surface Perseverance will explore a site likely through time. Each layer of rock on the to have been habitable. It will seek Past Martian climate conditions are a Martian surface contains a record of the signs of past life, set aside a returnable focus of Perseverance’s mission. The environment in which it was formed.

The SHERLOC instrument is located at the end of the robotic arm on NASA’s Mars 2020 rover. SHERLOC (short for Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals) is a spectrometer that will provide fine-scale imaging and use an ultraviolet laser to determine fine-

NASA NASA/JPL-CALTECH scale mineralogy and detect organic compounds on Mars.

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 29 The Science of Mars 2020

Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE) is loaded into the chassis of Perseverance. MOXIE will demonstrate a way that future explorers might produce oxygen from the Martian atmosphere for propellant and for breathing. MOXIE does this by collecting carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere and electrochemically splitting the carbon dioxide molecules into oxygen and molecules. The oxygen is then analyzed for purity before being vented back out to the Martian atmosphere along with the carbon monoxide and other exhaust products.

The rover seeks evidence of rocks that mission. Science instruments will be environmental conditions, so mission formed in water and that preserve used to analyze the chemical, mineral, planners understand better how to evidence of organics, the chemical physical, and organic characteristics of protect future human explorers. The building blocks of life. Martian rocks. mission also provides opportunities to The rover will investigate a region of gather knowledge and demonstrate Mars where the ancient environment Goal 4: Prepare for Human technologies that address the may have been favorable for microbial Exploration challenges of future human expeditions life. Throughout its investigation, it will The rover will demonstrate key to Mars. These include testing a method collect samples of soil and rock and technologies for using natural resources for producing oxygen from the Martian cache them on the surface for in the Martian environment for life atmosphere, identifying other resources

potential return to Earth by a future support and fuel. It will also monitor (such as subsurface water), improving NASA/JPL-CALTECH

30 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT landing techniques, and characterizing battery-sized instrument collects SuperCam — The SuperCam on Per- weather, dust, and other potential carbon dioxide from the Martian severance examines rocks and soil with environmental conditions that could atmosphere and electrochemically a camera, laser, and spectrometers to affect future living and splits the carbon dioxide molecules seek organic compounds that could be working on Mars. into oxygen and carbon monoxide related to past life on Mars. It can molecules. The oxygen is then identify the chemical and mineral Science Instruments analyzed for purity before being makeup of targets as small as a pencil The science instruments on vented back out to the Martian point from a distance of more than 20 Perseverance are state-of-the-art tools atmosphere along with the carbon feet (7 meters). SuperCam fires a laser for acquiring information about monoxide and other exhaust products. at mineral targets that are beyond the Martian geology, atmosphere, PIXL — The Planetary Instrument for reach of the rover’s robotic arm and environmental conditions, and X-ray Lithochemistry (PIXL) uses X-ray then analyzes the vaporized rock to potential biosignatures. fluorescence to identify chemical reveal its elemental composition. Like Mastcam-Z — This pair of cameras elements in target spots as small as a the ChemCam on Curiosity, SuperCam takes color images and video, three- grain of table salt. It has a Micro- fires laser pulses at pinpoint areas and dimensional images, and has a Context Camera to provide images to its camera and spectrometers then powerful zoom lens. Like the Mastcam correlate its elemental composition examine the rock’s chemistry. When the cameras on Curiosity, Mastcam-Z maps with visible characteristics of the laser hits the rock, it creates , consists of two duplicate camera target area. which is an extremely hot gas made of systems mounted on the mast that RIMFAX — The Radar Imager for free-floating ions and electrons. An stands up from the rover deck. The Mars’ Subsurface Experiment onboard spectrograph records the cameras are next to each other and (RIMFAX) uses ground-penetrating spectrum of the plasma, which reveals point in the same direction, providing a radar waves to probe the surface the composition of the material. 3D view similar to what human eyes under the rover. It can detect ice, WATSON — Essentially SHERLOC’s would see — but better. They also have water, or salty brines more than 30 second eye, the Wide Angle Topographic a zoom function to see details of feet (10 meters) beneath the surface, Sensor for Operations and eNgineering faraway targets. depending on materials. It is the first (WATSON) is a near-field-to-infinity MEDA — The Mars Environmental radar tool sent to the surface of Mars imaging component. WATSON is a build- Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) makes on a NASA mission. to-print camera based on Curiosity’s weather measurements including wind SHERLOC — Scanning Habitable (MAHLI). speed and direction, temperature, and Environments with Raman & Lumines- Integration is enabled by existing and also measures the amount cence for Organics & Chemicals’ electronics within SHERLOC. On the arm and size of dust particles in the Martian (SHERLOC) main tools are of the turret on Perseverance’s robotic atmosphere. Sensors are located on the spectrometers and a laser but it also arm, WATSON captures the larger- rover’s mast and on the deck, front, and uses a macro camera to take extreme context images for the very detailed interior of the rover’s body. closeups of the areas that are studied. information that SHERLOC collects on MOXIE — Carbon dioxide makes up This provides context so scientists can Martian mineral targets. Since WATSON about 96% of the gas in Mars’ see textures that might help tell the can be moved around on the robotic atmosphere. Oxygen is only 0.13%, story of the environment in which the arm, it also provides other images of compared to 21% in Earth’s rock formed. Mounted on the rover’s rover parts and geological targets that atmosphere. The Mars Oxygen In-Situ robotic arm, SHERLOC uses can be used by other arm-mounted Resource Utilization Experiment spectrometers, a laser, and a camera to instruments; for example, it can be (MOXIE) will demonstrate a way that search for organics and minerals that pointed at MOXIE to help monitor how future explorers might produce oxygen have been altered by watery much dust accumulates around the inlet from the Martian atmosphere for environments and may be signs of past that lets in Martian air for the extraction propellant and for breathing. The car- microbial life. of oxygen.

Resources

Mars 2020 Science Goals www.techbriefs.com/tv/science-goals

Sample Collection www.techbriefs.com/tv/sampling NASA/JPL-CALTECH

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 31 Next Giant Leap: Humans on Mars

ust 54 years ago, the first which is important to ensure air muscle and bone atrophy. Distance photograph of Mars from a remains safe for the crew. Water from home also de­mands that passing spacecraft appeared to condensation on the vehicle hardware have spacesuits capable of keeping show a hazy atmos­phere. Now, is controlled to prevent water intrusion astronauts alive for six days in the event decadesJ of exploration on the planet into sensitive equipment or corrosion of cabin depressurization to support a itself has shown it to be a world that on the primary pressure structure. The long trip home. once had open water — an essential system also saves volume inside the 2. Proper Propulsion. The farther into ingredient for life. spacecraft. Without such technology, space a vehicle ventures, the more Today, engineers and scientists Orion would have to carry many capable its propulsion systems need to around the country are developing chemical canisters that would be to maintain its course on the journey the technologies astronauts will use otherwise take up the space of 127 and ensure its crew can get home. Orion to live and work on Mars and safely basketballs inside the spacecraft — has a highly capable service module that return home. about 10 percent of crew livable area. is the powerhouse for the spacecraft, Highly reliable systems are critically providing propulsion capabilities that Building a Mars Spacecraft important when distant crew will not enable Orion to go around the Moon and When a spacecraft built for humans have the benefit of frequent resupply back on its exploration missions. The ventures into deep space, it requires an shipments to bring spare parts from service module has 33 engines of various array of technologies to keep it and a Earth. Even small systems have to sizes. The main engine will provide major crew inside safe. Both distance and function reliably to support life in in-space maneuvering capabilities duration demand that spacecraft have space, from an automated fire throughout the mission; the other 32 systems that can reliably operate far suppression system to exer­cise engines are used to steer and from home, keep astronauts alive in equipment that helps astronauts control Orion on orbit. case of emergencies, and still be light counteract the zero-gravity In part due to its propulsion enough that a rocket can launch it. environment in space that can cause capabilities — including tanks that There are five technologies necessary for a spacecraft to survive deep space: 1. Systems to Live and Breathe. As humans travel farther from Earth for longer mis­sions, the systems that keep them alive must be highly reliable while taking up minimal and volume. The new Orion crew vehicle will be equipped with ad­vanced environmental control and life support systems designed for the demands of a deep space mission. A high-tech system being tested aboard the International Space Station will remove carbon dioxide and humidity from inside Orion,

Roving vehicles enabled astronauts to complete almost 20 trips across the surface of the Moon. With each successive mission, NASA improved the rovers’ capabilities and continues to build on the lessons learned from Apollo to simulate operating unmanned rovers on Mars.

Shown here is the surface version of the Space REGAN GEESEMAN NASA Exploration Vehicle (SEV).

32 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT can hold nearly 2,000 gallons of plus an entirely different backup the Space Network, and finally to the propellant and a backup for the main computer to ensure it can still send Deep Space Network that provides engine in the event of a failure — commands in the event of a disruption. communications for some of NASA’s Orion’s service module is equipped to It also has a makeshift shelter most distant spacecraft. handle the rigors of travel for missions below the main deck of the crew Orion is also equipped with backup that are both far and long, and has the module. In the event of a solar radiation communication and navigation systems ability to bring the crew home in a event, NASA has developed plans for to help the spacecraft stay in contact with variety of emergency situations. crew to create a temporary shelter the ground and orient itself if primary 3. Holding Off the Heat. The farther a inside using materials onboard. A systems fail. The backup navigation spacecraft travels in space, the more heat variety of radiation sensors will also be system, a relatively new technology called it will generate as it returns to Earth. onboard to help scientists better optical navigation, uses a camera to take Getting back safely requires technologies understand the radiation environment pictures of the Earth, Moon, and stars and that can help a spacecraft endure speeds far away from Earth. autonomously triangulate Orion’s position 30 times the speed of sound and heat 5. Constant Communication and from the photos. twice as hot as molten lava or half as hot Navigation. Spacecraft venturing far as the . Orion’s advanced heat shield, from home go beyond the Global Hazards of Life in Space made with a material called AVCOAT, is Positioning System (GPS) in space and A human journey to Mars offers an designed to wear away as it heats up. It above communication satellites in Earth inexhaustible amount of complexities. is the largest of its kind ever built and will orbit. To talk with mission control in NASA’s Human Research Program has help the spacecraft withstand Houston, Orion will use all three of determined five hazards of human temperatures around 5,000 °F during NASA’s space communications spaceflight; however, these hazards do re-entry though Earth’s atmosphere. A networks. As it rises from the launch not stand alone. They can feed off one thermal protection system, paired with pad and into cislunar space, Orion will another and exacerbate effects on the thermal controls, will protect Orion switch from the to human body. Various research during periods of direct sunlight and pitch black darkness while its crews will comfortably enjoy a safe and stable interior temperature of about 77 °F. 4. Radiation Protection. As a spacecraft travels on missions beyond the protection of Earth’s , it will be exposed to a harsher radiation environment than in low-Earth orbit, with greater amounts of radiation from charged particles and solar that can cause disruptions to critical computers, avionics, and other equipment. Humans exposed to large amounts of radiation can experience both acute and chronic health problems ranging from near-term radiation sickness to the potential of developing cancer in the long term. The Bio-Analyzer enables near-real-time, onboard analysis using biological samples such as blood, Orion is equipped with four identical urine, saliva, sweat, and cell cultures. This diagnostic tool could help test specific countermeasures computers that each are self-checking, that are key to future exploration missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. REGAN GEESEMAN NASA

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 33 Next Giant Leap: Humans on Mars

Kennedy Space Center chemical engineer Annie Meier adjusts the trash-to-gas reactor she is developing to recycle trash during deep space missions. Materials such as scraps, wrappers, packaging, and other garbage could be converted into gas, oxygen, and water.

platforms including the International Space Sta­tion, as well as field tests in locations that have physical similarities to Mars, give NASA into how the human body and mind might respond during extended trips into space. 1. Radiation. Radiation is not only stealthy but is considered one of the most menacing of the five hazards. Above Earth’s natural protection, radiation exposure increases cancer risk, damages the central nervous system, can alter cognitive function, reduce motor function, and cause behavioral changes. To learn what can happen above low-Earth orbit, NASA studies how radiation affects biological samples on the ISS, which lies just within Earth’s protective magnetic field. Deep space The Deployable Enclosed Martian Environment for Technology, Eating, and Recreation () from vehicles will have significant protective Dartmouth College — winner of the 2019 Breakthrough, Innovative and Game-changing (BIG) Idea shielding, dosimetry, and alerts. Challenge — is a habitat-sized Mars greenhouse with the primary purpose of food production. An efficient Research is also being conducted in the

and safe greenhouse design could not only assist with Mars missions but also long-term lunar missions. field of medical countermeasures such CASPER NASA/DAN TOP: STAFFORD NASA/BILL

34 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT as pharmaceuticals to help defend against radiation. 2. Isolation and Confinement. Behavioral issues among groups of people in a small space over a long period of time, no matter how well trained they are, are inevitable. Crews will be carefully chosen, trained, and supported to ensure they can work effectively as a team for months or years in space. The more confined and isolated humans are, the more likely they are to develop behavioral or cognitive conditions such as a decline in mood, cognition, morale, or interpersonal interaction; sleep disorders; depression;­ fatigue; and boredom. Re­ search is being conducted in workload, light therapy for circadian alignment, phase shifting, and alertness. 3. Distance from Earth. Mars is, on average, 140 million miles from Earth. Rather than a three-day lunar trip, astro­nauts would be leaving Earth for roughly three years. While ISS expeditions serve as a rough foundation for the expected impact on planning logistics for such a trip, the data isn’t always comparable. If a medical event or emergency happens on the ISS, the crew can return home within hours. Additionally,­ cargo vehicles continually resupply the crews with fresh food, medical equipment, and other resources. Once you burn your engines for Mars, there is no turning back and no resupply. Facing a communication delay of up to 20 minutes one way and the possibility of equipment failures or a medical emergency, astronauts must be capable of confronting an array of situations without support from their team on Earth.

NASA is developing the technologies to build a spacesuit for use on Mars. Engineers consider everything from traversing the Martian landscape to picking up rock samples. The Z-2 suit will help solve unique problems faced by the first humans to set foot on Mars. One of the challenges is that the red soil on Mars could affect the astronauts and systems inside a spacecraft if tracked in after a spacewalk. To counter this, new spacesuit designs feature a suitport on the back, so astronauts can quickly hop in from inside a spacecraft while the

TOP: NASA/DAN CASPER NASA/DAN TOP: STAFFORD NASA/BILL suit stays outside, keeping it clean indoors.

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 35 Next Giant Leap: Humans on Mars

4. Gravity (or lack of it). There are The Latest Robotic Explorer preloaded map. If the spacecraft drifts three gravity fields astronauts will When the Mars 2020 rover launches toward dangerous terrain, it will divert experience on a Mars mission: this year, its science goal is to look for to a safer landing target. weightlessness be­ween planets, 1/3 of signs of ancient life. It will be the first Mars 2020 will carry a ground- Earth’s gravity on Mars, and normal spacecraft to collect samples of the penetrating radar called the Radar Imager gravity upon returning to Earth. When Mar­tian surface, caching them in tubes for Mars’ Subsurface Experiment astronauts finally re­turn home, they will that could be returned to Earth on a (RIMFAX) that will be the first operated at need to readapt many of the systems in future mission. The vehicle also the Martian surface. Mars 2020 scientists their bodies to Earth’s gravity. Bones, includes technology that paves the way will use its high-resolution images to look muscles, and cardiovascular system will for human exploration of Mars. at buried geology, like ancient lake beds. all be impacted by years without Landing a rover like this one gives The radar could one day be used to find standard gravity. Haz­ards of gravity NASA more experience putting a heavy stores of underground ice that astronauts changes include changes to spatial spacecraft on the surface of Mars; the could access to provide drinking water. orientation, head-eye and hand-eye challenge of landing in the thin Martian To help engineers design spacesuits to coordination, balance, and locomotion. atmosphere scales with mass. The first shield astronauts from the elements, Fluids shifts could put pressure on the crewed spacecraft will be titanic by NASA is sending five samples of eyes, causing vision problems. comparison, carrying with it life support spacesuit material along with one of . Hostile/Closed Environments. systems, supplies, and shielding. 2020’s science instruments, called Scan­ A spacecraft is not only a home, it’s a Mars 2020 has a guidance system ning Habitable Environments with Raman­ machine. The ecosystem inside the that will take a step toward safer & Luminescence for Organics & Chemicals spacecraft plays a big role in everyday landings. Called Terrain Relative (SHERLOC). A piece of an ’s astronaut life. Important factors include Navigation, the system figures out helmet and four kinds of fabric are temperature, pressure, lighting, noise, where the spacecraft is headed by mounted on the calibration target for this and amount of space. Everything is taking camera images during descent instrument. Scientists will use SHERLOC, monitored, from air quality to possible and matching landmarks in them to a as well as a camera that photographs microbial inhabitants. visible light, to study how the materials that naturally live on the body are degrade in ultraviolet radiation. It will transferred more easily from one person mark the first time spacesuit material has to another in a closed environment. been sent to Mars for testing and will Extensive recycling of resources — provide a vital comparison for ongoing oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, and hu­ testing at . man waste — is also imperative. Humans exploring Mars will need more than good spacesuits — they’ll need a place to live. Mars 2020 will collect

NASA’s Mars 2020 rover will demonstrate technologies for future human expeditions to Mars. These include testing a method for producing oxygen from the Martian atmosphere, identifying resources, improving landing techniques, and characterizing weather, dust, and other

environmental conditions. NASA/JPL-CALTECH

36 July 2020 EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT As crews head to Mars, there may be items that are unanticipated or that break during the mission. Having the ability to manufacture new objects on-demand while in space will be imperative. The Refabricator is the first integrated 3D printer and recycler that recycles waste plastic materials into high-quality 3D-printer filament, providing the potential for sustainable fabrication, repair, and recycling capabilities on long-duration space missions.

science that may help engineers design robotic orbiters and rovers that sniff out the data display are crucial. Time spent better shelters for future astronauts. Like the cosmos. NASA’s Curiosity rover, for scrolling through volumes of the Curiosity rover and InSight lander, in­stance, is studying the composition of information means less opportunity to 2020 has weather instruments to study soil with the help of spectrometers to walk farther away from the lander to how dust and radiation behave in all identify what rocks are made of by make new discoveries. . This suite of sensors, called the measuring how their chemical elements NASA’s reusable and repeatable Mars Environmental Dynamics­ Analyzer interact with electromagnetic radiation. approach can be replicated for future (MEDA), is the next step in the kind of Though the technologies powering missions to the Red Planet. weather science Curiosity collects. these tools already exist, NASA’s objective is to make the instruments small Resources The Mars Toolbox and efficient enough to help robots, and When astronauts land on Mars, one day astronauts, analyze on the spot www.nasa.gov/mars2020 limited resources will allow for a short the composition of the surface of planets, window of time each day to explore , and . This will allow for www.nasa.gov/content/living-and- working-on-mars new surroundings. Instruments that well-informed decisions about which few quickly re­veal the terrain’s chemistry samples explorers can return to Earth on Exploration: It’s What We Do and form will help them understand the a spacecraft of limited size. https://youtu.be/jAbj2C3Jdpg environments around them and how What the team has learned from they change over time. doing experiments, particularly with “Practicing” Science on Mars https://youtu.be/OM-SWMmrOsk NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center astronauts on the ISS, is that speed and is testing and refining chemical- ease-of-use are essential for space Preparing for our Journey to Mars analyzing and land-surveying tools that tools. Astronauts doing extravehicular https://youtu.be/tCHAr5uyHV4 will assist human explorers of Mars. activities have limited oxygen and other Mars Exploration Zones Many of the technologies build upon resources, so device features such as https://youtu.be/94bIW7e1Otg

NASA/JPL-CALTECH ones that have already equipped instrument size, number of buttons, and

EXPLORING MARS SPECIAL REPORT July 2020 37