Urban Transport in Developing Countries
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URBAN TRANSPORT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE PESEROS OF MEXICO CITY by MICHAEL WALTER ROSCHLAU B.A., University of Toronto, 1979 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of Geography We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA May 1981 (c) Michael'Walter Roschlau, 1981 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of Geography The University of British Columbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1W5 Date • 25 April 1981 - ii - ABSTRACT The most serious problems of urban transport in developing countries involve traffic congestion, insufficient space for pedestrians and other non-motorised modes, poor public transit service, the increasing attract• iveness of the automobile due to rising incomes, and the chronic lack of financial resources required to make a concerted problem-solving effort. Many of the solutions suggested by planners and consultants from developed countries are both expensive and require a substantial time investment before the benefits can be realised. Others are politically unfeasible or not well-suited to the needs of the city in less developed countries. An indigenous response.to the inadequate provision of urban trans• port in developing countries is the establishment of intermediate forms of public transport, such as jitneys or fixed-route shared taxis. These are able to provide levels of speed, comfort and convenience comparable to those of travel by private car, at considerably lower cost. Jitneys are relatively energy-efficient and consume much less road space per passenger than do private automobiles. The jitney originally developed in North America during the First World War, largely as a response to inadequate public transit service, but virtually disappeared again within a few years since the street railway operators were able to have legislation passed that made jitney operation uneconomic. In Third World cities, jitneys developed independently, and have enjoyed great success, in part due to a much greater demand for public transport and to fewer restrictive regulations. - iii - Mexico City is one of the largest urban areas in the developing countries and has a public transport system that includes a very extensive network of jitney services, several different classes of motor buses, trolley coaches, trams, four separate types of taxi services as well as a fast and efficient Metro system. These various elements of public transport are very interdependent and complementary, making remarkably good use of the available road space. A detailed examination of the jitney system in Mexico City, its regulation, organisation and economics was undertaken through personal observation and discussions as well as using an intensive survey of both jitney drivers and passengers. This has revealed that the jitneys are of great value, providing fast, frequent, comfortable and convenient public transportation which serves as a genuine alternative to private cars. The flexible nature of the jitneys makes them very demand-responsive and thereby efficient providers of urban transport. The jitneys employ a large number of people and are a profitable enterprise, contributing positively to the urban economy of Mexico City. - iv - TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables vi List of Illustrations vii Acknowledgements viii Prologue ix Chapter One INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter Two URBAN TRANSPORT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 9 I - The Basic Problems 10 a) Congestion 10 b) Non-motorised Modes 15 c) Public Transit 17 d) The Automobile 22 II - General Solutions 26 a) Congestion Pricing 26 b) Rail Rapid Transit 28 c) Intermediate Public Transport 30 d) Land-use Planning 33 III - Selected Examples 34 a) Calcutta 34 b) Caracas 37 c) Bogota 40 IV - Summary 43 Chapter Three DEVELOPMENT OF THE JITNEY 45 I - Evolution of the Jitney 49 a) The Jitney Era of 1914 49 b) The Demise of the Jitney 54 c) Atlantic City & San Francisco 56 II - The Jitney in Developing Countries 61 a) General Characteristics 61 b) Por Puestos of Caracas 67 c) Jeepneys of Manila 69 III - Summary 73 - v - Chapter Four TRANSPORT IN MEXICO CITY 76 I - Historical Development 82 II - Contemporary Situation 91 a) Trams and Trolley Coaches 92 b) Metro 95 c) Motor Buses 101 d) Taxis 106 III - Overview 109 Chapter Five THE PESEROS OF MEXICO CITY 113 I - Service and Operation 117 a) Route Coverage 117 b) Operational Characteristics 120 c) Service Characteristics 131 II - Administration and Organisation 136 III - Pesevo Economics 137 a) Costs and Revenue 137 b) Future Prospects 142 IV - Socio-Economic Analysis 145 a) Drivers 148 b) Passengers 156 Chapter Six SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 176 Footnotes 181 Glossary 183 Bibliography 184 Appendix 1 192 Appendix 2 193 - VI - LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Transport Data for Selected Cities 12 Table 2 Distribution of Vehicles in Selected Cities 13 Table 3 Traffic Speeds in City Centres 14 Table 4 Walking and Motorised Transport in Selected Cities 16 Table 5 Financial Position of Public Transport Systems 18 Table 6 Comparison of Private and Public Bus Operations in Bangkok 21 Table 7 Characteristics of Urban Travel by Different Modes 23 Table 8 Energy Consumption of Different Urban Transport Modes 24 Table 9 Prerequisite Conditions for Rapid Transit '29 Table 10 Motor Gasoline Prices and Taxes in Selected Third World Cities 38 Table 11 Travel Patterns by Income Groups in Bogota" & Hong Kong 42 Table 12 General Characteristics of Para-transit Modes 48 Table 13 Economics of Jitney Operation in 1915 53 Table 14 Characteristics of Atlantic City and San Francisco Jitney Systems 58 Table 15 Estimated Operating Expenses of Atlantic City Jitneys 60 Table 16 Characteristics of Major Third World Jitney Systems 63 Table 17 Vehicle Cost and Operating Parameters 66 Table 18 Daily Trips Generated by Dwelling Unit in Caracas According to Automobile Ownership 70 Table 19 Manila Bus and Jeepney Costs 72 Table 20 Population of Mexico City 78 Table 21 Comparison of Fares on Public Transport Modes in Mexico City 97 Table 22 Mexico City Transport Demand 104 Table 23 Inventory Of Taxi Services in Mexico City 108 Table 24 Motor Vehicle Registration in the Distvito Federal' 110 Table 25 Modal Comparison of Public Transit Services in Mexico City 111 Table 26 Characteristics of Authorised Pesevo Routes 121 Table 27 Characteristics of Tolerated Pesevo Routes 122 Table 28 Criteria for Evaluating Pesevo Service Characteristics 126 Table 29 Vehicle Comparison of Headway and Demand Levels 129 Table 30 Time and Fare Comparisons, Mexico City 133 Table 31 Sample Modal Choices for a Trip from La Villa to Pedregal with Time and Cost Comparisons 134 Table 32 Pesevo Operating Costs 138 Table 33 Route 26 Fare Structure 140 Table 34 Results of Driver Interviews 149 Table 35 Fare Structures on Routes Studied 154 -vii - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 Full Cost Comparisons of Inner-city Modes: Base Hour 65 Figure 2 Full Cost Comparisons of Inner-city Modes: Peak Hour 65 Figure 3 Change in the Rate of Bus and Pov Puesto Trip Production due to Automobile Ownership Increase 70 Figure 4 Population of Mexico City 78 Figure 5 Map of Original Street Railway Lines in Mexico City 84 Figure 6 Map of Mule-tram Lines in 1880 86 Figure 7 Map of Major Urban Thoroughfares 94 Figure 8 Map of Ejes Viales (New Arterial Roads) 96 Figure 9 Cross Section of Mexican Eje Vial 97 Figure 10 Current and Proposed Trolley Coach Network, Mexico City 98 Figure 11 Map of Metro and Tram Lines 100 Figure 12 Map of Current and Planned Metro Lines 102 Figure 13 Ridership of Mexico City Metro 103 Figure 14 Modal Split of Transport Demand in Mexico City 105 Figure 15 Map of Current Motor Bus Lines, Mexico City 107 Figure 16 Map of Original Pesevo Routes 115 Figure 17 Map of Pesevo Route Coverage 118 Figure 18 Map of Major Pesevo Services 124 Figure 19 Demand Threshold and Headway of Pesevo Services 128 Figure 20 Plot of Average Fare vs. Route Length 130 Figure 21 Map of Route 26, Main Branch, and Fare Structure 140 Figure 22 Plot of Route Length vs. Revenue/kilometre 141 Figure 23 Pesevos as a Transport Firm 143 Figure 24 Map of Pesevo Routes Chosen for the Study 147 Figure 25 Aggregate Results of Passenger Survey 157 Figure 26 Passenger Survey Results - Trip Purpose 161 Figure 27 Passenger Survey Results - Occupation of Riders 162 Figure 28 Passenger Survey Results - Age of Respondents 164 Figure 29 Passenger Survey Results - Sex of Respondents 164 Figure 30 Passenger Survey Results - Frequency of Pesevo Use 165 Figure 31 Passenger Survey Results - Modal Transfer for Completion of Trip 165 Figure 32 Passenger Survey Results - Passenger Acceptance of Vans 167 Figure 33 Passenger Survey Results - Deficiencies of Pesevos 168 Figure 34 Passenger Survey Results - Automobile Ownership 171 Figure 35 Passenger Survey Results - Reasons for Choosing the Pesevo 173 Figure 36 1 Passenger Survey Results - Alternate Mode Choice • 174 - vi i i - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have assisted in many ways during the preparations, fieldwork, background research and completion of this study. In Mexico City, thanks go to officials of the Direocidn General de.Polioia y Trdnsito, the Sistema de Transportes Electrioos, the Sistema de Transporte Coleotivo, and especially to Hugo Gonzalez Jimenez, of the Comisidn de V-ialidad y Transporte Urbano.