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Book VIII Photography

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bbbb Basic in 180 Days Book VIII - Photography Editor: Ramon F. aeroramon.com Contents

1 Day 1 1 1.1 ...... 1 1.1.1 Etymology ...... 2 1.1.2 Technological background ...... 2 1.1.3 Development of chemical photography ...... 3 1.1.4 Development of ...... 12 1.1.5 See also ...... 12 1.1.6 Notes ...... 13 1.1.7 References ...... 13 1.1.8 Further reading ...... 14 1.1.9 External links ...... 14

2 Day 2 22 2.1 Photography ...... 22 2.1.1 Etymology ...... 22 2.1.2 History ...... 22 2.1.3 Evolution of the ...... 32 2.1.4 Technical aspects ...... 34 2.1.5 Other photographic techniques ...... 38 2.1.6 Modes of production ...... 39 2.1.7 Social and cultural implications ...... 44 2.1.8 Law ...... 45 2.1.9 See also ...... 45 2.1.10 References ...... 45 2.1.11 Further reading ...... 47 2.1.12 External links ...... 48

3 Day 3 51 3.1 ...... 51 3.1.1 Law of Reciprocity ...... 51 3.1.2 Lenses ...... 52 3.1.3 Motion blur ...... 52 3.1.4 Focus ...... 54

i ii CONTENTS

3.1.5 Aberration ...... 54 3.1.6 grain resolution ...... 55 3.1.7 Diffraction limit ...... 55 3.1.8 Contribution to noise (grain) ...... 56 3.1.9 See also ...... 57 3.1.10 References ...... 57

4 Day 4 58 4.1 speed ...... 58 4.1.1 Introduction ...... 58 4.1.2 Creative utility in photography ...... 61 4.1.3 Cinematographic shutter formula ...... 65 4.1.4 See also ...... 66 4.1.5 References ...... 66

5 Day 5 67 5.1 (photography) ...... 67 5.1.1 Definitions ...... 68 5.1.2 Optimum exposure ...... 69 5.1.3 Exposure settings ...... 70 5.1.4 Exposure control ...... 72 5.1.5 Reciprocity ...... 73 5.1.6 Determining exposure ...... 73 5.1.7 Latitude ...... 75 5.1.8 See also ...... 77 5.1.9 Notes ...... 77 5.1.10 References ...... 78 5.1.11 External links ...... 78

6 Day 6 79 6.1 ...... 79 6.1.1 Exposure compensation on still ...... 79 6.1.2 Adjustment for lighting distribution ...... 80 6.1.3 Exposure compensation using the ...... 81 6.1.4 See also ...... 81 6.1.5 Notes ...... 81 6.1.6 References ...... 82

7 Day 7 83 7.1 ...... 83 7.1.1 Film speed measurement systems ...... 83 7.1.2 Reciprocity ...... 91 7.1.3 Film sensitivity and grain ...... 91 CONTENTS iii

7.1.4 ISO speed and exposure index ...... 92 7.1.5 See also ...... 96 7.1.6 References ...... 96 7.1.7 External links ...... 102

8 Day 8 103 8.1 35 mm equivalent ...... 103 8.1.1 Calculation ...... 103 8.1.2 Depth of field equivalent ...... 103 8.1.3 Conversions ...... 104 8.1.4 References ...... 104 8.1.5 External links ...... 105

9 Day 9 106 9.1 Timeline of photography technology ...... 106 9.1.1 Timeline ...... 106 9.1.2 See also ...... 113 9.1.3 Notes ...... 114 9.1.4 External links ...... 114

10 Day 10 115 10.1 ...... 115 10.1.1 History ...... 115 10.1.2 Types of ...... 118 10.1.3 Preservation ...... 119 10.1.4 Myths and beliefs ...... 120 10.1.5 See also ...... 120 10.1.6 References ...... 120 10.1.7 External links ...... 120 10.2 Conservation and restoration of photographs ...... 121 10.2.1 Overview of Photographs and Photographic Processes ...... 121 10.2.2 Types and Causes of Deterioration ...... 123 10.2.3 Preservation Strategies ...... 125 10.2.4 Conservation Treatments ...... 127 10.2.5 Professional Organizations ...... 128 10.2.6 Education and Training ...... 129 10.2.7 See also ...... 130 10.2.8 Notes ...... 130 10.2.9 Further reading ...... 133 10.2.10 External links ...... 133 10.3 Outline of photography ...... 133 10.3.1 Forms of photography ...... 134 iv CONTENTS

10.3.2 Camera and photography equipment ...... 136 10.3.3 ...... 136 10.3.4 Photographic techniques ...... 136 10.3.5 History of photography ...... 138 10.3.6 General photography concepts ...... 138 10.3.7 Lists ...... 138 10.3.8 See also ...... 138 10.3.9 External links ...... 139

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 140 11.1 Text ...... 140 11.2 Images ...... 144 11.3 Content license ...... 149 Chapter 1

Day 1

1.1 History of photography

The earliest surviving camera photograph, 1826 or 1827, known as View from the Window at Le Gras

The history of photography has roots in remote antiquity with the discovery of the principle of the (a dark room) and the observation that some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light. As far as is known, nobody thought of bringing these two phenomena together to capture camera images in permanent form until around 1800, when Thomas Wedgwood made the first reliably documented although unsuccessful attempt. In the mid- 1820s, Nicéphore Niépce succeeded, but several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépce’s associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the process, the first publicly announced photographic process, which required only minutes of exposure in the camera and produced clear, finely detailed results. It was commercially introduced in 1839, a date generally accepted as the birth of practical photography.[1][2] The metal-based daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based and processes invented by William . Subsequent innovations reduced the required camera

1 2 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1 exposure time from minutes to seconds and eventually to a small fraction of a second; introduced new photographic media which were more economical, sensitive or convenient, including roll films for casual use by amateurs; and made it possible to take pictures in natural as well as in black-and-white. The commercial introduction of computer-based electronic digital cameras in the 1990s soon revolutionized photog- raphy. During the first decade of the 21st century, traditional film-based photochemical methods were increasingly marginalized as the practical advantages of the new technology became widely appreciated and the image quality of moderately priced digital cameras was continually improved.

1.1.1 Etymology

The coining of the word “photography” is usually attributed to Sir in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς (phos), (genitive: phōtós) meaning “light”, and γραφή (graphê), meaning “drawing, writing”, together meaning “drawing with light”.[3]

1.1.2 Technological background

A camera obscura used for drawing

Photography is the result of combining several different technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.[4][5] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments[6] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965 in Basra – c. 1040 in Cairo) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,[5][7] Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chlo- ride. Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemi- cals (photochemical effect) in 1694. The novel Giphantie (by the French Tiphaigne de la Roche, 1729–74) described what could be interpreted as photography. 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 3

1.1.3 Development of chemical photography

Monochrome process

The earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, made in 1825. It was printed from a metal plate made by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with his “heliographic process”.[8] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph from taken with a camera obscura.

In 1614, Angelo Sala demonstrated that “powdered silver nitrate is blackened by the sun”,[9] as was paper that was wrapped around it. This discovery of the sun’s effect on powdered silver nitrate was not supported and was subse- quently disregarded by then-respected scientists who said that his discovery “had no practical application.” Around 1717,[n 1] Johann Heinrich Schulze, a German professor of anatomy and physics, set down a bottle containing silver nitrate and chalk by the window and unintentionally in the path of incoming light from the sun. The mixture, unsurprisingly, turned dark. But what he noticed and found to be strange was that part of it remained white and formed a line across the bottle. He then observed a cord hanging down and going across in front of the window, which he found out to be the cause. On further examination, he found that the entire mixture inevitably reverted to its original white color. Experimenting further, Schulze succeeded in transferring words he pasted on the bottle printed into the substance.[10] Describing his achievement, Schulze wrote that “[t]he sun’s rays, where they hit the glass through the cut-out parts of the paper, wrote each word or sentence on the chalk precipitate so exactly and distinctly that many who were curious about the experiment but ignorant of its nature took occasion to attribute the thing to some sort of trick.”[11] He put the silver nitrate in an oven, which had no effect on its color. This proved to him, definitively, that heat had not facilitated the transformation, as popularly suspected. Rather, it was the light.[11] In 1777, the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was studying the more intrinsically light-sensitive silver chloride and determined that light darkened it by disintegrating it into microscopic dark particles of metallic silver. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride but not the dark particles. This discov- ery, which could have been used to stabilize or “fix” a camera image captured with silver chloride, was little-noticed at the time and unknown to the earliest photography experimenters. It was not until around the year 1800 that Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow-copies of on glass, it was reported in 1802 that "[t]he images formed by means of a camera obscura 4 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver.” The shadow images eventually darkened all over because "[n]o attempts that have been made to prevent the uncoloured part of the copy or profile from being acted upon by light have as yet been successful.”[12] Wedgwood may have prematurely abandoned his experiments due to frail and failing health; he died aged 34 in 1805.

"Boulevard du Temple", a daguerreotype made by Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accepted as the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a busy street, but because the exposure lasted for several minutes the moving traffic left no trace. Only the two men near the bottom left corner, one of them apparently having his boots polished by the other, remained in one place long enough to be visible.

In 1816 Nicéphore Niépce, using paper coated with silver chloride, succeeded in photographing the images formed in a small camera, but the photographs were negatives, darkest where the camera image was lightest and vice versa, and they were not permanent in the sense of being reasonably light-fast; like earlier experimenters, Niépce could find no way to prevent the coating from darkening all over when it was exposed to light for viewing. Disenchanted with silver salts, he turned his attention to light-sensitive organic substances.[13] The oldest surviving photograph of the image formed in a camera was created by Niépce in 1826 or 1827.[1] It was made on a polished sheet of pewter and the light-sensitive substance was a thin coating of bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum tar, which was dissolved in lavender oil, applied to the surface of the pewter and allowed to dry before use.[15] After a very long exposure in the camera (traditionally said to be eight hours, but now believed to be several days),[16] the bitumen was sufficiently hardened in proportion to its exposure to light that the unhardened part could be removed with a solvent, leaving a positive image with the light areas represented by hardened bitumen and the dark areas by bare pewter.[15] To see the image plainly, the plate had to be lit and viewed in such a way that the bare metal appeared dark and the bitumen relatively light.[13] In partnership, Niépce in Chalon-sur-Saône and Louis Daguerre in Paris refined the bitumen process,[17] substituting a more sensitive resin and a very different post-exposure treatment that yielded higher-quality and more easily viewed images. Exposure times in the camera, although substantially reduced, were still measured in hours.[13] Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been, Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery that an invisibly slight or “latent” image produced on 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 5

Robert Cornelius, self-portrait, October or November 1839, an approximately quarter plate size daguerreotype. On the back is written, “The first light picture ever taken”.

such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be “developed” to full visibility by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences,[18] and the news quickly spread. At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens were shown only at Daguerre’s studio, under his close supervision, to Academy members and other distinguished guests.[19] Arrangements were made for 6 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

One of the oldest photographic portraits known, 1839 or 1840,[14] made by John William Draper of his sister, Dorothy Catherine Draper the French government to buy the rights in exchange for pensions for Niépce’s son and Daguerre and present the invention to the world (with the exception of Great Britain, where an agent for Daguerre patented it) as a free gift.[20] Complete instructions were made public on 19 August 1839.[21] Known as the Daguerreotype process, it was the the most common commercial process until the late 1850s. It was superseded by the collodion process. After reading early reports of Daguerre’s invention, Henry Fox Talbot, who had succeeded in creating stabilized photographic negatives on paper in 1835, worked on perfecting his own process. In early 1839, he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from his friend John Herschel, a polymath scientist who had previously shown that hyposulfite of soda (commonly called “hypo” and now known formally as sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 7

Not all early portraits are stiff and grim-faced records of a posing ordeal. This pleasant expression was captured by Mary Dillwyn in Wales in 1853. salts.[22] News of this solvent also benefited Daguerre, who soon adopted it as a more efficient alternative to his original 8 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1 hot salt water method.[23]

A calotype showing the American Frederick Langenheim, circa 1849. Note that the caption on the photo calls the process “Talbotype”.

Talbot’s early silver chloride “sensitive paper” experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more. In 1840, Talbot invented the calotype process, which, like Daguerre’s process, used the principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible “latent” image to reduce the exposure time to a few minutes. Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in the camera and developed into a translucent negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, which could only be copied by rephotographing it with a camera, a calotype negative could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing. The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic processes, in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative. This was seen as a 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 9 positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face. Talbot patented this process,[24] which greatly limited its adoption, and spent many pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers. He attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent, earning himself the ill will of who were using the related glass-based processes later introduced by other inventors, but he was eventually defeated. Nonetheless, Talbot’s developed-out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its inventor. In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[25] In 1847, Nicephore Niépce’s cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor, published his invention of a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple and William Breed Jones of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid-1840s.[26] In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process.[27] Photographer and children’s author used this process. (Carroll refers to the process as “Tablotype” [sic] in the story “A Photographer’s Day Out”)[28]

Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton’s photographic van, Crimea, 1855

Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodion emulsions after Samman introduced the 10 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1 idea of adding dithionite to the pyrogallol developer. Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, that dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881 he published his discovery. Berkeley’s formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulpho-Pyrogallol Developer.[29] Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary. The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case in- volving his “Lambert Process” in the Eastern District of Louisiana.

General view of The Crystal Palace at Sydenham by Philip Henry Delamotte, 1854

Popularization The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution. This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil , added to the push for the development of photography. and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by his Crimean war pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a record of and architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside became a sophisticated tourist’s visual record of his own travels. In America, by 1851 a broadside by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington was advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10.[30] However, were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot’s process. Ultimately, the photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 , of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman’s camera went on the market with the slogan “You press the button, we do the rest”. Now anyone 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 11

A mid-19th century “Brady stand” armrest table, used to help subjects keep still during long exposures. It was named for famous US photographer Mathew Brady.

could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the Kodak .

Color process

Main article: A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by as early as 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured were so light-sensitive they would only bear very brief inspection in dim light. The first durable color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green and blue color filters and shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855.[31] The photographic emulsions then in use were insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell’s method is now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s. Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled their nearly identical ideas on the same day in 1869. Included were methods for viewing a set of three color-filtered black-and-white photographs in color without having to project them, and for using them to make full-color prints on paper.[32] The first widely used method of color photography was the Autochrome plate, a process inventors and brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière began working on in the 1890s and commercially introduced in 1907.[33] It was based on one of Louis Ducos du Hauron’s ideas: instead of taking three separate photographs through color filters, take one through a mosaic of tiny color filters overlaid on the emulsion and view the results through an identical mosaic. If the individual filter elements were small enough, the three primary colors of red, blue, and green would blend together in the eye and produce the same additive color synthesis as the filtered projection of three separate photographs. Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface. Then through the use of a rolling press, five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains, enabling every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing the illusion that 12 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1 the colors are merged together. The final step was adding a coat of the light capturing substance silver bromide after which a color image could be imprinted and developed. In order to see it, reversal processing was used to develop each plate into a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary projector. One of the drawbacks of the technology is an exposure time of at least a second was required during the day in bright light and the worse the light is, the time required quickly goes up. An indoor portrait required a few minutes with the subject not being able to move or else the picture would come out blurry. The reason for this is due to the fact that the grains absorb the color fairly slow, and that a filter of a yellowish-orange color was added to the plate to keep the photograph from coming out excessively blue. Although necessary, the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed. Another drawback was that the film could only be enlarged so much until the many dots that make up the image become apparent.[33][34] Competing screen plate products soon appeared and film-based versions were eventually made. All were expensive and until the 1930s none was “fast” enough for hand-held snapshot-taking, so they mostly served a niche market of affluent advanced amateurs. A new era in color photography began with the introduction of film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image. Maxwell’s method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s and beyond, and Polachrome, an “instant” slide film that used the Autochrome’s additive principle, was available until 2003, but the few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.

1.1.4 Development of digital photography

Main article: Digital photography In 1957, a team led by Russell A. Kirsch at the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a binary digital version of an existing technology, the wirephoto drum scanner, so that alphanumeric characters, diagrams, photographs and other graphics could be transferred into digital computer memory. One of the first photographs scanned was a picture of Kirsch’s infant son Walden. The resolution was 176x176 with only one bit per , i.e., stark with no intermediate gray tones, but by combining multiple scans of the photograph done with different black-white threshold settings, grayscale information could also be acquired.[35] The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the image-capturing optoelectronic component in first-generation digital cam- eras. It was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs as a memory device. The lab was working on the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed “Charge 'Bubble' Devices”. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor. It was Dr. Michael Tompsett from Bell Labs however, who discovered that the CCD could be used as an imaging sensor. The CCD has increasingly been replaced by the active pixel sensor (APS), commonly used in cell phone cameras.

• 1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image-capturing CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns.[36] • 1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors • 1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world’s first megapixel sensor.

The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, Picasa, Instagram and PhotoBucket are used by millions of people to share their pictures.

1.1.5 See also

• • History of Photography (academic journal) • History of photographic lens design • Timeline of photography technology 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 13

• List of basic photography topics

• Photography by indigenous peoples of the Americas

• Women in photography

• Movie camera

1.1.6 Notes

[1] This date is commonly misreported as 1725 or 1727, an error deriving from the belief that a 1727 publication of Schulze’s account of experiments he says he undertook about two years earlier is the original source. In fact, it is a reprint of a 1719 publication and the date of the experiments is therefore circa 1717. The dated contents page of the true original can be seen here (retrieved 21 February 2015)

1.1.7 References

[1] Seizing the Light: A History of Photography By Robert Hirsch

[2] The Michigan Technic 1882 The Genesis of Photography with Hints on Developing

[3] Online Etymology Dictionary

[4] “Light Through the Ages”.

[5] Robert E. Krebs (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32433-6.

[6] Alistair Cameron Crombie, Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought, p. 205

[7] Wade, Kaitlyjj; Finger, Stanley (2001). “The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz’s perspec- tive”. Perception. 30 (10): 1157–77. doi:10.1068/p3210. PMID 11721819.

[8] “The First Photograph — ”. Retrieved 29 September 2009. from Helmut Gernsheim’s article, “The 150th Anniversary of Photography,” in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ...In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The sunlight passing through... This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later.

[9] Friedman, Avner; Ross, David (2012). Mathematical Models in Photographic Science. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 4. ISBN 9783642557552.

[10] Thomas Peter Garrett (1917). “The Wonderful Development of Photography”. The Art World. The Frick Collection.

[11] Jane E. Boyd. “Silver and Sunlight: The Science of Early Photography”. Chemical Heritage Foundation.

[12] Litchfield, R. 1903. “Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer: An Account of His Life.” London, Duckworth and Co. See Chapter XIII. Includes the complete text of Humphry Davy’s 1802 paper, which is the only known contemporary record of Wedgwood’s experiments. (Retrieved 7 May 2013 via archive.org).

[13] Niépce Museum history pages

[14] Folpe, Emily Kies (2002). It Happened on Washington Square. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 94. ISBN 0-8018-7088-7.

[15] By Christine Sutton

[16] Niépce House Museum: Invention of Photography, Part 3. Retrieved 25 May 2013. The traditional estimate of eight or nine hours originated in the 1950s and is based mainly on the fact that sunlight strikes the buildings as if from an arc across the sky, an effect which several days of continuous exposure would also produce.

[17] “Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography”. Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Oc- tober 2004. Retrieved 2008-05-06.

[18] (Arago, François) (1839) “Fixation des images qui se forment au foyer d'une chambre obscure” (Fixing of images formed at the focus of a camera obscura), Comptes rendus, 8 : 4-7.

[19] e.g., a 9 May 1839 showing to John Herschel, documented by Herschel’s letter to WHF Talbot. See the included footnote #1 (by Larry Schaaf?) for context. Accessed 11 September 2014. 14 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

[20] Daguerre (1839), pages 1-4.

[21] See:

• (Arago, François) (1839) “Le Daguerreotype”, Comptes rendus, 9 : 250-267. • Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama [History and description of the processes of the daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France: Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839).

[22] John F. W. Herschel (1839) “Note on the art of photography, or the application of the chemical rays of light to the purposes of pictorial representation,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 4 : 131-133. On page 132 Herschel mentions the use of hyposulfites.

[23] Daguerre, Historique et description des procédés du Daguerréotype et du diorama [History and description of the processes of the daguerreotype and diorama] (Paris, France: Alphonse Giroux et Cie., 1839). On page 11, for example, Daguerre states: “Cette surabondance contribue à donner des tons roux, même en enlevant entièrement l'iode au moyen d'un lavage à l'hyposulfite de soude ou au sel marin.” (This overabundance contributes towards giving red tones, even while completely removing the iodine by means of a rinse in sodium hyposulfite or in sea salt.)

[24] Improvement in photographic pictures, Henry Fox Talbot, Patent Office, patent no. 5171, June 26, 1847.

[25] “Life and work of Janez Puhar | (accessed December 13, 2009)".

[26] Michael R. Peres (2007). The Focal encyclopedia of photography: digital imaging, theory and applications, history, and science. Focal Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-240-80740-9.

[27] Richard G. Condon (1989). “The History and Development of Arctic Photography”. Arctic Anthropology. 26: 52. JSTOR 40316177.

[28] The Complete Works of Lewis Carroll, from the Random House Modern Library

[29] Levenson, G. I. P (May 1993). “Berkeley, overlooked man of photo science”. Photographic Journal. 133 (4): 169–71.

[30] Loke, Margarett (July 7, 2000). “Photography review; In a John Brown Portrait, The Essence of a Militant”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-03-16.

[31] James Clerk Maxwell (2003). The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. Courier Dover Publications. p. 449. ISBN 0-486-49560-4.

[32] Brian, Coe (1976). The Birth of Photography. Ash & Grant. ISBN 0-904069-07-9.

[33] Douglas R. Nickel (1992). “Autochromes by Clarence H. White”. Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University. 2. 51: 31–32.

[34] “Potatoes to Pictures”. The American Museum of Photography. The American Photography Museum.

[35] SEAC and the Start of Image Processing at the National Bureau of Standards – Earliest Image Processing

[36] Janesick, James R (2001). Scientific Charge Coupled Devices. SPIE Press. ISBN 0-8194-3698-4.

1.1.8 Further reading

• Hannavy, John. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 5 volumes

• Clerc, L.P. Photography Theory and Practice, being an English edition of “La Technique Photographique”

1.1.9 External links

• The Silver Canvas: Daguerreotype Masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum Bates Lowry, Isabel Barrett Lowry 1998

• A History of Photography from its Beginnings Till the 1920s by Dr. Robert Leggat, now hosted by Dr Michael Prichard

• The First Photograph at The University of Texas at Austin

• Photo Histories, the photographers’ history of photography 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 15

• The Photo History Timeline Collection

• Niepce Museum • Video (09:03) – notable historical still images – now colorized.

• cww2.colorado 16 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

An 1855 cartoon satirized problems with posing for Daguerreotypes: slight movement during exposure resulted in blurred features, red-blindness made rosy complexions look dark. 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 17

In this 1893 multiple-exposure trick photo, the photographer appears to be photographing himself. It satirizes studio equipment and procedures that were nearly obsolete by then. Note the clamp to hold the sitter’s head still. 18 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

Carte-de-visite 2½ x 4¼

Victoria 5 x 3½

Cabinet 6½ x 4½ Promenade 7 x 4

Panel 8 x 4¼

Boudouir 5¼ x 8½

Imperial 9⅞ x 7⅞

US Letter

A comparison of common print sizes used in photographic studios during the 19th century 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 19

The first durable color photograph, taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 20 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

A color portrait of Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) by Alvin Langdon Coburn, 1908, made by the recently introduced Autochrome process 1.1. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY 21

Walden Kirsch as scanned into the SEAC computer in 1957 Chapter 2

Day 2

2.1 Photography

“Photographic” redirects here. For the image obtained, see Photograph. For other uses, see Photography (disam- biguation). Photography is the science, art, application and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an , or chemically by means of a light- sensitive material such as photographic film.[1] Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a file for subsequent display or processing. The result with is an invisible latent image, which is later chemically “developed” into a visible image, either negative or positive depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method of processing. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print, either by using an or by contact printing. Photography is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing (e.g., photolithography), and business, as well as its more direct uses for art, film and video production, recreational purposes, hobby, and mass communication.

2.1.1 Etymology

The word “photography” was created from the Greek roots φωτός (phōtos), genitive of φῶς (phōs), “light”[2] and γραφή (graphé) “representation by means of lines” or “drawing”,[3] together meaning “drawing with light”.[4] Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Hercules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas, Brazil, used the French form of the word, photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834.[5] Johann von Maedler, a astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung.[6] Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been independently confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally been given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. His uses of it in private correspondence prior to 25 February 1839 and at his Royal Society lecture on the subject in London on 14 March 1839 have long been amply documented and accepted as settled facts.

2.1.2 History

Main article: History of photography See also: History of the camera

22 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 23

Lens and mounting of a large-format camera

Precursor technologies

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, ancient Han Chinese philosopher Mo Di from the Mohist School of Logic was the first to discover and develop the scientific principles of optics, camera obscura, and pinhole camera. Later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.[7][8] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments,[9] Both the Han Chinese polymath Shen Kuo (1031–95) and Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) independently invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera,[8][10] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,[11] and Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride.[12] Shen Kuo explains the science of camera obscura and 24 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

A camera obscura used for drawing

optical physics in his scientific work Dream Pool Essays while the techniques described in Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials.[13][14][15] Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566.[16] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[17] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.[16] The discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture and keep the image produced by the camera obscura. Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means “dark chamber” in Latin. It is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper.

Invention of photography

Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that “the images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver.” The shadow images eventually darkened all over.[19] The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.[18] Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 25

Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by Nicéphore Niépce.[18] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph taken with a camera. a real-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura by a lens).[20]

View from the Window at Le Gras, 1826 or 1827, the earliest surviving camera photograph 26 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Because Niépce’s camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. In partnership with Louis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy. Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light- fast and permanent. Daguerre’s efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized by iodine vapor, developed by mercury vapor, and “fixed” with hot saturated salt water—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre’s process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on 19 August 1839. In Brazil, Hercules Florence had apparently started working out a silver-salt-based paper process in 1832, later naming it Photographie. Meanwhile, a British inventor, William Fox Talbot, had succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre’s invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto secret method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot’s paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the calotype process, which used the chemical development of a latent image to greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot’s process, unlike Da- guerre’s, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies, this the basis of most modern chemical photography up to the present day, as Daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.[21] Talbot’s famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence.[22][23] British chemist John Herschel made many contributions to the new field. He invented the process, later familiar as the “blueprint”. He was the first to use the terms “photography”, “negative” and “positive”. He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to “fix” silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light- fast. He made the first glass negative in late 1839. In the March 1851 issue of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his wet plate collodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on albumen or salted paper. Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908. Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduc- tion of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were not available in the large formats preferred by most professional photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the old. Because of the superior di- mensional stability of glass, the use of plates for some scientific applications, such as , continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laser , it has persisted into the 2010s.

Film photography

Main article: Photographic film Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised. 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 27

A latticed window in Lacock Abbey, England, photographed by William Fox Talbot in 1835. Shown here in positive form, this may be the oldest extant photographic negative made in a camera.

The first flexible photographic roll film was marketed by George Eastman in 1885, but this original “film” was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose ("celluloid"), now usually called "nitrate film". Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,[24] at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably 28 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Undeveloped Arista black-and-white film, ISO 125/22°

tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-ray films until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951. remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.[25] Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive “look” of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including: (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with film vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors) [26] (2) resolution and (3) continuity of tone.[27]

Black-and-white

Main article: Monochrome photography Originally, all photography was monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black- and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its “classic” photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography.[28] It is important to note that monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The process first used more than 170 years ago, produces brownish tones. Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclu- sively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although color photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Almost all digital cameras have an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discard RGB color channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in color.

Color

Main article: Color photography Color photography was explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long expo- sures (hours or days for camera images) and could not “fix” the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light. The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855.[29][30] The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, Maxwell’s idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue filters.[29][30] 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 29

A photographic with

This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color “fringes” or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images. Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability. Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the Lumière brothers in 1907. Au- tochrome plates incorporated a mosaic color filter layer made of dyed grains of potato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s. Kodachrome, the first modern “integral tripack” (or “monopack”) color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layer emulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without special film processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by adding color couplers during a complex processing procedure. Agfa’s similarly structured Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfa- color Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. 30 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, taken in 1861 by Thomas Sutton. The subject is a colored ribbon (tartan ribbon).

Currently, available color films still employ a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa’s product. Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Color photography may form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in a , or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive “look”.

Digital photography

Main article: Digital photography See also: Digital camera

In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born. Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 31

Color photography was possible long before Kodachrome, as this 1903 portrait by Sarah Angelina Acland demonstrates, but in its earliest years, the need for special equipment, long exposures, and complicated printing processes made it extremely rare.

changes on film.[31] An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists photo manipulation because it involves film and , while digital imaging is a highly ma- nipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications. Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than 99% of photographs taken around the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones.

Synthesis photography

Synthesis photography is part of computer-generated imagery (CGI) where the shooting process is modeled on real photography. The CGI, creating digital copies of real universe, requires a visual representation process of these 32 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2 universes. Synthesis photography is the application of analog and digital photography in digital space. With the characteristics of the real photography but not being constrained by the physical limits of real world, synthesis pho- tography allows to get away from real photography.[32]

2.1.3 Evolution of the camera

• Late 19th century studio camera, standing on , used glass photographic plates

• Point-and-shoot , the first type of mass-produced film camera, c. 1910s

• Compact Kodak folding camera from 1922

• Leica-II, one of the first 135 film cameras, 1932 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 33

• Contax S of 1949 – the first pentaprism SLR

• Polaroid Colorpack 80 , c 1975

• Digital camera, Canon Ixus class, c. 2000.

• Nikon D1, the first digital SLR used in journalism and sports pho- tography, c. 2000 34 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

• Smartphone with built-in camera spreads private images globally, c. 2013

2.1.4 Technical aspects

Main article: Camera

The camera is the image-forming device, and a photographic plate, photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the capture medium. The respective recording medium can be the plate or film itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic memory.[33] Photographers control the camera and lens to “expose” the light recording material to the required amount of light to form a "latent image" (on plate or film) or RAW file (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on a paper. The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used (see Process camera). As soon as photographic materials became “fast” (sensitive) enough for taking candid or surreptitious pictures, small “detective” cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or handbag or pocket watch (the Ticka camera) or even worn hidden behind an Ascot necktie with a tie pin that was really the lens. The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a “frame”. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a at a specific speed, called the “frame rate” (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person’s eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.[34]

Camera controls

In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following: Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:

• Focal length and type of lens (normal, long focus, wide angle, telephoto, macro, fisheye, or zoom)

• Filters placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens

• Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.

• The nature of the light recording material, for example, its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver halide. 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 35

Exposure and rendering

Manual shutter control and exposure settings can achieve unusual effects.

Camera controls are interrelated. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the 'exposure') changes with the duration of exposure, of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations. The duration of an exposure is referred to as , often even in cameras that do not have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. It is quite possible to have exposures from one up to several seconds, usually for still-life subjects, and for night scenes exposure times can be several hours. However, longer shutter speeds blur motion, and shorter shutter speeds freeze motion. Therefore, moving subjects require fast shutter 36 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Star trails produced by long exposure photography in Chile.[36] speeds.[37] The effective aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. Longer focal length lenses will pass less light through the same aperture diameter due to the greater distance the light has to travel; shorter focal length lenses will transmit more light through the same diameter of aperture. The smaller the f/number, the larger the effective aperture. The present system of f/numbers to give the effective aperture of a lens was standardized by an international convention in 1963 and is referred to as the British Standard (BS-1013).[38] Other aperture measurement scales had been used through the early 20th century, including the Euro- pean Scale, Intermediate settings, and the 1881 Uniform System proposed by the Royal Photographic Society, which are all now largely obsolete.[39]:30 T-stops have been used for color motion picture lenses, to account for differences in light transmission through compound lenses, are calculated as T-number = f/number x √transmittance.[39]:615 If the f-number is decreased by a factor of √2, the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up “one stop” (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and one stop halves the amount of light. Image capture can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed, aperture, and film or sensor speed. Different (but related) settings of aperture and shutter speed enable photographs to be taken under various conditions of film or sensor speed, lighting and motion of subjects and/or camera, and desired depth of field. A slower speed film will exhibit less “grain”, and a slower speed setting on an electronic sensor will exhibit less “noise”, while higher film and sensor speeds allow for a faster shutter speed, which reduces motion blur or allows the use of a smaller aperture to increase the depth of field. For example, a wider aperture is used for lower light and a lower aperture for more light. If a subject is in motion, then a high shutter speed may be needed. A tripod can also be helpful in that it enables a slower shutter speed to be used. For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125 of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250 of a second) yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination affects the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in “shallow” depth of field (i.e., only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 37

isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or . Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small , such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures. Generally, the highest degree of “sharpness” is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens’s range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures. Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just mounted for projection. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or transparency. Prior to the advent of laser jet and inkjet printers, celluloid photographic negative images had to be mounted in an enlarger which projected the image onto a sheet of light-sensitive paper for a certain length of time (usually measured in seconds or fractions of a second). This sheet then was soaked in a chemical bath of developer (to bring out the image) followed immediately by a (to neutralize the progression of development and prevent the image from changing further once exposed to normal light). After this, the paper was hung until dry enough to safely handle. This post-production process allowed the photographer to further manipulate the final image beyond what had already been captured on the negative, adjusting the length of time the image was projected by the enlarger and the duration of both chemical baths to change the image’s intensity, darkness, clarity, etc. This process is still employed by both amateur and professional photographers, but the advent of digital imagery means that the vast majority of modern photographic work is captured digitally and rendered via printing processes that are no longer dependent on chemical reactions to light. Such digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo- sharing website), viewed on a television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame. Every type can then be produced as a hard copy on regular paper or photographic paper via a printer.

A photographer using a tripod for greater stability during long exposure.

Prior to the rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to the rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing modifications include: 38 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

• Chemicals and process used during film development. • Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter speed • Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field • Contrast – changing the visual of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects and the background • Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas • Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas • Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc. • Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB) • Paper size • Exposure shape – resulting prints in shapes such as circular, oval, loupe, etc. • Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black-and-white prints

2.1.5 Other photographic techniques

Stereoscopic

Main article:

Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that em- ulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion.[40] While known colloquially as “3-D” photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized by using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell phone cameras).

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared

Main article: Full spectrum photography Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic

This image of the rings of Saturn is an example of the application of in astronomy avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions. 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 39

Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.[41] Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters). Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, , forensics and law enforcement.

Light field photography

See also: Light-field camera

Digital methods of image capture and display processing have enabled the new technology of “light field photography” (also known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to be selected after the photograph has been captured.[42] As explained by Michael Faraday in 1846, the "light field" is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D space having attributes of two more angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that point. These additional vector attributes can be captured optically through the use of microlenses at each pixel point within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a selection from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-image capture focus algorithm.

Other imaging techniques

Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic medium, hence the term electrophotography. are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photo- graphic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

2.1.6 Modes of production

Amateur

An is one who practices photography as a hobby/passion and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward. Amateur photography grew during the late 19th century due to the popularization of the hand-held camera.[43] Nowadays it has spread widely through social media and is carried out throughout different platforms and equipment, switching to the use of cell phone as a key tool for making photography more accessible to everyone.

Commercial

Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light, money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

• Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team. 40 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Devices other than cameras can be used to record images. Trichome of Arabidopsis thaliana seen via scanning electron microscope. Note that image has been edited by adding colors to clarify structure or to add an aesthetic effect. Heiti Paves from Tallinn University of Technology.

• Fashion and usually incorporates models and is a form of advertising photography. , like the work featured in Harper’s Bazaar, emphasizes clothes and other products; glam- our emphasizes the model and body form. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and men’s magazines. Models in glamour photography sometimes work nude 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 41

A photograph taken by an amateur photographer in Lebanon.

• Concert Photography focuses on capturing candid images of both the artist or band as well as the atmosphere (including the crowd). Many of these photographers work freelance and are contracted through an artist or their management to cover a specific show. Concert photographs are often used to promote the artist or band in addition to the venue. • Crime scene photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details. • usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life is a broader category for food and some natural photography and can be used for advertising purposes. • Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography but requires some special skills. • Editorial photography illustrates a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine and encompass fashion and glamour photography features. • Photojournalism can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story. • Portrait and : photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images. • photography depicts locations. • photography demonstrates the life of animals. • Paparazzi is a form of photojournalism in which the photographer captures candid images of athletes, celebri- ties, politicians, and other prominent people. • Pet photography involves several aspects that are similar to traditional studio portraits. It can also be done in natural lighting, outside of a studio, such as in a client’s home.

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography. Many people take photographs for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock 42 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Landscape 360-degree panoramic picture of the Chajnantor plateau in the Atacama Desert, Chile. In the center is Cerro Chajnantor itself. To the right, on the plateau, is the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) telescope with Cerro Chascon behind it.[44] photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.

Art

During the 20th century, both fine art photography and became accepted by the English- speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called , often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, , and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate '', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else. The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images “written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art. Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only “significant form” can distinguish art from what is not art.

There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto’s frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible — significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.[45]

On 14 February 2004, Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph 99 Cent II Diptychon for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making it the most expensive at the time. Conceptual photography turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

Science and forensics

The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known as . Crime scene photos are taken from three vantage point. The vantage points are overview, mid-range, and close-up.[46] In 1845 Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, invented the first successful camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Different machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-by-minute variations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, atmospheric electricity, and the three components of geomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 43

Classic Alfred Stieglitz photograph, The Steerage shows unique aesthetic of black-and-white photos.

observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.[47][48] Charles Brooke a little later developed similar instruments for the Observatory.[49] Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pin Hole camera. X-Ray machines are similar in design to Pin Hole cameras with high-grade filters and laser radiation.[50] Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and improved much further since that time.[51] The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an elec- 44 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Wootton bridge collapse in 1861

tric field to trap an “Ion” of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film.[52]

2.1.7 Social and cultural implications

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.[53] Sontag argues, “To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power.”[54] Photog- raphers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation. Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.[54]

The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment.[54]

Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "photomontages", passing them as “real” photographs. Today’s technology has made image editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allow digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of forensic photography. Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.[55] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that “to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 45 possessed.” Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.[54] One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is . Tourism and photography combine to create a “tourist gaze”[56] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the . However, it has also been argued that there exists a “reverse gaze”[57] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images. Additionally, photography has been the topic of many songs in popular culture.

2.1.8 Law

Main article:

Photography is both restricted as well as protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view.[58] In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.[59]

2.1.9 See also

• Outline of photography

• Science of photography

•

• Image Editing

• Photolab and minilab

2.1.10 References

[1] Spencer, D A (1973). The Focal Dictionary of Photographic Technologies. Focal Press. p. 454. ISBN 978-0133227192.

[2] φάος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[3] γραφή, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[4] Harper, Douglas. “photograph”. Online Etymology Dictionary.

[5] Boris Kossoy (2004). Hercule Florence: El descubrimiento de la fotografía en Brasil. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. ISBN 968-03-0020-X.

[6] Eder, J.M (1945) [1932]. History of Photography, 4th. edition [Geschichte der Photographie]. New York: Dover Publica- tions, Inc. pp. 258–259. ISBN 0-486-23586-6.

[7] Campbell, Jan (2005) Film and cinema spectatorship: melodrama and mimesis. Polity. p. 114. ISBN 0-7456-2930-X

[8] Krebs, Robert E. (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 20. ISBN 0-313-32433-6.

[9] Alistair Cameron Crombie, Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought, p. 205

[10] Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001). “The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz’s per- spective”. Perception. 30 (10): 1157–77. doi:10.1068/p3210. PMID 11721819.

[11] Davidson, Michael W; National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University (1 August 2003). “Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You – Timeline – Albertus Magnus”. The Florida State University. Retrieved 28 Novem- ber 2009.

[12] Potonniée, Georges (1973). The history of the discovery of photography. Arno Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-405-04929-3 46 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

[13] Allen, Nicholas P. L. (11 November 1993). “Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph?" (PDF). The South African Journal of Art History: 23–32.

[14] Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1994). “A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic?". The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies. 4 (1): 62–94.

[15] Allen, Nicholas P. L. “Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey- Chambéry-Turin”. unisa.ac.za

[16] Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). A concise history of photography. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0-486-25128-4

[17] Gernsheim, Helmut and Gernsheim, Alison (1955) The history of photography from the earliest use of the camera obscura in the eleventh century up to 1914. Oxford University Press. p. 20.

[18] “The First Photograph – Heliography”. Retrieved 29 September 2009. from Helmut Gernsheim’s article, “The 150th Anniversary of Photography,” in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ...In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The sunlight passing through... This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later.

[19] Litchfield, R. 1903. “Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer: An Account of His Life.” London, Duckworth and Co. See Chapter XIII. Includes the complete text of Humphry Davy’s 1802 paper, which is the only known contemporary record of Wedgwood’s experiments. (Retrieved 7 May 2013 via archive.org).

[20] Hirsch, Robert (2000). Seizing the light: a history of photography. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-697-14361-7.

[21] William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877). BBC

[22] Feldman, Anthony and Ford, Peter (1989) Scientists & inventors. Bloomsbury Books, p. 128, ISBN 1870630238.

[23] Fox Talbot, William Henry and Jammes, André (1973) William H. Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative-positive process, Macmillan, p. 95.

[24] History of Kodak, Milestones-chronology: 1878-1929. kodak.com

[25] Peres, Michael R. (2008). The Concise Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: from the first photo on paper to the digital revolution. Burlington, Mass.: Focal Press/Elsevier. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-240-80998-4.

[26] “H&D curve of film vs digital”. Retrieved August 11, 2015.

[27] Jacobson, Ralph E. (2000). The Focal Manual of Photography: photographic and digital imaging (9th ed.). Boston, Mass.: Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-51574-8.

[28] “Black & White Photography”. PSA Journal. 77 (12): 38–40. 2011.

[29] “1861: James Clerk Maxwell’s greatest year”. King’s College London. 3 January 2017.

[30] “From Charles Mackintosh’s waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations has given the world”. The independent. January 2, 2016.

[31] Schewe, Jeff (2012). The : Raw Image Processing In Lightroom, Camera Raw, and Photoshop. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press, ISBN 0321839579, p. 72

[32] Paux, Marc-Olivier (1 February 2011). Synthesis photography and architecture. Imagina. Monaco.

[33] “Glossary: Digital Photography Review”. Dpreview.com. Retrieved 24 June 2013.

[34] Anderson, Joseph; Anderson, Barbara (Spring 1993). “The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited”. Journal of Film and Video. 45 (1): 3–12. Archived from the original on 24 November 2009.

[35] “Definition of focus”. IAC. Retrieved 31 January 2012.

[36] “Star Trails over the VLT in Paranal”. ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 16 December 2013.

[37] Fisher, Jim (2013). “Take Picture-Perfect Digital Photos.” PC Magazine: 134–141.

[38] British Standards Institution (1963). Photographic lenses: Definitions, methods and accuraccy of marking (British Standard 1019) (2nd ed.). British Standards Institution. Retrieved 19 March 2016.

[39] Spencer, Douglas A. (1973). The focal dictionary of photographic technologies. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0133227192. 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 47

[40] Belisle, Brooke (2013). “The Dimensional Image: Overlaps In Stereoscopic, Cinematic, And Digital Depth.” Film Criti- cism 37/38 (3/1): 117–137. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 October 2013.

[41] Twede, David. Introduction to Full-Spectrum and Infrared photography. surrealcolor.110mb.com

[42] Ng, Ren (July 2006) Digital Light Field Photography. PhD Thesis, Stanford University

[43] Peterson, C. A. (2011). “Home Portraiture”. History of Photography. 35 (4): 374. doi:10.1080/03087298.2011.606727.

[44] “All Around Chajnantor – A 360-degree panorama”. ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 13 April 2012.

[45] Clive Bell."Art", 1914. Retrieved 2 September 2006.

[46] Rohde, R. R. (2000). Crime Photography. PSA Journal, 66(3), 15.

[47] Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.

[48] Ronalds, B.F. (2016). “The Beginnings of Continuous Scientific Recording using Photography: Sir Francis Ronalds’ Contribution”. European Society for the History of Photography. Retrieved 2 June 2016.

[49] “Photographic self-registering magnetic and meteorological apparatus: Invented by Mr. Brooke of Keppel-Street, London”. The Illustrated Magazine of Art. New York: Alexander Montgomery. 1: 308–311. 1853.

[50] Upadhyay, J.; Chakera, J. A.; Navathe, C. P.; Naik, P. A.; Joshi, A. S.; Gupta, P. D. (2006). “Development of single frame X-ray camera for pulsed plasma experiments”. Sadhana. 31 (5): 613. doi:10.1007/BF02715917.

[51] Blitzer, Herbert L.; Stein-Ferguson, Karen; Huang, Jeffrey (2008). Understanding forensic digital imaging. Academic Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-12-370451-1.

[52] Glenday, Craig (2013). Guiness Book of Records 2014. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-908843-15-9.

[53] Bissell, K.L. (2000) Photography and Objectivity.

[54] Sontag, S. (1977) On Photography, Penguin, London, pp. 3–24, ISBN 0312420099.

[55] Levinson, P. (1997) The Soft Edge: a and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 37–48, ISBN 0415157854.

[56] Urry, John (2002). The tourist gaze (2nd ed.). SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-7347-8.

[57] Gillespie, Alex. “Tourist Photography and the Reverse Gaze”.

[58] “You Have Every Right to Photograph That Cop”. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2016-02-18.

[59] “Jail for photographing police?". British Journal of Photography. 28 January 2009. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010.

2.1.11 Further reading

Introduction

• Photography. A Critical Introduction [Paperback], ed. by Liz Wells, 3rd edition, London [etc.]: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-30704-X

History

• A New History of Photography, ed. by Michel Frizot, Köln : Könemann, 1998

• Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge – Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914– 1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/: Art in Life 1999, ISBN 3-00-004407-8. 48 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Reference works

• Tom Ang (2002). Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer. Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0-8174-3789-4.

• Hans-Michael Koetzle: Das Lexikon der Fotografen: 1900 bis heute, Munich: Knaur 2002, 512 p., ISBN 3-426-66479-8

• John Hannavy (ed.): Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 1736 p., New York: Routledge 2005 ISBN 978-0-415-97235-2

• Lynne Warren (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 1719 p., New York, NY [et.] : Rout- ledge, 2006

• The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005 • “The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography”, Richard Zakia, Leslie Stroebel, Focal Press 1993, ISBN 0-240- 51417-3

Other books

• Photography and The Art of Seeing by Freeman Patterson, Key Porter Books 1989, ISBN 1-55013-099-4.

• The Art of Photography: An Approach to Personal Expression by Bruce Barnbaum, Rocky Nook 2010, ISBN 1-933952-68-7.

• Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8.

2.1.12 External links

• Photography at DMOZ

• World History of Photography From The History of Art. • Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the State Library & Archives of Florida. • Photography Changes Everything is a collection of original essays, stories and images—contributed by experts from a spectrum of professional worlds and members of the project’s online audience—that explore the many ways photography shapes our culture and our lives, by the Smithsonian Institution. 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHY 49

Photography may be used both to capture reality and to produce a work of art. While photo manipulation was often frowned upon at first, it was eventually used to great extent to produce artistic effects. Nude composition 19 from 1988 by Jaan Künnap. 50 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

The Musée de l'Élysée, founded in 1985 in Lausanne, was the first photography museum in Europe. Chapter 3

Day 3

3.1 Science of photography

The science of photography refers to the use of science, such as chemistry and physics, in all aspects of photography. This applies to the camera, its lenses, physical operation of the camera, electronic camera internals, and the process of developing film in order to take and develop pictures properly.[1]

3.1.1 Law of Reciprocity

Main article: Reciprocity (photography)

Exposure ∝ Aperture Area × Exposure Time × Scene Luminance

The law of reciprocity describes how light intensity and duration trade off to make an exposure—it defines the rela- tionship between shutter speed and aperture, for a given total exposure. Changes to any of these elements are often measured in units known as “stops"; a stop is equal to a factor of two. Halving the amount light exposing the film can be achieved either by:

1. Closing the aperture by one stop

2. Decreasing the shutter time (increasing the shutter speed) by one stop

3. Cutting the scene lighting by half

Likewise, doubling the amount of light exposing the film can be achieved by the opposite of one of these operations. The luminance of the scene, as measured on a reflected , also affects the exposure proportionately. The amount of light required for proper exposure depends on the film speed; which can be varied in stops or fractions of stops. With either of these changes, the aperture or shutter speed can be adjusted by an equal number of stops to get to a suitable exposure. Light is most easily controlled through the use of the camera’s aperture (measure in f-stops), but it can also be regulated by adjusting the shutter speed. Using faster or slower film is not usually something that can be done quickly, at least using roll film. cameras use individual sheets of film and each sheet could be a different speed. Also, if you're using a larger format camera with a polaroid back, you can switch between backs containing different speed polaroids. Digital cameras can easily adjust the film speed they are simulating by adjusting the exposure index, and many digital cameras can do so automatically in response to exposure measurements. For example, starting with an exposure of 1/60 at f/16, the depth-of-field could be made shallower by opening up the aperture to f/4, an increase in exposure of 4 stops. To compensate, the shutter speed would need to be increased as well by 4 stops, that is, adjust exposure time down to 1/1000. Closing down the aperture limits the resolution due to the diffraction limit.

51 52 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

The reciprocity law specifies the total exposure, but the response of a photographic material to a constant total ex- posure may not remain constant for very long exposures in very faint light, such as photographing a starry sky, or very short exposures in very bright light, such as photographing the sun. This is known as reciprocity failure of the material (film, paper, or sensor).

3.1.2 Lenses

Main article: Photographic lens

A photographic lens is usually composed of several lens elements, which combine to reduce the effects of , coma, spherical aberration, and other aberrations. A simple example is the three-element Cooke triplet, still in use over a century after it was first designed, but many current photographic lenses are much more complex. Using a smaller aperture can reduce most, but not all aberrations. They can also be reduced dramatically by using an aspheric element, but these are more complex to grind than spherical or cylindrical lenses. However, with modern manufacturing techniques the extra cost of manufacturing aspherical lenses is decreasing, and small aspherical lenses can now be made by molding, allowing their use in inexpensive consumer cameras. Fresnel lenses are not used in cameras even though they are extremely light and cheap, because they produce poor image quality. The recently developed Fiber-coupled monocentric lens consists of spheres constructed of concentric hemispherical shells of dif- ferent glasses tied to the focal plane by bundles of optical fibers.[2] Monocentric lenses are also not used in cameras because the technology was just debuted in October 2013 at the Frontiers in Optics Conference in Orlando, Florida. All lens design is a compromise between numerous factors, not excluding cost. Zoom lenses (i.e. lenses of variable focal length) involve additional compromises and therefore normally do not match the performance of prime lenses. When a camera lens is focused to project an object some distance away onto the film or detector, the objects that are closer in distance, relative to the distant object, are also approximately in focus. The range of distances that are nearly in focus is called the depth of field. Depth of field generally increases with decreasing aperture diameter (increasing f-number). The unfocused blur outside the depth of field is sometimes used for artistic effect in photography. The subjective appearance of this blur is known as . If the camera lens is focused at or beyond its , then the depth of field becomes large, covering everything from half the hyperfocal distance to infinity. This effect is used to make "focus free" or fixed-focus cameras. See also:

3.1.3 Motion blur

Motion blur is caused when either the camera or the subject moves during the exposure. This causes a distinctive streaky appearance to the moving object or the entire picture (in the case of camera shake). Motion blur can be used artistically to create the feeling of speed or motion, as with running water. An example of this is the technique of "", where the camera is moved so it follows the subject, which is usually fast moving, such as a car. Done correctly, this will give an image of a clear subject, but the background will have motion blur, giving the feeling of movement. This is one of the more difficult photographic techniques to master, as the movement must be smooth, and at the correct speed. A subject that gets closer or further away from the camera may further cause focusing difficulties. Light trails is another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of effect.[3] This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs. Generally, motion blur is something that is to be avoided, and this can be done in several different ways. The simplest way is to limit the shutter time so that there is very little movement of the image during the time the shutter is open. At longer focal lengths, the same movement of the camera body will cause more motion of the image, so a shorter shutter time is needed. A commonly cited rule of thumb is that the shutter speed in seconds should be about the reciprocal of the 35 mm equivalent focal length of the lens in millimeters. For example, a 50 mm lens should be used at a minimum speed of 1/50 sec, and a 300 mm lens at 1/300 of a second. This can cause difficulties when used in low light scenarios, since exposure also decreases with shutter time. 3.1. SCIENCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 53

Motion blur of background while following the subject

Light trails

Motion blur due to subject movement can usually be prevented by using a faster shutter speed. The exact shutter speed will depend on the speed at which the subject is moving. For example, a very fast shutter speed will be needed to “freeze” the rotors of a helicopter, whereas a slower shutter speed will be sufficient to freeze a runner. A tripod may be used to avoid motion blur due to camera shake. This will stabilize the camera during the exposure. A tripod is recommended for exposure times more than about 1/15 seconds. There are additional techniques which, in conjunction with use of a tripod, ensure that the camera remains very still. These may employ use of a remote 54 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

High speed photography uses very short exposures to prevent blurring of fast moving subjects

actuator, such as a cable release or infrared remote switch to activate the shutter, so as to avoid the movement normally caused when the shutter release button is pressed directly. The use of a “self timer” (a timed release mechanism that automatically trips the shutter release after an interval of time) can serve the same purpose. Most modern single-lens reflex camera (SLR) have a mirror lock-up feature that eliminates the small amount of shake produced by the mirror flipping up.

3.1.4 Focus

Focus is the tendency for light rays to reach the same place on the image sensor or film, independent of where they pass through the lens. For clear pictures, the focus is adjusted for distance, because at a different object distance the rays reach different parts of the lens with different angles. In modern photography, focusing is often accomplished automatically. The autofocus system in modern SLRs use a sensor in the mirrorbox to measure contrast. The sensor’s signal is analyzed by an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), and the ASIC tries to maximize the contrast pattern by moving lens elements. The ASICs in modern cameras also have special algorithms for predicting motion, and other advanced features.

3.1.5 Aberration

Main article: Aberration in optical systems

Aberrations are the blurring and distorting properties of an optical system. A high quality lens will produce a smaller amount of aberrations. Spherical aberration occurs due to the increased refraction of light rays that occurs when rays strike a lens, or a reflection of light rays that occurs when rays strike a mirror near its edge in comparison with those that strike nearer the center. This is dependent on the focal length of a spherical lens and the distance from its center. It is compensated by designing a multi-lens system or by using an aspheric lens. Chromatic aberration is caused by a lens having a different refractive index for different wavelengths of light and the 3.1. SCIENCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 55

This subject is in sharp focus while the distant background is unfocused dependence of the optical properties on color. Blue light will generally bend more than red light. There are higher order chromatic aberrations, such as the dependence of magnification on color. Chromatic aberration is compensated by using a lens made out of materials carefully designed to cancel out chromatic aberrations. Curved focal surface is the dependence of the first order focus on the position on the film or CCD. This can be compensated with a multiple lens optical design, but curving the film has also been used.

3.1.6 Film grain resolution

Black-and-white film has a “shiny” side and a “dull” side. The dull side is the emulsion, a gelatin that suspends an array of silver halide crystals. These crystals contain silver grains that determine how sensitive the film is to light exposure, and how fine or grainy the negative the print will look. Larger grains mean faster exposure but a grainier appearance; smaller grains are finer looking but take more exposure to activate. The graininess of film is represented by its ISO factor; generally a multiple of 10 or 100. Lower numbers produce finer grain but slower film, and vice versa.

3.1.7 Diffraction limit

Since light propagates as waves, the patterns it produces on the film are subject to the wave phenomenon known as diffraction, which limits the image resolution to features on the order of several times the wavelength of light. Diffrac- tion is the main effect limiting the sharpness of optical images from lenses that are stopped down to small apertures (high f-numbers), while aberrations are the limiting effect at large apertures (low f-numbers). Since diffraction can- not be eliminated, the best possible lens for a given operating condition (aperture setting) is one that produces an image whose quality is limited only by diffraction. Such a lens is said to be diffraction limited. The diffraction-limited optical spot size on the CCD or film is proportional to the f-number (about equal to the f-number times the wavelength of light, which is near 0.0005 mm), making the overall detail in a photograph propor- tional to the size of the film, or CCD divided by the f-number. For a 35 mm camera with f/11, this limit corresponds to about 6,000 resolution elements across the width of the film (36 mm / (11 * 0.0005 mm) = 6,500. The finite spot size caused by diffraction can also be expressed as a criterion for distinguishing distant objects: two 56 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

Strong grain on ISO1600 negative distant point sources can only produce separate images on the film or sensor if their angular separation exceeds the wavelength of light divided by the width of the open aperture of the camera lens.

3.1.8 Contribution to noise (grain)

Quantum efficiency

Light comes in particles and the of a light-particle (the photon) is the frequency of the light times Planck’s constant. A fundamental of any photographic method is how it collects the light on its photographic plate or electronic detector.

CCDs and other photodiodes

Photodiodes are back-biased semiconductor diodes, in which an intrinsic layer with very few charge carriers prevents electric currents from flowing. Depending on the material, photons have enough energy to raise one electron from the upper full band to the lowest empty band. The electron and the “hole”, or empty space where it was, are then free to move in the electric field and carry current, which can be measured. The fraction of incident photons that produce 3.1. SCIENCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 57 carrier pairs depends largely on the semiconductor material.

Photomultiplier tubes

Photomultiplier tubes are vacuum phototubes that amplify light by accelerating the photoelectrons to knock more electrons free from a series of electrodes. They are among the most sensitive light detectors but are not well suited to photography.

Aliasing

Aliasing can occur in optical and chemical processing, but it is more common and easily understood in digital pro- cessing. It occurs whenever an optical or digital image is sampled or re-sampled at a rate which is too low for its resolution. Some digital cameras and scanners have anti-aliasing filters to reduce aliasing by intentionally blurring the image to match the sampling rate. It is common for film developing equipment used to make prints of different sizes to increase the graininess of the smaller size prints by aliasing. It is usually desirable to suppress both noise such as grain and detail of the real object that are too small to be represented at the sampling rate.

3.1.9 See also

• Astrophotography • Highlight headroom

• Infrared photography • Ultraviolet photography

•

3.1.10 References

[1] “Science of Photography”. Retrieved 2007-05-21.

[2] http://pietrzyk.us/ieee-spectrum-shows-off-new-lens-technology-2/

[3] “TrekLens – JoBurg Skyline and Light Trails Photo”. treklens.com. Retrieved 4 April 2010. Chapter 4

Day 4

4.1 Shutter speed

A spoon falling in water, taken at 1/2000

In photography, shutter speed or exposure time is the length of time when the film or digital sensor inside the camera is exposed to light, also when a camera's shutter is open when taking a photograph.[1] The amount of light that reaches the film or image sensor is proportional to the exposure time. 1/500th of a second will let half as much light in as 1/250th.

4.1.1 Introduction

The camera’s shutter speed, the lens’s aperture (also called f-stop), and the scene’s luminance together determine the amount of light that reaches the film or sensor (the exposure). (EV) is a quantity that accounts for the shutter speed and the f-number. Once the sensitivity to light of the recording surface (either film or sensor) is set in numbers expressed in “ISOs” (ex: 200 ISO, 400 ISO), the light emitted by the scene photographed can be controlled through aperture and shutter-speed to match the film or sensor sensitivity to light. This will achieve a good exposure when all the details of the scene are legible on the photograph. Too much light let into the camera results in an overly pale image (or “over-exposure”) while too little light will result in an overly dark image (or “under-exposure”). Multiple combinations of shutter speed and f-number can give the same exposure value (E.V.). According to exposure

58 4.1. SHUTTER SPEED 59

Shutter speed can have a dramatic impact on the appearance and quality of photographs, especially when moving objects are involved. For instance a slow shutter-speed often results in a blurred image as the slight shudder of the shutter itself, or the motion caused to the whole camera by the index pressing on the shutter-release button create vibrations that are faster than the shutter itself; this will cause the appearance of the objects in the view-finder and on the photographs having moved when in fact it is the camera that moved. value formula, doubling the exposure time doubles the amount of light (subtracts 1 EV). Reducing the aperture size at multiples of one over the square root of two lets half as much light into the camera, usually at a predefined scale of f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, and so on. For example, f/8 lets 4 times more light into the camera as f/16 does. A shutter speed of 1/50 s with an f/4.0 aperture gives the same exposure value as a 1/100 s shutter speed with an f/2.8 aperture, and also the same exposure value as a 1/200 s shutter speed with an f/2.0 aperture, or 1/25th second at f/5.6. In addition to its effect on exposure, the shutter speed changes the way movement appears in photographs. Very short shutter speeds can be used to freeze fast-moving subjects, for example at sporting events. Very long shutter speeds are used to intentionally blur a moving subject for effect.[2] Short exposure times are sometimes called “fast”, and long exposure times “slow”. Adjustments to the aperture need to be compensated by changes of the shutter speed to keep the same (right) exposure. In early days of photography, available shutter speeds were not standardized, though a typical sequence might have been 1/10 s, 1/25 s, 1/50 s, 1/100 s, 1/200 s and 1/500 s; neither were apertures or film sensitivity (at least 3 different national standards existed). Soon this problem resulted in a solution consisting in the adoption of a standardized way of choosing aperture so that each major step exactly doubled or halved the amount of light entering the camera (f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, etc.), a standardized 2:1 scale was adopted for shutter speed so that opening one aperture stop and reducing the amount of time of the shutter speed by one step resulted in the identical exposure. The agreed standards for shutter speeds are:[3]

• 1/1000s

• 1/500s

• 1/250s

• 1/125s

• 1/60 s 60 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

The shutter speed dial of a Nikkormat EL

• 1/30 s

• 1/15 s

• 1/8 s

• 1/4 s

• 1/2 s

• 1 s

With this scale, each increment roughly doubles the amount of light (longer time) or halves it (shorter time). Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures:

• B (for ) keeps the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held.

• T (for time) keeps the shutter open (once the shutter-release button had been depressed) until the shutter release is pressed again. 4.1. SHUTTER SPEED 61

Slow shutter speed combined with panning the camera can achieve a motion blur for moving objects.

The ability of the photographer to take images without noticeable blurring by camera movement is an important parameter in the choice of the slowest possible shutter speed for a handheld camera. The rough guide used by most 35 mm photographers is that the slowest shutter speed that can be used easily without much blur due to camera shake is the shutter speed numerically closest to the lens focal length. For example, for handheld use of a 35 mm camera with a 50 mm normal lens, the closest shutter speed is 1/60 s (closest to “50”), while for a 200 mm lens it is recommended not to choose shutter speeds below 1/200th of a second. This rule can be augmented with knowledge of the intended application for the photograph, an image intended for significant enlargement and closeup viewing would require faster shutter speeds to avoid obvious blur. Through practice and special techniques such as bracing the camera, arms, or body to minimize camera movement, using a or a tripod, slower shutter speeds can be used without blur. If a shutter speed is too slow for hand holding, a camera support, usually a tripod, must be used. on digital cameras or lenses can often permit the use of shutter speeds 3–4 stops slower (exposures 8–16 times longer). Shutter priority refers to a shooting mode used in cameras. It allows the photographer to choose a shutter speed setting and allow the camera to decide the correct aperture. This is sometimes referred to as Shutter Speed Priority Auto Exposure, or TV (time value on Canon cameras) mode, S mode on Nikons and most other brands.

4.1.2 Creative utility in photography

Main article: Motion blur

The photograph to the right was taken with a slower shutter speed than that to the left, creating a more pronounced motion blur effect and longer streaks of 62 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

An extended exposure can also allow photographers to catch brief flashes of light, as seen here. Exposure time 15 seconds. light from vehicle headlights. Shutter speed is one of several methods used to control the amount of light recorded by the camera’s digital sensor or film. It is also used to manipulate the visual effects of the final image. Slower shutter speeds are often selected to suggest the movement of an object in a still photograph. Excessively fast shutter speeds can cause a moving subject to appear unnaturally frozen. For instance, a running person may be caught with both feet in the air with all indication of movement lost in the frozen moment. When a slower shutter speed is selected, a longer time passes from the moment the shutter opens till the moment it closes. More time is available for movement in the subject to be recorded by the camera as a blur. A slightly slower shutter speed will allow the photographer to introduce an element of blur, either in the subject, where, in our example, the feet, which are the fastest moving element in the frame, might be blurred while the rest remains sharp; or if the camera is panned to follow a moving subject, the background is blurred while the subject remains relatively sharp. The exact point at which the background or subject will start to blur depends on the speed at which the object is moving, the angle that the object is moving in relation to the camera, the distance it is from the camera and the focal 4.1. SHUTTER SPEED 63

Sparklers moved in a circular motion with an exposure time of 4 seconds. This is an example of Light painting

Images taken with a lower shutter speed invoke a visual sense of movement. Exposure time 3 seconds. 64 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4 length of the lens in relation to the size of the digital sensor or film. When slower shutter-speeds, in excess of about half a second, are used on running water, the water in the photo will have a ghostly white appearance reminiscent of fog. This effect can be used in . is a technique which entails the variation of the focal length of a during a longer exposure. In the moment that the shutter is opened, the lens is zoomed in, changing the focal length during the exposure. The center of the image remains sharp, while the details away from the center form a radial blur, which causes a strong visual effect, forcing the eye into the center of the image.[4] The following list provides an overview of common photographic uses for standard shutter speeds.

• 1/16000 s and less: The fastest speed available in APS-H or APS-C format DSLR cameras (as of 2012). (Canon EOS 1D, Nikon D1, Nikon 1 J2, D1X, and D1H) • 1/12000 s: The fastest speed available in any 35 mm film SLR camera. (Minolta Maxxum 9xi, Maxxum 9 • 1/8000 s: The fastest speed available in production SLR cameras (as of 2013), also the fastest speed available in any full-frame DSLR or SLT camera (as of 2013). Used to take sharp photographs of very fast subjects, such as birds or planes, under good lighting conditions, with an ISO speed of 1,000 or more and a large-aperture lens.[5] • 1/4000 s: The fastest speed available in consumer SLR cameras (as of 2009); also the fastest speed available in any leaf shutter camera (such as the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1) (as of 2013). Used to take sharp photographs of fast subjects, such as athletes or vehicles, under good lighting conditions and with an ISO setting of up to 800.[6] • 1/2000 s and 1/1000 s: Used to take sharp photographs of moderately fast subjects under normal lighting conditions.[7] • 1/500 s and 1/250 s: Used to take sharp photographs of people in motion in everyday situations. 1/250 s is the fastest speed useful for panning; it also allows for a smaller aperture (up to f/11) in motion shots, and hence for a greater depth of field.[8] • 1/125 s: This speed, and slower ones, are no longer useful for freezing motion. 1/125 s is used to obtain greater depth of field and overall sharpness in landscape photography, and is also often used for panning shots. • 1/60 s: Used for panning shots, for images taken under dim lighting conditions, and for available light portraits.[9] • 1/30 s: Used for panning subjects moving slower than 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) and for available-light pho- tography. Images taken at this and slower speeds normally require a tripod or an image stabilized lens/camera to be sharp.[10] • 1/15 s and 1/8 s: This and slower speeds are useful for photographs other than panning shots where motion blur is employed for deliberate effect, or for taking sharp photographs of immobile subjects under bad lighting conditions with a tripod-supported camera.[11] • 1/4 s, 1/2 s and 1 s: Also mainly used for motion blur effects and/or low-light photography, but only practical with a tripod-supported camera.[12] • B (bulb) (fraction of second to several hours): Used with a mechanically fixed camera in astrophotography and for certain special effects.[13]

• Star trails like these are created by using a long exposure to capture the apparent motion of the stars.[14] 4.1. SHUTTER SPEED 65

• The Whirligig ride during night at SFGAm at an exposure time of 0.8 seconds.

• Light streaks outside London Waterloo station.

• Effect of different shutter speeds on photograph.

• A 30-second exposure of the rotating New Technology Telescope

4.1.3 Cinematographic shutter formula

Further information: Rotary disc shutter

Motion picture cameras used in traditional film cinematography employ a mechanical rotating shutter. The shutter rotation is synchronized with film being pulled through the gate, hence shutter speed is a function of the frame rate and shutter angle. Where E = shutter speed (reciprocal of exposure time in seconds), F = frames per second, and S = shutter angle:[15]

F ·360◦ E = S , for E in reciprocal seconds

F · 360◦ S = E 66 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

With a traditional shutter angle of 180°, film is exposed for 1/48 second at 24 frame/s.[15] To avoid effect of light interference when shooting under artificial lights or when shooting television screens and computer monitors, 1/50 s (172.8°) or 1/60 s (144°) shutter is often used.[16] Electronic video cameras do not have mechanical shutters and allow setting shutter speed directly in time units. Professional video cameras often allow selecting shutter speed in terms of shutter angle instead of time units, especially those that are capable of overcranking or undercranking.

4.1.4 See also

• Exposure (photography)

• Exposure value • F-number

• Shutter (photography)

4.1.5 References

[1] Sidney F. Ray (2000). “Camera Features”. In Ralph Eric Jacobson; et al. Manual of Photography: A Textbook of Photo- graphic and Digital Imaging (Ninth ed.). Focal Press. pp. 131–132. ISBN 0-240-51574-9.

[2] Lee Frost (2000). The Complete Guide to Night and Low-Light Photography. Amphoto Books. ISBN 0-8174-5041-6.

[3] Cub Kahn (1999). Essential Skills for . Amherst Media. ISBN 1-58428-009-3.

[4] “About Shutter Speed”. Illustrated Photography.

[5] Doeffinger, 5

[6] Doeffinger, 6

[7] Doeffinger, 7–12

[8] Doeffinger, 12–17

[9] Doeffinger, 20–22

[10] Doeffinger, 24

[11] Doeffinger, 26–30

[12] Doeffinger, 32–40

[13] Doeffinger, 41 et seq.

[14] “Stars Circle La Silla”. Retrieved 6 July 2015.

[15] Blain Brown (2002). Cinematography: Theory and Practice : Imagemaking for Cinematographers, Directors & Videogra- phers. Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80500-3.

[16] “Shutter Speed vs. Shutter Angle”.

• Doeffinger, Derek (2009). Creative Shutter Speed: Master Your Camera’s Most Powerful Control. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-45362-9. Chapter 5

Day 5

5.1 Exposure (photography)

“Underexposure” redirects here. For the 2005 film by Oday Rasheed, see Underexposure (2005 film). “Overexposed” redirects here. For the album by Maroon 5, see Overexposed (album). For the related concert tour, see Overexposed Tour. In photography, exposure is the amount of light per unit area (the image plane times the exposure

A long exposure showing stars rotating around the southern and northern celestial poles. Credit: European Southern Observatory time) reaching a photographic film or electronic image sensor, as determined by shutter speed, lens aperture and scene luminance. Exposure is measured in lux seconds, and can be computed from exposure value (EV) and scene luminance in a specified region. In photographic jargon, an exposure generally refers to a single shutter cycle. For example: a long exposure refers to a single, protracted shutter cycle to capture enough low-intensity light, whereas a involves a series of relatively brief shutter cycles; effectively layering a series of photographs in one image. For the same film speed, the accumulated photometric exposure (Hᵥ) should be similar in both cases.

67 68 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

A photograph of the sea after sunset with an exposure time of 15 seconds. The swell from the waves appears as fog.

5.1.1 Definitions

Underexposure and overexposure

A photograph may be described as overexposed when it has a loss of highlight detail, that is, when important bright parts of an image are “washed out” or effectively all white, known as “blown-out highlights” or “clipped whites”. A photograph may be described as underexposed when it has a loss of shadow detail, that is, when important dark areas are “muddy” or indistinguishable from black, known as “blocked-up shadows” (or sometimes “crushed shadows”, “crushed blacks”, or “clipped blacks”, especially in video). As the adjacent image shows, these terms are technical ones. There are three types of settings: manual, automatic and exposure compensation.

Radiant exposure

Radiant exposure of a surface,[1] denoted Hₑ (“e” for “energetic”, to avoid confusion with photometric quantities) and measured in J/m2, is given by[2]

He = Eet, where

• Eₑ is the irradiance of the surface, measured in W/m2;

• t is the exposure duration, measured in s.

Luminous exposure

Luminous exposure of a surface,[3] denoted Hᵥ (“v” for “visual”, to avoid confusion with radiometric quantities) and measured in lx⋅s, is given by[4] 5.1. EXPOSURE (PHOTOGRAPHY) 69

Hv = Evt,

where

• Eᵥ is the illuminance of the surface, measured in lx; • t is the exposure duration, measured in s.

If the measurement is adjusted to account only for light that reacts with the photo-sensitive surface, that is, weighted by the appropriate spectral sensitivity, the exposure is still measured in radiometric units (joules per square meter), rather than photometric units (weighted by the nominal sensitivity of the human eye).[5] Only in this appropriately weighted case does the H measure the effective amount of light falling on the film, such that the characteristic curve will be correct independent of the spectrum of the light. Many photographic materials are also sensitive to “invisible” light, which can be a nuisance (see UV filter and IR filter), or a benefit (see infrared photography and full-spectrum photography). The use of radiometric units is appropriate to characterize such sensitivity to invisible light. [4] In sensitometric data, such as characteristic curves, the log exposure is conventionally expressed as log10(H). Pho- tographers more familiar with base-2 logarithmic scales (such as exposure values) can convert using log2(H) ≈ 3.32 log10(H).

5.1.2 Optimum exposure

Main article: sensitometry

“Correct” exposure may be defined as an exposure that achieves the effect the photographer intended.[6] A more technical approach recognises that a photographic film (or sensor) has a physically limited useful exposure range,[7] sometimes called its dynamic range.[8] If, for any part of the photograph, the actual exposure is outside this range, the film cannot record it accurately. In a very simple model, for example, out-of-range values would be recorded as “black” (underexposed) or “white” (overexposed) rather than the precisely graduated shades of colour and tone required to describe “detail”. Therefore, the purpose of exposure adjustment (and/or lighting adjustment) is to control the physical amount of light from the subject that is allowed to fall on the film, so that 'significant' areas of shadow and highlight detail do not exceed the film’s useful exposure range. This ensures that no 'significant' information is lost during capture. It is worth noting that the photographer may carefully overexpose or underexpose the photograph to eliminate “in- significant” or “unwanted” detail; to make, for example, a white altar cloth appear immaculately clean, or to emulate the heavy, pitiless shadows of film noir. However, it is technically much easier to discard recorded information during post processing than to try to 're-create' unrecorded information. In a scene with strong or harsh lighting, the ratio between highlight and shadow luminance values may well be larger than the ratio between the film’s maximum and minimum useful exposure values. In this case, adjusting the camera’s exposure settings (which only applies changes to the whole image, not selectively to parts of the image) only allows the photographer to choose between underexposed shadows or overexposed highlights; it cannot bring both into the useful exposure range at the same time. Methods for dealing with this situation include: using some kind of fill lighting to gently increase the illumination in shadow areas; using a graduated ND filter or to reduce the amount of light coming from the highlight areas; or varying the exposure between multiple, otherwise identical, photographs (exposure bracketing) and then combining them afterwards in some kind of HDRI process.

Overexposure and underexposure

A photograph may be described as overexposed when it has a loss of highlight detail, that is, when important bright parts of an image are “washed out” or effectively all white, known as “blown-out highlights” or "clipped whites".[9] A photograph may be described as underexposed when it has a loss of shadow detail, that is, when important dark areas are “muddy” or indistinguishable from black,[10] known as “blocked-up shadows” (or sometimes “crushed shadows”, “crushed blacks”, or “clipped blacks”, especially in video).[11][12][13] As the adjacent image shows, these terms are 70 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

White chair: Deliberate use of overexposure for aesthetic purposes. technical ones rather than artistic judgments; an overexposed or underexposed image may be “correct” in that it provides the effect that the photographer intended. Intentionally over- or underexposing (relative to a standard or the camera’s automatic exposure) is casually referred to as “shooting to the right” or “shooting to the left” respectively, as these shift the histogram of the image to the right or left.

5.1.3 Exposure settings

Manual exposure

In manual mode, the photographer adjusts the lens aperture and/or shutter speed to achieve the desired exposure. Many photographers choose to control aperture and shutter independently because opening up the aperture increases exposure, but also decreases the depth of field, and a slower shutter increases exposure but also increases the oppor- tunity for motion blur. “Manual” exposure calculations may be based on some method of light metering with a working knowledge of exposure values, the APEX system and/or the Zone System.

Automatic exposure

A camera in automatic exposure (abbreviation: AE) mode automatically calculates and adjusts exposure settings to match (as closely as possible) the subject’s mid-tone to the mid-tone of the photograph. For most cameras this means using an on-board TTL exposure meter. mode (commonly abbreviated to Av) gives the photographer manual control of the aperture, whilst the camera automatically adjusts the shutter speed to achieve the exposure specified by the TTL meter. Shutter priority mode (commonly abbreviated to TV) gives manual shutter control, with automatic aperture compensation. In each case, the actual exposure level is still determined by the camera’s exposure meter. 5.1. EXPOSURE (PHOTOGRAPHY) 71

Two similar images, one taken in auto mode (overexposed), the other with manual settings.

Exposure compensation

Main article: exposure compensation The purpose of an exposure meter is to estimate the subject’s mid-tone luminance and indicate the camera exposure settings required to record this as a mid-tone. In order to do this it has to make a number of assumptions which, under certain circumstances, will be wrong. If the exposure setting indicated by an exposure meter is taken as the 72 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

Houses photographed with an exposure time of 0,005 s

“reference” exposure, the photographer may wish to deliberately overexpose or underexpose in order to compensate for known or anticipated metering inaccuracies. Cameras with any kind of internal exposure meter usually feature an exposure compensation setting which is intended to allow the photographer to simply offset the exposure level from the internal meter’s estimate of appropriate expo- sure. Frequently calibrated in stops,[14] also known as EV units,[15] a "+1” exposure compensation setting indicates one stop more (twice as much) exposure and "–1” means one stop less (half as much) exposure.[16][17] Exposure compensation is particularly useful in combination with auto-exposure mode, as it allows the photographer to bias the exposure level without resorting to full manual exposure and losing the flexibility of auto exposure. On low-end video camcorders, exposure compensation may be the only manual exposure control available.

5.1.4 Exposure control

An appropriate exposure for a photograph is determined by the sensitivity of the medium used. For photographic film, sensitivity is referred to as film speed and is measured on a scale published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Faster film, that is, film with a higher ISO rating, requires less exposure to make a readable image. Digital cameras usually have variable ISO settings that provide additional flexibility. Exposure is a combination of the length of time and the illuminance at the photosensitive material. Exposure time is controlled in a camera by shutter speed, and the illuminance depends on the lens aperture and the scene luminance. Slower shutter speeds (exposing the medium for a longer period of time), greater lens apertures (admitting more light), and higher-luminance scenes produce greater exposures. An approximately correct exposure will be obtained on a sunny day using ISO 100 film, an aperture of f/16 and a shutter speed of 1/100 of a second. This is called the sunny 16 rule: at an aperture of f/16 on a sunny day, a suitable shutter speed will be one over the film speed (or closest equivalent). A scene can be exposed in many ways, depending on the desired effect a photographer wishes to convey. 5.1. EXPOSURE (PHOTOGRAPHY) 73

A street view of Taka-Töölö, Helsinki, Finland, during a very sunny winter day. The image has been deliberately overexposed by +1 EV to compensate for the bright sunlight and the exposure time calculated by the camera’s program automatic metering is still 1/320 s.

5.1.5 Reciprocity

Main article: reciprocity (photography) Further information: aperture, exposure range, and f-number

An important principle of exposure is reciprocity. If one exposes the film or sensor for a longer period, a reciprocally smaller aperture is required to reduce the amount of light hitting the film to obtain the same exposure. For example, the photographer may prefer to make his sunny-16 shot at an aperture of f/5.6 (to obtain a shallow depth of field). As f/5.6 is 3 stops “faster” than f/16, with each stop meaning double the amount of light, a new shutter speed of (1/125)/(2·2·2) = 1/1000 s is needed. Once the photographer has determined the exposure, aperture stops can be traded for halvings or doublings of speed, within limits. The true characteristic of most photographic emulsions is not actually linear (see sensitometry), but it is close enough over the exposure range of about 1 second to 1/1000 of a second. Outside of this range, it becomes necessary to increase the exposure from the calculated value to account for this characteristic of the emulsion. This characteristic is known as reciprocity failure. The film manufacturer’s data sheets should be consulted to arrive at the correction required, as different emulsions have different characteristics. Digital camera image sensors can also be subject to a form of reciprocity failure.[18]

5.1.6 Determining exposure

The Zone System is another method of determining exposure and development combinations to achieve a greater tonality range over conventional methods by varying the contrast of the film to fit the print contrast capability. Digital cameras can achieve similar results (high dynamic range) by combining several different exposures (varying shutter or diaphram) made in quick succession. 74 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

A 1/30 s exposure showing motion blur on fountain at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

A 1/320 s exposure showing individual drops on fountain at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Today, most cameras automatically determine the correct exposure at the time of taking a photograph by using a built-in light meter, or multiple point meters interpreted by a built-in computer, see . Negative/Print film tends to bias for exposing for the shadow areas (film dislikes being starved of light), with digital 5.1. EXPOSURE (PHOTOGRAPHY) 75

A demonstration of the effect of exposure in . Longer shutter speeds result in increased exposure.

A fair ride taken with a 2/5 second exposure. favouring exposure for highlights. See latitude below.

5.1.7 Latitude

Latitude is the degree by which one can over, or under expose an image, and still recover an acceptable level of quality from an exposure. Typically negative film has a better ability to record a range of brightness than slide/transparency film or digital. Digital should be considered to be the reverse of print film, with a good latitude in the shadow range, and a narrow one in the highlight area; in contrast to film’s large highlight latitude, and narrow shadow latitude. Slide/Transparency film has a narrow latitude in both highlight and shadow areas, requiring greater exposure accuracy. Negative film’s latitude increases somewhat with high ISO material, in contrast digital tends to narrow on latitude with high ISO settings.

Highlights

Main article: Clipping (photography) Areas of a photo where information is lost due to extreme brightness are described as having “blown-out highlights” or “flared highlights”. In digital images this information loss is often irreversible, though small problems can be made less noticeable using photo manipulation software. Recording to RAW format can correct this problem to some degree, as can using a digital camera with a better sensor. 76 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

Example image exhibiting blown-out highlights. Top: original image, bottom: blown-out areas marked red 5.1. EXPOSURE (PHOTOGRAPHY) 77

Film can often have areas of extreme overexposure but still record detail in those areas. This information is usually somewhat recoverable when printing or transferring to digital. A loss of highlights in a photograph is usually undesirable, but in some cases can be considered to “enhance” appeal. Examples include black-and-white photography and portraits with an out-of-focus background.

Blacks

Areas of a photo where information is lost due to extreme darkness are described as “crushed blacks”. Digital capture tends to be more tolerant of underexposure, allowing better recovery of shadow detail, than same-ISO negative print film. Crushed blacks cause loss of detail, but can be used for artistic effect.

5.1.8 See also

• Bulb (photography) • Exposure bracketing • Exposure value • Film speed • Gray card • High dynamic range imaging • Light painting • Light value • Long exposure multiple flash photographic technique • Multiple exposure • Night photography • Sensitometry (and Hurter–Driffield curves) • Shutter speed (also called exposure time) •

5.1.9 Notes

[1] Standards organizations recommend that radiometric quantities should be denoted with suffix “e” (for “energetic”) to avoid confusion with photometric or photon quantities.

[2] Alternative symbols sometimes seen: W or E for radiant energy, P or F for radiant flux, I for irradiance, W for radiant exitance.

[3] Spectral quantities given per unit frequency are denoted with suffix "ν" (Greek)—not to be confused with suffix “v” (for “visual”) indicating a photometric quantity.

[4] Spectral quantities given per unit wavelength are denoted with suffix "λ" (Greek).

[5] Directional quantities are denoted with suffix "Ω" (Greek).

[6] Standards organizations recommend that photometric quantities be denoted with a suffix “v” (for “visual”) to avoid confusion with radiometric or photon quantities. For example: USA Standard Letter Symbols for Illuminating Engineering USAS Z7.1- 1967, Y10.18-1967

[7] Alternative symbols sometimes seen: W for luminous energy, P or F for luminous flux, and ρ or K for luminous efficacy.

[8] "J" here is the symbol for the dimension of luminous intensity, not the symbol for the unit joules. 78 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

5.1.10 References

[1] Hsien-Che Lee (2005). Introduction to Color Imaging Science. Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-521- 84388-1.

[2] Hans I. Bjelkhagen (1995). Silver-halide Recording Materials. Springer. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-540-58619-7.

[3] National Institute of Standards and Technology . Retrieved Feb 2009.

[4] Geoffrey G. Attridge (2000). “Sensitometry”. In Ralph E. Jacobson; Sidney F. Ray; Geoffrey G. Attridge; Norman R. Axford. The Manual of Photography: Photographic and Digital Imaging (9th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press. pp. 218–223. ISBN 0-240-51574-9.

[5] Gareth Rees (2001). Physical Principles of Remote Sensing. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-521-66948- 1.

[6] Peterson, Bryan, “Understanding Exposure”, 2004, ISBN 0-8174-6300-3 : p.14

[7] Ray, S.F. et al. 2000 “The Manual of Photography” Focal Press, ISBN 0-240-51574-9, p.230

[8] Ray, S.F. et al. 2000 “The Manual of Photography” Focal Press, ISBN 0-240-51574-9, p.121 and p.245

[9] Ed van der walt. “Basic Photography — ISO and Film Speed”. Retrieved 2 July 2011.

[10] Rob Sheppard (2010). Digital Photography: Top 100 Simplified Tips & Tricks (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-470-59710-1.

[11] Barbara A. Lynch-Johnt & Michelle Perkins (2008). Illustrated Dictionary of Photography. Amherst Media. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-58428-222-8.

[12] Steve Hullfish & Jaime Fowler (2005). Color Correction for Digital Video. Focal Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-1-57820- 201-0.

[13] John Jackman (2004). Lighting for Digital Video & Television. Focal Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-57820-251-5.

[14] Chris George (2006). Total Digital Photography. Running Press. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-0-7624-2808-3.

[15] R E Jacobson (2000). The Manual of Photography. Focal Press. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-240-51574-8.

[16] John Child; Mark Galer (2005). Photographic Lighting : Essential Skills. Focal Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-240-51964-7.

[17] David D. Busch (2007). Nikon D80 Digital Field Guide. John Wiley and Sons. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-470-12051-4.

[18] David D. Busch (2003). Mastering Digital Photography: The Photographer’s Guide to Professional-Quality Digital Photog- raphy. Thomson Course Technology. ISBN 1-59200-114-9.

5.1.11 External links

• Media related to Exposure at Wikimedia Commons Chapter 6

Day 6

6.1 Exposure compensation

Exposure compensation is a technique for adjusting the exposure indicated by a photographic exposure meter, in consideration of factors that may cause the indicated exposure to result in a less-than-optimal image. Factors consid- ered may include unusual lighting distribution, variations within a camera system, filters, non-standard processing, or intended underexposure or overexposure. Cinematographers may also apply exposure compensation for changes in shutter angle or film speed (as exposure index), among other factors. Most DSLR cameras have a display whereby the photographer can set the camera to either over or under expose the subject by up to three f-stops in 1/3rd stop intervals. Each number on the scale (1,2,3) represents one f-stop, decreasing the exposure by one f-stop will halve the amount of light reaching the sensor. The dots in between the numbers represent 1/3rd of an f-stop.[1]

6.1.1 Exposure compensation on still cameras

Snowy Mountains without exposure compensation

79 80 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

Same place with +2EV exposure compensation

In photography, some cameras include exposure compensation as a feature to allow the user to adjust the automatically calculated exposure. Compensation can be either positive (additional exposure) or negative (reduced exposure), and is frequently available in third- or half-step, less commonly in full steps or even quarter-step[# 1] increments,[# 2] usually up to two or three steps in either direction; a few film and some digital cameras allow a greater range of up to four,[# 1] five[# 3][# 4] or even six[# 1] steps in both directions. Camera exposure compensation is commonly stated in terms of EV units; 1 EV is equal to one exposure step (or stop), corresponding to a doubling of exposure. Exposure can be adjusted by changing either the lens f-number or the exposure time; which one is changed usually depends on the camera’s exposure mode. If the mode is aperture priority, exposure compensation changes the expo- sure time; if the mode is shutter priority, the f-number is changed. If a flash is being used, some cameras will adjust it as well.

6.1.2 Adjustment for lighting distribution

The earliest reflected-light exposure meters were wide-angle, averaging types, measuring the average scene luminance. Exposure meter calibration was chosen to result in the “best” exposures for typical outdoor scenes; when measuring a single scene element (such as the side of a building in open shade), the indicated exposure is in the approximate middle of the film or electronic sensor’s exposure range. When measuring a scene with atypical distribution of light and dark elements, or a single element that is lighter or darker than a middle tone, the indicated exposure may not be optimal. For example, a scene with predominantly light tones (e.g., a white horse) often will be underexposed, while a scene with predominantly dark tones (e.g., a black horse) often will be overexposed. That both scenes require the same exposure, regardless of the meter indication, becomes obvious from a scene that includes both a white horse and a black horse. A photographer usually can recognize the difference between a white horse and a black horse; a meter usually cannot. When metering a white horse, a photographer can apply exposure compensation so that the white horse is rendered as white. Many modern cameras incorporate metering systems that measure scene contrast as well as average luminance, and employ sophisticated algorithms to infer the appropriate exposure from these data. In scenes with very unusual light- ing, however, these metering systems sometimes cannot match the judgment of a skilled photographer, so exposure compensation still may be needed.[2] 6.1. EXPOSURE COMPENSATION 81

6.1.3 Exposure compensation using the Zone System

Main article: Zone System

An early application of exposure compensation was the Zone System developed by Ansel Adams and Fred Archer.[3] Although the Zone System has sometimes been regarded as complex, the basic concept is quite simple: render dark objects as dark and light objects as light, according to the photographer’s visualization. Developed for black-and- white film, the Zone System divided luminance[# 5] into 11 zones, with Zone 0 representing pure black and Zone X representing pure white. The meter indication would place whatever was metered on Zone V, a medium gray. The tonal range of color negative film is slightly less than that of black-and-white film, and the tonal range of color reversal film and digital sensors even less; accordingly, there are fewer zones between pure black and pure white. The meter indication, however, remains Zone V. The relationship between exposure compensation and exposure zones is straightforward: an exposure compensation of one EV is equal to a change of one zone; thus exposure compensation of −1 EV is equivalent to placement on Zone IV, and exposure compensation of +2 EV is equivalent to placement on Zone VII. The Zone System is a very specialized form of exposure compensation, and is used most effectively when metering individual scene elements, such as a sunlit rock or the bark of a tree in shade. Many cameras incorporate narrow-angle spot meters to facilitate such measurements. Because of the limited tonal range, an exposure compensation range of ±2 EV is often sufficient for using the Zone System with color film and digital sensors.

6.1.4 See also

• Exposure value

• Exposure index

• Light meter

• Zone System

• Exposure bracketing

• Auto Exposure Bracketing (AEB)

6.1.5 Notes

[1] By default, the Minolta 7000 and 9000 (1985) support exposure-compensation in half-step increments over a range of ±4.0 EV, however, in conjunction with the Minolta Program Back Super 70 / 90 (PBS-70/PBS-90) or the 100-Exposure Back EB-90 quarter-steps are supported over an effective range of ±6.0 EV. In order to cope with the finer granularity, aperture and shutter speed settings are displayed in a proprietary suffixed notation, that is, a full f-stop of 2.8 is displayed as 2.80, the next quarter-steps would be 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, before it would continue with 4.00, etc.

[2] Photographers commonly refer to exposure changes in terms of “stops”, but properly, an aperture stop is a device that regulates the amount of light, while a step is a division of a scale. The standard exposure scale consists of power-of-two steps; a one-step exposure increase doubles the exposure, while a one-step decrease halves the exposure; these steps are what are commonly referred to as stops.

[3] The Nikon F5 (1996) and F6 (2004) support an exposure-compensation range of ±5.0 EV.

[4] With Firmware 2.0, the Sony Alpha DSLR-A850 and DSLR-A900 support an extended exposure-compensation range of ±5.0 EV. (Sony press release as of 2 December 2010)

[5] Zones refer to exposure; Adams (1981) distinguishes among exposure zones, negative density values, and print values. The negative density value is controlled by exposure and the negative development; the print value is controlled by the negative density value, and the paper exposure and development. 82 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

6.1.6 References

[1] Exposure Compensation. “By Geoff Lawrence”

[2] van der Walt, Ed. (2010?). “ISO and Film Speed”. Under Basic Photography. Illustrated Photography.com. Retrieved 7 July 2011.

[3] Adams, Ansel (1981). The Negative. Boston: New York Graphic Society. ISBN 0-8212-1131-5 Chapter 7

Day 7

7.1 Film speed

Not to be confused with frame rate. “Slow film” redirects here. For the genre of films, see slow cinema.

Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems. Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a slow film. Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed fast films. In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor.

7.1.1 Film speed measurement systems

Historical systems

Warnerke The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic ma- terials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke[1] – pseudonym of Władysław Małachowski (1837–1900) – in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882.[2][3] It was commercialized since 1881. The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning Magnesium ribbon.[3] The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees’ Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time. His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable[1] due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances.[3] The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system.[3][4]

Hurter & Driffield Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848–1915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at

83 84 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

This film container denotes its speed as ISO 100/21°, including both arithmetic (100 ASA) and logarithmic (21 DIN) components. The second is often dropped, making (e.g.) “ISO 100” effectively equivalent to the older ASA speed. (As is common, the “100” in the film name alludes to its ISO rating).

2500 H&D.[5] The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called “H&D 10”. The H&D system was officially[6] accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817-50.

Scheiner The Scheinergrade (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner’s system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch., where an increment of 19° Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.[5][7]

√ 3 19 100 = 2.06914... ≈ 2 The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944)[1] and Flemish-born botanist Walter Hecht (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer measuring emulsion speeds in Eder– Hecht grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufactures to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products,[1] so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner’s original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.[1][8] 7.1. FILM SPEED 85

Scheiner’s system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time.

DIN The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by Deutsches Institut für Normung (but still named Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik[8] as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung[9] since 1930[10][11] and presented by Robert Luther[11][12] (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg[12] (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie) held in from August 3 to 8, 1931.[8][13] The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system,[1] but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19° as in Scheiner’s system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103…):[7]

≈ log10 (2) = 0.30103... 3/10

As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees’. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths’ (for example “18/10° DIN”),[14] where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths’ were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as “18° DIN”.[5] The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5- 1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as “18° DIN” would now be labeled as “21 DIN” without emulsion changes. Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film. On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974,[15] ISO 2240:1982,[16] and ISO 5800:1979[17] where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as “ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002.

BSI The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number.

Weston Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of Weston film speed ratings was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation,[18] with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr.,[19][20] who worked for them[21] and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering. The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufactures and third parties[22] in their exposure guidelines. Since manufactures were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their “Weston film ratings” booklets.[23] The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established ASA scale instead. Other models used the original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955,[24] but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston’s 86 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7 recommendation.[24] Vice versa, “old” Weston film speed ratings could be converted into “new” Westons and the ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values.

General Electric Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale[25] and similar to Weston film speed ratings an- other manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, General Electric, developed its own rating system of so-called General Electric film values (often abbreviated as G-E or GE) around 1937. Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated General Electric Film Values[26] leaflets and in the General Electric Photo Data Book.[27] General Electric switched to use the ASA scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 are equipped with the ASA scale (labeled “Exposure Index”) already. For some of the older meters with scales in “Film Speed” or “Film Value” (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from the manufacturer.[26][28] The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were then aligned to the ASA scale.

ASA Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884–1954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings[24] and General Electric film values,[26] the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1-1943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as American standard speed numbers or ASA exposure-index numbers. (See also: Exposure Index (EI).) The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA. The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years. In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value Sv (without degree symbol) as well. ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5-1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993. The standard for color negative film was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979 and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27-1988 prior to its withdrawal. Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard. On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system.

GOST GOST (Cyrillic: ГОСТ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817- 50.[29][30] It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: ХиД) numbers,[29] which had been used since 1928. GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA’s 0.1.[31] GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture.[32] On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the ISO scale with GOST 10691-84,[33] 7.1. FILM SPEED 87

This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6-88[34] and GOST 10691.5-88,[35] which both became functional on 1 January 1991.

Current system: ISO

The ASA and DIN film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974. The current International Standard for measuring the speed of color negative film is ISO 5800:2001[17] (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993[15] (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003[16] (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994, and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and color reversal film, respectively. The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2006 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, and corrected in October 2006). The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale.[36] The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°.[36] Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, “ISO 100” denotes “ISO 100/21°",[37] while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as “ISO 21°" as per the standard.

Conversion between current scales

Conversion from arithmetic speed S to logarithmic speed S° is given by[15]

S◦ = 10 log S + 1 and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by[38]

◦ S = 10(S −1)/10 and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table 1 below. Table notes:

1. Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds. 2. APEX Sv values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1° to 10° found in ASA PH2.5-1960. 3. ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table 1, p. 8). 4. ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table 1, p. 5) and ANSI PH2.27- 1979. 5. ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table “ISO speed scales”, p. 4). 6. ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table 1, p. 9). 7. ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for Sₒᵢₑ 10000 is given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This is consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961.[41] For digital cameras, Nikon, Canon, Sony, , and Fujifilm apparently chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. 88 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

8. Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15° to 5000/38° with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9° to 6400/39° manually (without utilizing exposure compensation). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12° to 3200/36° or less.

9. The Booster[42] accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.

10. The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual).[43] On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.

11. The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40°, 10000/41° and 12800/42° (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42° (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its ±3 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° in half exposure steps.[39][40]

12. Digital camera manufacturers’ arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009,[44] 204800 in 2012,[47] 409600 in 2014[49]), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009,[45] 204800 in 2011,[46] 4000000 in 2015[51]), Sony (12800 in 2009,[52] 25600 in 2010,[53] 409600 in 2014[50]), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010,[54] 102400, 204800 in 2014[48]) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011[55]).

Historic ASA DIN conversion

Before ASA and DIN standard’s unification, the conversion of ASA and DIN is different from the current. The attachment is ASA DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book [56] In which DIN 21 was converted to ASA80 instead of ASA100. Some classic camera’s exposure guide also has the old conversion, for example the exposure guide of classic camera Tessina, DIN 21 is related to ASA80, DIN 18 to ASA 40. User of classic cameras who does not know the historic background, may be confused.

Determining film speed

Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the D–log H curve or Hurter–Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the “speed point” m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure H, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:

0.8 lx⋅s S = Hm This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table 1 of ISO 6:1993. Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer’s recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for color reversal film is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer’s recommendations.

Applying film speed

Film speed is used in the exposure equations to find the appropriate exposure parameters. Four variables are available to the photographer to obtain the desired effect: lighting, film speed, f-number (aperture size), and shutter speed (exposure time). The equation may be expressed as ratios, or, by taking the logarithm (base 2) of both sides, by addition, using the APEX system, in which every increment of 1 is a doubling of exposure; this increment is commonly 7.1. FILM SPEED 89

Film speed conversion table of the 50s

known as a “stop”. The effective f-number is proportional to the ratio between the lens focal length and aperture diameter, the diameter itself being proportional to the square root of the aperture area. Thus, a lens set to f/1.4 allows twice as much light to strike the focal plane as a lens set to f/2. Therefore, each f-number factor of the square 90 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

Classic camera Tessina exposure guide

root of two (approximately 1.4) is also a stop, so lenses are typically marked in that progression: f/1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc. The ISO arithmetic speed has a useful property for photographers without the equipment for taking a metered light reading. Correct exposure will usually be achieved for a frontlighted scene in bright sun if the aperture of the lens is set to f/16 and the shutter speed is the reciprocal of the ISO film speed (e.g. 1/100 second for 100 ISO film). This known as the sunny 16 rule.

Exposure index

Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film’s actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the speed setting, as compared to the speed rating. For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800. Another example occurs where a camera’s shutter is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a light meter may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI rating accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives. 7.1. FILM SPEED 91

ISO 6:1993 method of determining speed for black-and-white film.

7.1.2 Reciprocity

Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera’s shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000 second to 1/2 second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure.[57]

7.1.3 Film sensitivity and grain

Main article: Film grain The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or “slow”, because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a “fast” film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images. Kodak has defined a “Print Grain Index” (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on percep- tual just-noticeable difference of graininess in prints. They also define “granularity”, a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture.[58] Granularity varies with exposure — underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film.

Marketing anomalies

Some high-speed black-and-white films, such as Ilford Delta 3200 and Kodak T-MAX P3200, are marketed with film speeds in excess of their true ISO speed as determined using the ISO testing method. For example, the Ilford 92 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

Grainy high-speed B&W film negative product is actually an ISO 1000 film, according to its data sheet. The manufacturers do not indicate that the 3200 number is an ISO rating on their packaging.[59] Kodak and Fuji also marketed E6 films designed for pushing (hence the “P” prefix), such as P800/1600 and Fujichrome P1600, both with a base speed of ISO 400.

7.1.4 Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index

In digital camera systems, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the signal gain of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image such as sRGB. For digital photo cameras (“digital still cameras”), an exposure index (EI) rating—commonly called ISO setting—is specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure. The usual design is that the camera’s parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor’s signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least some EI choices by adjusting the sensor’s signal gain in the digital realm. A few camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the interpretation of sensor data values into 7.1. FILM SPEED 93

A CCD image sensor, 2/3 inch size sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas of the photo. Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with ISO equivalent speeds of up to 102,400, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster processors, as well as advances in software noise reduction techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware.

The ISO 12232:2006 standard

The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006[60] gives digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 are carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files are introduced from CIPA DC-004.[61] Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating can depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specifies the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported[62] using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001. The Recommended Exposure Index (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model’s EI choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer’s opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed sRGB images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when multi-zone metering (also called pattern metering) is used. The Standard Output Sensitivity (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled 94 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images— typically JPEG—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used. The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008[63] updates the specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with lossy com- pression, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format. The saturation-based (SAT or Sₐ) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value.[64] Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically TIFF—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used. The two noise-based techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras. These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an “excellent” picture or a “usable” picture depending on the technique chosen.

Measurements and calculations

ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure H (in lux seconds) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective focal length f that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, H is given by

qLt H = , N 2 where L is the luminance of the scene (in candela per m²), t is the exposure time (in seconds), N is the aperture f-number, and

π q = T v(θ) cos4 θ 4 is a factor depending on the transmittance T of the lens, the factor v(θ), and the angle θ relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is q = 0.65, based on θ = 10°, T = 0.9, and v = 0.98.[65]

Saturation-based speed The saturation-based speed is defined as

78 lx⋅s Ssat = , Hsat

where Hsat is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a grey level of 18%/√2 = 12.7% of saturation. The factor √2 indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting white surface.[60]

Noise-based speed Main article: Signal to noise ratio (imaging) The noise-based speed is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (“excellent image quality”) and the 10:1 (“acceptable image quality”) ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (9.8 inch) distance. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter.[60] 7.1. FILM SPEED 95

Digital noise at 3200 ISO vs. 100 ISO

Standard output sensitivity (SOS) In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the standard output sensitivity (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as

10 lx⋅s Ssos = , Hsos

where Hsos is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as sRGB or with = 2.2.[60]

Discussion The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is higher than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded downwards to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation- based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is lower than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating.[60]

For example, a camera sensor may have the following properties: S40:1 = 107 , S10:1 = 1688 , and Ssat = 49 . According to the standard, the camera should report its sensitivity as

ISO 100 (daylight) ISO speed latitude 50–1600 ISO 100 (SOS, daylight).

The SOS rating could be user controlled. For a different camera with a noisier sensor, the properties might be S40:1 = 40 , S10:1 = 800 , and Ssat = 200 . In this case, the camera should report

ISO 200 (daylight), 96 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7 as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (incandescent light).[60] Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user “ISO” setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce sRGB files in an uncompressed format such as TIFF. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS. As should be clear from the above, a greater SOS setting for a given sensor comes with some loss of image quality, just like with analog film. However, this loss is visible as image noise rather than grain. Current (January 2010) APS and 35mm sized digital image sensors, both CMOS and CCD based, do not produce significant noise until about ISO 1600.[66]

7.1.5 See also

• Frame rate

• Lens speed

7.1.6 References

[1] DIN 4512:1934-01. Photographische Sensitometrie, Bestimmung der optischen Dichte. Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA), 1934: In the introduction to the standard, Warnerke's system is described as the first practical system used to measure emul- sion speeds, but as being unreliable. In regard to Scheiner’s system, it states: “Auch hier erwies sich nach einiger Zeit, daß das Meßverfahren trotz der von Eder vorgenommenen Abänderungen den Anforderungen der Praxis nicht vollständig Rech- nung zu tragen vermag, so daß jeder Hersteller […] nach seinem eigenen System die Empfindlichkeit in Scheinergraden ermitteln muß, häufig in sehr primitiver Weise durch […] Vergleich mit Erzeugnissen anderer Hersteller. Die so ermit- telten Gebrauchs-Scheinergrade haben mit dem ursprünglich […] ausgearbeiteten Meßverfahren nach Scheiner sachlich nichts mehr zu tun. […] Als Folge hiervon ist allmählich eine Inflation in Empfindlichkeitsgraden eingetreten, für die das Scheiner’sche Verfahren nichts mehr als den Namen hergibt.”

[2] Royal Photographic Society. Progress medal. Web-page listing people, who have received this award since 1878 (“Archived copy”. Archived from the original on August 22, 2012. Retrieved April 19, 2013.): “Instituted in 1878, this medal is awarded in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense. This award also carries with it an Honorary Fellowship of The Society. […] 1882 Leon Warnerke […] 1884 J M Eder […] 1898 Ferdinand Hurter and Vero C Driffield […] 1910 Alfred Watkins […] 1912 H Chapman Jones […] 1948 Loyd A Jones […]"

[3] Berhard Edward Jones (editor). Cassell’s cyclopaedia of photography, Cassell, London, 1911 (). Reprinted as Encyclopae- dia of photography - With a New Picture Portfolio and introduction by Peter C. Bunnell and Robert A. Sobieszek. Arno Press Inc., New York 1974, ISBN 0-405-04922-6, pp. 472–473: ‘Soon after the introduction of the gelatine dry plate, it was usual to express the speed of the emulsion as “x times,” which meant that it was x times the speed of a wet col- lodion plate. This speed was no fixed quantity, and the expression consequently meant but little. Warnerke introduced a sensitometer, consisting of a series of numbered squares with increasing quantities of opaque pigment. The plate to be tested was placed in contact with this, and an exposure made to light emanating from a tablet of luminous paint, excited by burning magnesium ribbon. After development and fixation the last number visible was taken as the speed of the plate. The chief objections to this method were that practically no two numbered tablets agreed, that the pigment possessed selective spectral absorption, and that the luminosity of the tablet varied considerably with the lapse of time between its excitation and the exposure of the plate. […] Chapman Jones has introduced a modified Warnerke tablet containing a series of twenty-five graduated densities, a series of coloured squares, and a strip of neutral grey, all five being of approximately equal luminosity, and a series of four squares passing a definite portion of the spectrum; finally, there is a square of a line design, over which is superposed a half-tone negative. This “plate tester,” […] is used with a standard candle as the source of light, and is useful for rough tests of both plates and printing papers.’

[4] Paul Nooncree Hasluck (1905). The Book of Photography: Practical, Theoretical and Applied. (): “THE CHAPMAN JONES PLATE TESTER. A convenient means of testing the colour rendering and other properties of a sensitive plate, or for ascertaining the effect of various colour screens, is afforded by the plate tester devised by Mr. Chapman Jones in 1900. This consists of a number of graduated squares by which the sensitiveness and range of gradation of the plate examined may be determined; a series of squares of different colours and mixtures of colours of equal visual intensity, which will 7.1. FILM SPEED 97

indicate the colour sensitiveness; and a strip of uncoloured space for comparison purposes. It is simply necessary to expose the plate being tested, in contact with the screen, to the light of a standard candle. A suitable frame and stand are supplied for the purpose; any other light may, however, be used if desired. The plate is then developed, when an examination of the negative will yield the desired information. The idea of the coloured squares is based on that of the Abney Colour Sensitometer, where three or four squares of coloured and one of uncoloured glass are brought to an equal visual intensity by backing where necessary with squares of exposed celluloid film developed to suitable density.”

[5] Arthur Lindsay MacRae Sowerby (editor) (1961). Dictionary of Photography: A Reference Book for Amateur and Profes- sional Photographers (19th ed.). London: Iliffe Books Ltd. pp. 582–589.

[6] Konovalov, Leonid (2007). Characteristic curve (PDF). Moscow: ВГИК. p. 24. Retrieved November 9, 2012.

[7] Martin Riat. Graphische Techniken - Eine Einführung in die verschiedenen Techniken und ihre Geschichte. E-Book, 3. German edition, Burriana, spring 2006 (), based on a Spanish book: Martin Riat. Tecniques Grafiques: Una Introduccio a Les Diferents Tecniques I a La Seva Historia. 1. edition, Aubert, September 1983, ISBN 84-86243-00-9.

[8] Samuel Edward Sheppard. Resumé of the Proceedings of the Dresden International Photographic Congress. In: Sylvan Har- ris (editor). Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers. Volume XVIII, Number 2 (February 1932), pp. 232-242 (): ‘[…] The 8th International Congress of Photography was held at Dresden, Germany, from August 3 to 8, 1931, inclu- sive. […] In regard to sensitometric standardization, several important developments occurred. First, the other national committees on sensitometric standardization accepted the light source and filter proposed by the American Committee at Paris, 1925, and accepted by the British in 1928. In the meantime, no definite agreement had been reached, nor indeed had very definite proposals been made on the subjects of sensitometers or exposure meters, development, density measure- ment, and methods of expressing sensitometric results, although much discussion and controversy on this subject had taken place. At the present Congress, a body of recommendations for sensitometric standards was put forward by the Deutschen Normenausschusses fur Phototechnik, which endeavored to cover the latter questions and bring the subject of sensitometric standardization into the industrial field. It was stated by the German committee that this action had been forced on them by difficulties arising from indiscriminate and uncontrolled placing of speed numbers on photographic sensitive goods, a situation which was summarized at the Congress by the term "Scheiner-inflation.” The gist of these recommendations was as follows: (a) Acceptance of the light source and daylight filter as proposed by the American commission. (b) As exposure meter, a density step-wedge combined with a drop shutter accurate to 1/20 second. (c) Brush development in a tray with a prescribed solution of metol-hydroquinone according to a so-called “optimal” development. (d) Expression of the sensitivity by that illumination at which a density of 0.1 in excess of fog is reached. (e) Density measurement shall be carried out in diffused light according to details to be discussed later. These proposals aroused a very lively discussion. The American and the British delegations criticized the proposals both as a whole and in detail. As a whole they considered that the time was not ripe for application of sensitometric standards to industrial usage. In matters of detail they criticized the proposed employment of a step-wedge, and the particular sensitivity number proposed. The latter approaches very roughly the idea of an exposure for minimum gradient, but even such a number is not adequate for certain photographic uses of certain materials. The upshot of the discussion was that the German proposals in somewhat modified form are to be submitted simply as proposals of the German committee for sensitometric standardization to the various national committees for definite expression of opinion within six months of the expiration of the Congress. Further, in case of general approval of these recommendations by the other national committees, that a small International Committee on Sensitometric Standardization shall, within a further period of six months, work out a body of sensitometric practices for commercial usage. In this connection it should be noted that it was agreed that both the lamps and filters and exposure meters should be certified as within certain tolerances by the national testing laboratories of the countries in question. […]’

[9] Martin Biltz. Über DIN-Grade, das neue deutsche Maß der photographischen Empfindlichkeit. In: Naturwissenschaften, Volume 21, Number 41, 1933, pp. 734-736, Springer, doi:10.1007/BF01504271: "[…] Im folgenden soll an Hand der seither gebräuchlichen sensitometrischen Systeme nach Scheiner […], nach Hurter und Driffield […] und nach Eder und Hecht […] kurz gezeigt werden, wie man bisher verfahren ist. Im Anschlusse daran wird das neue vom Deutschen Nor- menausschusse für Phototechnik auf Empfehlung des Ausschusses für Sensitometrie der Deutschen Gesellschaft für pho- tographische Forschung vorgeschlagene System […] betrachtet werden. […]".

[10] E. Heisenberg. Mitteilungen aus verschiedenen Gebieten – Bericht über die Gründung und erste Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung (23. bis 25. Mai 1930). In: Naturwissenschaften, Volume 18, Number 52, 1930, pp. 1130-1131, Springer, doi:10.1007/BF01492990: "[…] Weitere 3 Vorträge von Prof. Dr. R. Luther, Dresden, Prof. Dr. Lehmann, Berlin, Prof. Dr. Pirani, Berlin, behandelten die Normung der sensitometrischen Methoden. Zu normen sind: die Lichtquelle, die Art der Belichtung (zeitliche oder Intensitätsabstufung), die Entwicklung, die Auswertung. Auf den Internationalen Kongressen in Paris 1925 und London 1928 sind diese Fragen schon eingehend behandelt und in einzelnen Punkten genaue Vorschläge gemacht worden. Die Farbtemperatur der Lichtquelle soll 2360° betragen. Vor dieselbe soll ein Tageslichtfilter, welches vom Bureau of Standards ausgearbeitet worden ist, geschaltet werden. Herr Luther hat an der Filterflüssigkeit durch eigene Versuche gewisse Verbesserungen erzielt. Schwierigkeiten bereitet die Konstanthaltung der Farbtemperatur bei Nitralampen. Herr Pirani schlug deshalb in seinem Vortrag die Verwendung von Glimmlampen vor, deren Farbe von der Stromstärke weitgehend unabhängig ist. In der Frage: Zeit- oder Intensitätsskala befürworten die Herren Luther und Lehmann die Intensitätsskala. Herr Lehmann behandelte einige Fragen, die mit der 98 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

Herstellung der Intensitätsskala zusammenhängen. Ausführlicher wurde noch die Auswertung (zahlenmäßige Angabe der Empfindlichkeit und Gradation) besprochen, die eine der wichtigsten Fragen der Sensitometrie darstellt. In der Diskussion wurde betont, daß es zunächst nicht so sehr auf eine wissenschaftlich erschöpfende Auswertung ankomme als darauf, daß die Empfindlichkeit der Materialien in möglichst einfacher, aber eindeutiger und für den Praktiker ausreichender Weise charakterisiert wird. […]". [11] Waltraud Voss. Robert Luther – der erste Ordinarius für Wissenschaftliche Photographie in Deutschland - Zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften an der TU Dresden (12). In: Dresdner UniversitätsJournal, 13. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, p. 7, 12 March 2002, (): "[…] Luther war Mitglied des Komitees zur Veranstaltung internationaler Kongresse für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie; die Kongresse 1909 und 1931 in Dresden hat er wesentlich mit vorbereitet. 1930 gehörte er zu den Mitbegründern der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Photographische Forschung. Er gründete und leitete den Ausschuss für Sensitometrie der Gesellschaft, aus dessen Tätigkeit u.a. das DIN-Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Empfindlichkeit photographischer Materialien hervorging. […]" [12] Michael Keeble Buckland. The Kinamo movie camera, Emanuel Goldberg and Joris Ivens. Preprint of Film History 20, No. 1 (2008), pp. 49-58 (): "Ivens returned to Dresden in August 1931 to attend the VIII International Congress of Photography, organised by Goldberg; John Eggert, head of research at the Agfa plant in Wolfen, near Leipzig; and Robert Luther, the founding Director of the Institute for Scientific Photography at the Technical University in Dresden and Goldberg’s dissertation advisor. The proceedings were heavily technical and dominated by discussion of the measurement of film speeds. The Congress was noteworthy because a film speed standard proposed by Goldberg and Luther was approved and, in Germany, became DIN 4512, […]". [13] John Eggert, Arpad von Biehler (editors). Bericht über den VIII. Internationalen Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und ange- wandte Photographie Dresden 1931. J. A. Barth-Verlag, Leipzig, 1932. [14] Walther Benser (1957). Wir photographieren farbig. Europäischer Buchklub. p. 10. [15] ISO 6:1993: Photography – Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems – Determination of ISO speed. [16] ISO 2240:2003: Photography – Colour reversal camera films – Determination of ISO speed. [17] ISO 5800:1987: Photography – Colour negative films for still photography – Determination of ISO speed. [18] Charles J. Mulhern. Letter to John D. de Vries. 15th June 1990, (Copyscript on John D. de Vries’ web-site): “In 1931, Edward Faraday Weston applied for a U.S patent on the first Weston Exposure meter, which was granted patent No. 2016469 on October 8, 1935, also an improved version was applied for and granted U.S patent No. 2042665 on July 7th 1936. From 1932 to around 1967, over 36 varieties of Weston Photographic Exposure Meters were produced in large quantities and sold throughout the world, mostly by Photographic dealers or agents, which also included the Weston film speed ratings, as there were no ASA or DIN data available at that time.” [19] William Nelson Goodwin, Jr. Weston emulsion speed ratings: What they are and how they are determined. American Photographer, August 1938, 4 pages. [20] Everett Roseborough. The Contributions of Edward W. Weston and his company. In: Photographic Canadiana, Volume 22, Issue 3, 1996, (). [21] Martin Tipper. Weston — The company and the man. In: www.westonmeter.org.uk, a web-page on Weston exposure meters: "[…] the Weston method of measuring film speeds. While it had some shortcomings it had the advantage of being based on a method which gave practical speeds for actual use and it was independent of any film manufacturer. Previous speed systems such as the H&D and early Scheiner speeds were both threshold speeds and capable of considerable manipulation by manufacturers. Weston’s method measured the speed well up on the curve making it more nearly what one would get in actual practice. (This means that he was a bit less optimistic about film sensitivity than the manufacturers of the day who were notorious for pretending their films were more sensitive than they really were.) A certain Mr. W. N. Goodwin of Weston is usually credited with this system.” [22] Harold M. Hefley. A method of calculating exposures for photomicrographs. In: Arkansas Academy of Science Journal, Issue 4, 1951, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA, (), research paper on an exposure system for micro-photography based on a variation of Weston film speed ratings. [23] Weston (publisher). Weston film ratings — Weston system of emulsion ratings. Newark, USA, 1946. Booklet, 16 pages, (): ‘You cannot necessarily depend on Weston speed values from any other source unless they are marked “OFFICIAL WESTON SPEEDS BY AGREEMENT WITH THE WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CORPORATION"’. [24] Sangamo Weston (publisher). Weston ratings. Enfield, UK, 1956. Booklet, 20 pages, (): “WESTON RATINGS—Correct exposure depends on two variables: (1) the available light and (2) its effect on the film in use. WESTON have always considered these two to be of equal importance and therefore introduced their own system of film ratings. Subsequently this system was found to be so successful that it was widely accepted in photographic circles and formed the basis for internationally agreed standards.” 7.1. FILM SPEED 99

[25] General Electric (publisher). GW-68. Manual GES-2810, USA: The manual states that ASA was working on standardized values, but none had been established at this time.

[26] General Electric (publisher). General Electric Film Values. Leaflet GED-744, USA, 1947. General Electric publication code GED-744, Booklet, 12 pages, (): “This General Electric Film Value Booklet contains the […] exposure-index numbers for […] photographic films in accordance with the new system for rating photographic films that has been devised by the American Standards Association. This system has been under development for several years and is the result of co-operative effort on the part of all the film manufacturers, meter manufacturers, the Optical Society of America, and the Bureau of Standards. It was used by all of the military services during the war. The new ASA exposure-index numbers provide the photographer with the most accurate film-rating information that has yet been devised. The G-E exposure meter uses the ASA exposure-index numbers, not only in the interest of standardization, but also because this system represents a real advancement in the field of measurement. The exposure-index number have been so arranged that all earlier model G-E meters can be used with this series of numbers. For some films the values are exactly the same; and where differences exist, the new ASA exposure-index value will cause but a slight increase in exposure. However […] a comparison of the new ASA exposure-index numbers and the G-E film values is shown […] A complete comparison of all systems of emulsion speed values can be found in the G-E Photo Data Book. […] All G-E meters manufactured after January, 1946, utilize the ASA exposure indexes. Although the new ASA values can be used with all previous model G-E meters, interchangeable calculator-hoods with ASA exposure indexes are available for Types DW-48, DW-49, and DW-58 meters.”

[27] General Electric (publisher). General Electric Photo Data Book. GET-I717.

[28] General Electric. Attention exposure meter owners. Advertisement, 1946 (): “Attention! Exposure meter owners! Mod- ernizing Hood $3.50 […] Modernize your G-E meter (Type DW-48 or early DW-58) with a new G-E Hood. Makes it easy to use the new film-exposure ratings developed by the American Standards Association … now the only basis for data published by leading film makers. See your photo dealer and snap on a new G-E hood! General Electric Company, Schenectady 5, N.Y.”.

[29] Yu. N. Gorokhovskiy. Fotograficheskaya metrologiya. Uspekhi Nauchnoy Fotografii (Advances in Scientific Photography), Volume 15, 1970, pp. 183-195 (English translation: Photographic Metrology. NASA Technical Translation II F-13,921, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. 20546, November 1972, ).

[30] GOST 2817-50 Transparent sublayer photographic materials. Method of general sensitometric test.(): GOST 2817-45 was replaced by GOST 2817-50, which in turn was replaced by GOST 10691.6-88, which defines black-and-white films, whereas GOST 10691.5-88 defines black-and-white films for .

[31] Leslie D. Stroebel; Richard D. Zakia (1993). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography (3rd ed.). Focal Press. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-240-51417-8.

[32] Krasnogorskiy Zavod (Cyrillic: Красногорский завод). “Questions and answers: Film speeds” (in Russian). Retrieved 6 August 2011.

[33] GOST 10691.0-84 Black-and-white photographic materials with transparent sublaver. Method of general sensitometric test. ().

[34] GOST 10691.6-88 Black-and-white phototechnical films, films for scientific researches and industry. Method for determi- nation of speed numbers.().

[35] GOST 10691.5-88 Black-and-white aerophotographic films. Method for determination of speed numbers.().

[36] R. E. Jacobson; Sidney F. Ray; Geoffrey G. Attridge; Norman R. Axford (2000). The manual of photography (9th ed.). Focal Press. pp. 305–307. ISBN 978-0-240-51574-8.

[37] Carson Graves (1996). The zone system for 35mm photographers. Focal Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-240-80203-9.

[38] ISO 2721:1982. Photography — Cameras — Automatic controls of exposure (paid download). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization Archived August 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine..

[39] AG (2002). Leica R9 Bedienungsanleitung / Instructions. Leica publication 930 53 VII/03/GX/L, Solms, Germany, p. 197 (): “Film speed range: Manual setting from ISO 6/9° to ISO 12500/42° (with additional exposure compensation of up to ±3 EV, overall films from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° can be exposed), DX scanning from ISO 25/15° to ISO 5000/38°.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[40] Leica Camera AG (1996). Leica Instructions - Leica R8. Solms, Germany, p. 16 (): ‘The DX-setting for automatic speed scanning appears after the position “12800”.’ and p. 65 (): “Film speed range: Manual setting from ISO 6/9° to ISO 12,800/42°. (With additional override of −3 EV to +3 EV, films from 0 DIN to 51 DIN can be exposed as well.) DX scanning from ISO 25/15° to ISO 5000/38°.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[41] ASA PH2.12-1961, Table 2, p. 9, showed (but did not specify) a speed of 12500 as the next full step greater than 6400. 100 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

[42] Canon. (): “Acceptable film speed has been increased to a range of between ASA 25 and an incredible ASA 12,800 by the use of the CANON BOOSTER. The light-measuring range of the newly developed CANON FT QL has been extended from a low of EV −3.5, f/1.2 15 seconds to EV 18 with ASA 100 film. This is the first time a TTL camera has been capable of such astonishing performance.”

[43] Canon (1978). Canon A-1 Instructions. p. 28, p. 29, p. 46, p. 70, p. 98 ()

[44] Nikon USA Web page for Nikon D3s. Accessed 11 January 2010.

[45] Canon USA Web page for Canon EOS-1D Mark IV. Accessed 11 January 2010.

[46] Canon USA Web page for Canon EOS-1D X. Accessed October 2011.

[47] Nikon D4 page for Nikon D4. Accessed 6 January 2012.

[48] Pentax 645Z specifications ()

[49] Nikon D4s specifications ()

[50] Sony α ILCE-7S specifications ()

[51] Canon Deutschland (2015-07-30). “Unsichtbares wird sichtbar! Canon präsentiert die ME20F-SH für Full-HD Farbvideos bei extrem wenig Licht”. Press release (in German). Retrieved 2015-07-30.

[52] Sony Europe Web page for DSLR-A500/DSLR-A550 (2009-08-27): “Dramatically reduced picture noise now allows super-sensitive shooting at up to ISO 12800, allowing attractive results when shooting handheld in challenging situations like candlelit interiors.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[53] Sony Europe Web page for DSLR-A560/DSLR-A580 Archived August 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. (2010-08-27): “Multi-frame Noise Reduction ‘stacks’ a high-speed burst of six frames, creating a single low-noise exposure that boosts effective sensitivity as high as ISO 25600.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[54] Pentax USA Web page for Pentax K-5 (2010): “ISO Sensitivity: ISO 100-12800 (1, 1/2, 1/3 steps), expandable to ISO 80–51200”. Accessed 29 July 2011.

[55] Fujifilm Canada Web page for Fuji FinePix X100 (2011-02): “Extended output sensitivity equivalent ISO 100 or 12800”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[56] 1952 Singapore

[57] Ralph W. Lambrecht; Chris Woodhouse (2003). Way Beyond Monochrome. Newpro UK Ltd. p. 113. ISBN 978-0- 86343-354-2.

[58] “Kodak Tech Pub E-58: Print Grain Index”. Eastman Kodak, Professional Division. July 2000.

[59] Fact Sheet, Delta 3200 Professional. Knutsford, U.K.: Ilford Photo.

[60] ISO 12232:2006. Photography — Digital still cameras — Determination of exposure index, ISO speed ratings, standard out- put sensitivity, and recommended exposure index (paid download). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization Archived August 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine..

[61] CIPA DC-004. Sensitivity of digital cameras. Tokyo: Camera & Imaging Products Association.

[62] Kodak Image Sensors – ISO Measurement. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak.

[63] “Exchangeable image file format for digital still cameras: Exif Version 2.3” (PDF). CIPA. Retrieved 5 December 2014.

[64] New Measures of the Sensitivity of a Digital Camera. Douglas A. Kerr, August 30, 2007.

[65] ISO 12232:1998. Photography — Electronic still-picture cameras — Determination of ISO speed, p. 12.

[66] “D200 Users manual” (PDF). Nikon. Retrieved 20 September 2015.

• ISO 6:1974, ISO 6:1993 (1993-02). Photography — Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ISO 2240:1982 (1982-07), ISO 2240:1994 (1994-09), ISO 2240:2003 (2003–10). Photography — Colour reversal camera films — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ISO 2720:1974. General Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) — Guide to Product Specification. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. 7.1. FILM SPEED 101

• ISO 5800:1979, ISO 5800:1987 (1987-11), ISO 5800:1987/Cor 1:2001 (2001–06). Photography — Colour negative films for still photography — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ISO 12232:1998 (1998-08), ISO 12232:2006 (2006-04-15), ISO 12232:2006 (2006-10-01). Photography — Digital still cameras — Determination of exposure index, ISO speed ratings, standard output sensitivity, and recommended exposure index. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ASA Z38.2.1-1943, ASA Z38.2.1-1946, ASA Z38.2.1-1947 (1947-07-15). American Standard Method for Determining Photographic Speed and Speed Number. New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ASA PH2.5-1954. • ASA PH2.5-1954, ASA PH2.5-1960. American Standard Method for Determining Speed of photographic Negative Materials (Monochrome, Continuous Tone). New York: United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). Superseded by ANSI PH2.5-1972. • ANSI PH2.5-1972, ANSI PH2.5-1979 (1979-01-01), ANSI PH2.5-1979(R1986). Speed of photographic negative materials (monochrome, continuous tone), method for determining). New York: American National Standards Institute. Superseded by NAPM IT2.5-1986. • NAPM IT2.5-1986, ANSI/ISO 6-1993 ANSI/NAPM IT2.5-1993 (1993-01-01). Photography — Black-and- White Pictorial Still Camera Negative Film/Process Systems — Determination of ISO Speed (same as ANSI/ISO 6-1993). National Association of Photographic Manufacturers. This represents the US adoption of ISO 6. • ASA PH2.12-1957, ASA PH2.12-1961. American Standard, General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (photoelectric type). New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI PH3.49-1971. • ANSI PH2.21-1983 (1983-09-23), ANSI PH2.21-1983(R1989). Photography (Sensitometry) Color reversal camera films - Determination of ISO speed. New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI/ISO 2240-1994 ANSI/NAPM IT2.21-1994. • ANSI/ISO 2240-1994 ANSI/NAPM IT2.21-1994. Photography - Colour reversal camera films - determination of ISO speed. New York: American National Standards Institute. This represents the US adoption of ISO 2240. • ASA PH2.27-1965 (1965-07-06), ASA PH2.27-1971, ASA PH2.27-1976, ANSI PH2.27-1979, ANSI PH2.27- 1981, ANSI PH2.27-1988 (1988-08-04). Photography - Colour negative films for still photography - Determi- nation of ISO speed (withdrawn). New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI IT2.27- 1988. • ANSI IT2.27-1988 (1994-08/09?). Photography Color negative films for still photography - Determination of ISO speed. New York: American National Standards Institute. Withdrawn. This represented the US adoption of ISO 5800. • ANSI PH3.49-1971, ANSI PH3.49-1971(R1987). American National Standard for general-purpose photo- graphic exposure meters (photoelectric type). New York: American National Standards Institute. After several revisions, this standard was withdrawn in favor of ANSI/ISO 2720:1974. • ANSI/ISO 2720:1974, ANSI/ISO 2720:1974(R1994) ANSI/NAPM IT3.302-1994. General Purpose Photo- graphic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) — Guide to Product Specification. New York: American National Standards Institute. This represents the US adoption of ISO 2720. • BSI BS 1380:1947, BSI BS 1380:1963. Speed and exposure index. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS 1380-1:1973 (1973-12), BSI BS 1380-2:1984 (1984-09), BSI BS 1380-3:1980 (1980-04) and others. • BSI BS 1380-1:1973 (1973-12-31). Speed of sensitized photographic materials: Negative monochrome material for still and cine photography. British Standards Institution. Replaced by BSI BS ISO 6:1993, superseded by BSI BS ISO 2240:1994. • BSI BS 1380-2:1984 ISO 2240:1982 (1984-09-28). Speed of sensitized photographic materials. Method for de- termining the speed of colour reversal film for still and amateur cine photography. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS ISO 2240:1994. • BSI BS 1380-3:1980 ISO 5800:1979 (1980-04-30). Speed of sensitized photographic materials. Colour negative film for still photography. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS ISO 5800:1987. 102 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

• BSI BS ISO 6:1993 (1995-03-15). Photography. Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 6:1993.

• BSI BS ISO 2240:1994 (1993-03-15), BSI BS ISO 2240:2003 (2004-02-11). Photography. Colour reversal camera films. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 2240:2003. • BSI BS ISO 5800:1987 (1995-03-15). Photography. Colour negative films for still photography. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 5800:1987. • DIN 4512:1934-01, DIN 4512:1957-11 (Blatt 1), DIN 4512:1961-10 (Blatt 1). Photographische Sensitometrie, Bestimmung der optischen Dichte. Berlin: Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA). Superseded by DIN 4512- 1:1971-04, DIN 4512-4:1977-06, DIN 4512-5:1977-10 and others.

• DIN 4512-1:1971-04, DIN 4512-1:1993-05. Photographic sensitometry; systems of black and white negative films and their process for pictorial photography; determination of speed. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Nor- mung (before 1975: Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA)). Superseded by DIN ISO 6:1996-02.

• DIN 4512-4:1977-06, DIN 4512-4:1985-08. Photographic sensitometry; determination of the speed of colour reversal films. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. Superseded by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06.

• DIN 4512-5:1977-10, DIN 4512-5:1990-11. Photographic sensitometry; determination of the speed of colour negative films. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. Superseded by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06.

• DIN ISO 6:1996-02. Photography - Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems - De- termination of ISO speed (ISO 6:1993). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 6:1993. • DIN ISO 2240:1998-06, DIN ISO 2240:2005-10. Photography - Colour reversal camera films - Determination of ISO speed (ISO 2240:2003). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 2240:2003.

• DIN ISO 5800:1998-06, DIN ISO 5800:2003-11. Photography - Colour negative films for still photography - Determination of ISO speed (ISO 5800:1987 + Corr. 1:2001). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 5800:2001. • Leslie B. Stroebel, John Compton, Ira Current, Richard B. Zakia. Basic Photographic Materials and Processes, second edition. Boston: Focal Press, 2000. ISBN 0-240-80405-8.

7.1.7 External links

• What is the meaning of ISO for digital cameras? Digital Photography FAQ

• Signal-dependent noise modeling, estimation, and removal for digital imaging sensors Chapter 8

Day 8

8.1 35 mm equivalent focal length

Not to be confused with effective focal length. In photography, the 35 mm equivalent focal length is a measure that indicates the of a particular combination of a camera lens and film or sensor size. The term is useful because most photographers experienced with interchangeable lenses are most familiar with the 35 mm film format. On any 35 mm film camera, a 28 mm lens is a wide-angle lens, and a 200 mm lens is a long-focus lens. However, now that digital cameras have mostly replaced 35 mm cameras, there is no uniform relation between the focal length of a lens and the angle of view, since the size of the camera sensor also determines angle of view, and sensor size is not standardized as film size was. The 35 mm equivalent focal length of a particular lens–sensor combination is the focal length that one would need for a 35 mm film camera to obtain the same angle of view. Most commonly, the 35 mm equivalent focal length is based on equal diagonal angle of view.[1] This definition also in the CIPA guideline DCG-001.[2] Alternatively, it may sometimes be based on horizontal angle of view. Since 35 mm film is normally used for images with an aspect ratio (width-to-height ratio) of 3:2, while many digital cameras have a 4:3 aspect ratio, which have different diagonal-to-width ratios, these two definitions are often not equivalent.

8.1.1 Calculation

35 mm equivalent focal lengths are calculated by multiplying the actual focal length of the lens by the crop factor of the sensor. Typical crop factors are 1.5× for Nikon APS-C (“DX”) format (also used by Sony, Pentax, Fuji, Samsung and others), 1.6× for Canon APS-C format, 2× for Micro Four Thirds format, 2.7× for 1-inch sensors (used in Nikon 1 cameras and some Sony RX cameras), 5× to 6× for compact digital cameras, and even higher for built-in cameras of mobile devices like cell phones or tablets. According to CIPA guidelines,[2] 35 mm equivalent focal length is to be calculated like this: “Converted focal length into 35mm camera” = Diagonal distance of image area in the 35mm camera (43.27mm) / Diagonal distance of image area on the image sensor of the DSC × focal length of the lens of the DSC.

8.1.2 Depth of field equivalent

Quoted 35 mm equivalent focal lengths typically ignore depth of field (DOF), which depends on both focal length and aperture. The perceived DOF of smaller sensors is deeper due to the shorter focal length lenses. Equivalent depth of field can be calculated the same way using the crop factor.[3] For example, a 50mm f/2 lens on a 2× crop factor Micro Four Thirds camera would be equivalent to a 100 mm (= 2×50 mm) f/4 (= f/(2×2)) lens on a Full-frame digital SLR in terms of field of view, depth of field, diffraction effects, and the total amount of light gathered from the scene.

103 104 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

50mm full-frame (24 x 36 mm) full-frame (24 x 36 mm) APS-C (18x24 mm)

APS-C (18x24 mm)

1.6 x 50 = 80 ≠ 70mm APS-C (18x24 mm) full-frame (24 x 36 mm) APS-C (18x24 mm)

full-frame (24 x 36 mm) ≅

The resulting images from 50 mm and 70 mm lenses for different sensor sizes; 36x24 mm (red) and 24x18 mm (blue)

8.1.3 Conversions

A standard 35 mm film image is 36 mm wide by 24 mm tall (35 mm refers to the height of the film including the perforations for film transport), and the diagonal is 43.3 mm. This leads to the following conversion formulas for a lens with a true focal length f: For historical reasons, sensor size specifications such as 1/2.5” do not match the actual sensor size, but are a bit larger (typically about a factor of 1.5) than the actual sensor diagonal.[4] This is because these sensor size specifications refer to the size of a camera tube, while the usable sensor size is about 2/3 of the size of the tube. Tubes are not used on digital cameras, but the same specifications are used. Apart from the width- and diagonal-based 35 mm equivalent focal length definitions, there is a third definition: EFL = 50 f /d mm.[1] However, it is not clear to what extent this definition is used.

8.1.4 References

[1] What is “35 mm equivalent focal length?" The Panorama Factory, 2004.

[2] CIPA DCG-001-Translation-2005 Guideline for Noting Digital Camera Specifications in Catalogs 8.1. 35 MM EQUIVALENT FOCAL LENGTH 105

[3] Atkins, Bob. “Digital ”. Retrieved 23 May 2012.

[4] Vincent Bockaert, Sensor sizes. DPreview.com.

8.1.5 External links

• Focal Length Conversion for and large format, at photo.net • Focal Length at dpreview Chapter 9

Day 9

9.1 Timeline of photography technology

The following list comprises significant milestones in the development of photography technology.

9.1.1 Timeline

The oldest surviving camera photograph, by Nicéphore Niépce, 1826 or 1827[1]

Prior to the 20th century

• c. 1717 [2] – Johann Heinrich Schulze makes fleeting sun prints of words by using stencils, sunlight, and a bottled mixture of chalk and silver nitrate in nitric acid, simply as an interesting way to demonstrate that the substance inside the bottle darkens where it is exposed to light.

106 9.1. TIMELINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNOLOGY 107

First photograph including a person (on pavement at lower left), by Daguerre, 1838

• c. 1800 – Thomas Wedgwood conceives of making permanent pictures of camera images by using a durable surface coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He succeeds only in producing silhouettes and other shadow images, and is unable to make them permanent.

• 1816 – Nicéphore Niépce succeeds in making negative photographs of camera images on paper coated with silver chloride, but cannot adequately “fix” them to stop them from darkening all over when exposed to light for viewing.[3]

• 1822 – Nicéphore Niépce abandons silver halide photography as hopelessly impermanent and tries using thin coatings of Bitumen of Judea on metal and glass. He creates the first fixed, permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving of Pope Pius VII, by contact printing in direct sunlight without a camera or lens. It is later destroyed; the earliest surviving example of his “heliographic process” is from 1825.[1]

• 1824 – Nicéphore Niépce makes the first durable, light-fast camera photograph, similar to his surviving 1826- 1827 photograph on pewter but created on the surface of a lithographic stone.[4] It is destroyed in the course of subsequent experiments.

• 1826 or 1827 – Nicéphore Niépce makes what is now the earliest surviving photograph from nature,[1] a landscape. It requires an exposure in the camera that lasts at least eight hours and probably several days.

• 1834 - Hércules Florence, a French-Brazilian painter and the isolate inventor of photography in Brazil, coined the word photographie for his technique, at least four years before John Herschel coined the English word photography.[5]

• 1835 – Henry Fox Talbot produces durable silver chloride camera negatives on paper and conceives the two- step negative-positive procedure used in most non-electronic photography up to the present.[6]

• 1839 – Louis Daguerre publicly introduces his daguerreotype process, which produces highly detailed per- manent photographs on silver-plated sheets of copper. At first, it requires several minutes of exposure in the camera, but later improvements reduce the exposure time to a few seconds. Photography suddenly enters the public consciousness and Daguerre’s process is soon being used worldwide. 108 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

First durable color photograph, 1861

• 1839 – Henry Fox Talbot publicly introduces the paper-based process he worked out in 1835, calling it “pho- togenic drawing”, but it requires much longer exposures than the daguerreotype and the results are not as clear and detailed.[6]

• 1839 - Sarah Anne Bright creates a series of photograms, six of which are known to still exist. These are the earliest surviving photographic images created by a woman.

• 1839 – John Herschel introduces hyposulfite of soda (now known as sodium thiosulfate but still nicknamed “hypo”) as a highly effective fixer for all silver-based processes. He also makes the first glass negative.

• 1841 - Henry Fox Talbot introduces his patented calotype (or “talbotype”) paper negative process, an improved version of his earlier process that greatly reduces the required exposure time.[6]

• 1845 – Francis Ronalds invents the first successful camera for continuous recording of the variations in meteorological and geomagnetic parameters over time[7][8]

• 1848 – Edmond Becquerel makes the first full-color photographs, but they are only laboratory curiosities: an exposure lasting hours or days is required and the colors are so light-sensitive that they sometimes fade right before the viewer’s eyes while being examined.

• 1851 – Introduction of the collodion process by Frederick Scott Archer, used for making glass negatives, ambrotypes and tintypes.

• 1854 – André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri credited with introduction of the carte de visite (English: visiting card or calling card) format for portraiture. Disdéri uses a camera with multiple lenses that can photograph eight different poses on one large negative. After printing on albumen paper, the images are cut apart and glued to calling-card-size mounts. 9.1. TIMELINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNOLOGY 109

A 1877 photographic color print on paper by Louis Ducos du Hauron. The irregular edges of the superimposed cyan, red and yellow components can be seen.

• 1861 – James Clerk Maxwell presents a projected additive color image of a multicolored ribbon, the first demonstration of color photography by the three-color method he suggested in 1855. It uses three separate black-and-white photographs taken and projected through red, green and blue color filters. The projected image is temporary but the set of three “color separations” is the first durable color photograph.

• 1868 – Louis Ducos du Hauron patents his numerous ideas for color photography based on the three-color principle, including procedures for making subtractive color prints on paper. They are published the following year. Their implementation is not technologically practical at that time, but they anticipate most of the color processes that are later introduced.

• 1871 – The gelatin emulsion is invented by Richard Maddox.

• 1873 – Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovers dye sensitization, allowing the blue-sensitive but otherwise color- blind photographic emulsions then in use to be made sensitive to green, yellow and red light. Technical prob- lems delay the first use of dye sensitization in a commercial product until the mid-1880s; fully panchromatic emulsions are not in common use until the mid-20th century.

• 1876 – Hurter & Driffield begin systematic evaluation of sensitivity characteristics of photographic emulsions — the science of sensitometry.

• 1878 – Heat ripening of gelatin emulsions is discovered. This greatly increases sensitivity and makes possible very short “snapshot” exposures.

• 1878 – Eadweard Muybridge uses a row of cameras with trip-wires to make a high-speed photographic analysis of a galloping horse. Each picture is taken in less than the two-thousandth part of a second, and they are taken in sufficiently rapid sequence (about 25 per second) that they constitute a brief real-time “movie” that can be viewed by using a device such as a zoetrope, a photographic “first”.

• 1887 – Celluloid film base introduced. 110 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

Muybridge used high-speed photography to make the first animated image sequences photographed in real-time (1878-1887)

• 1888 – The Kodak n°1 box camera, the first easy-to-use camera, is introduced with the slogan, “You press the button, we do the rest.” • 1888 – Louis Le Prince makes Roundhay Garden Scene. It is believed to be the first-ever motion picture on film. • 1889 – The first commercially available transparent celluloid roll film is introduced by the Eastman Company,[9] later renamed the Eastman Kodak Company and commonly known as Kodak. • 1891 – Gabriel Lippmann announces a “method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phe- nomenon of interference”. • 1891 – William Kennedy Laurie Dickson develops the "kinetoscopic" motion picture camera while working for Thomas Edison. • 1895 – Auguste and Louis Lumière invent the cinématographe. • 1898 – Kodak introduces the Folding Pocket Kodak.

20th century onwards

• 1900 – Kodak introduces their first Brownie, a very inexpensive user-reloadable point-and-shoot box camera. 9.1. TIMELINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNOLOGY 111

• 1901 – Kodak introduces the 120 film format.

• 1902 – Arthur Korn devises practical telephotography technology (reduction of photographic images to sig- nals that can be transmitted by wire to other locations).Wire-Photos are in wide use in Europe by 1910, and transmitted to other continents by 1922.

• 1907 – The Autochrome plate is introduced. It becomes the first commercially successful color photography product.

• 1908 – Kinemacolor, a two-color process known as the first commercial “natural color” system for movies, is introduced.

• 1909 – Kodak announces a 35 mm “safety” motion picture film on an acetate base as an alternative to the highly flammable nitrate base.[9] The motion picture industry discontinues its use after 1911 due to technical imperfections.

• 1912 – Vest Pocket Kodak using 127 film.

• 1912 – Thomas Edison introduces a short-lived 22 mm home motion picture format using acetate “safety” film manufactured by Kodak.[9]

• 1913 – Kodak makes 35 mm panchromatic motion picture film available on a bulk special order basis.

• 1914 – Kodak introduces the Autographic film system.

• 1914 – The World, the Flesh and the Devil, made in Kinemacolor, is the first dramatic feature film in color released.

• 1922 – Kodak makes 35 mm panchromatic motion picture film available as a regular stock.[9]

• 1923 – The 16 mm amateur motion picture format is introduced by Kodak. Their Cine-Kodak camera uses reversal film and all 16 mm is on an acetate (safety) base.[9]

• 1923 – Harold Edgerton invents the xenon flash lamp for strobe photography.

• 1925 – The Leica introduces the 35 mm format to still photography.

• 1926 – Kodak introduces its 35 mm Motion Picture Duplicating Film for duplicate negatives. Previously, motion picture studios used a second camera alongside the primary camera to create a duplicate negative.

• 1932 – "Flowers and Trees", the first full-color cartoon, is made in Technicolor by Disney.

• 1932 – Kodak introduces the first 8 mm amateur motion picture film, cameras, and projectors.[9]

• 1934 – The 135 film cartridge is introduced, making 35 mm easy to use for still photography.

• 1935 – Becky Sharp, the first feature film made in the full-color “three-strip” version of Technicolor, is released.

• 1935 – Introduction of Kodachrome multi-layered color reversal film (16 mm only; 8 mm and 35 mm follow in 1936, sheet film in 1938).[9]

• 1936 – Introduction by IHAGEE of the Ihagee Kine 1, the first 35 mm SLR (Single Lens Reflex) camera.

• 1936 – Agfacolor Neu (English: New Agfacolor) color reversal film for home movies and slides.

• 1939 – Agfacolor negative and positive 35 mm color film stock for professional motion picture use (not for making paper prints).

• 1939 – The View-Master 3-D viewer and its “reels” of seven small stereoscopic image pairs on Kodachrome film are introduced.

• 1942 – , the first color film that yields negatives for making chromogenic color prints on paper. Roll films for snapshot cameras only, 35 mm not available until 1958.

• 1947 – Dennis Gabor invents holography. 112 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

• 1947 – Harold Edgerton develops the Rapatronic camera for the U.S. government.

• 1948 – The camera is introduced.

• 1948 – Edwin H. Land introduces the first Polaroid instant camera.

• 1949 – The Contax S camera is introduced, the first 35 mm SLR camera with a pentaprism eye-level viewfinder.

• 1952 – Bwana Devil, a low-budget polarized 3-D film, premieres in late November and starts a brief 3-D craze that begins in earnest in 1953 and fades away during 1954.

• 1954 – Leica M Introduced

Photograph scanned into a digital computer, 1957 9.1. TIMELINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNOLOGY 113

• 1957 – First Asahi Pentax SLR introduced.

• 1957 – First digital computer acquisition of scanned photographs, by Russell Kirsch et al. at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now the NIST).[10]

• 1959 – Nikon F introduced.

• 1959 – AGFA introduces the first fully automatic camera, the Optima.

• 1963 – Kodak introduces the .

• 1964 – First Pentax Spotmatic SLR introduced.

• 1967 – First MOS 10 by 10 active pixel array shown by Noble[11]

• 1972 – Integrated Photomatrix (Noble) demonstrates for 64 by 64 MOS active pixel array

• 1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image forming CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns of pixels.

• 1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors.

• 1976 – Steadicam becomes available.

• 1986 – Kodak scientists invent the world’s first megapixel sensor.

• 1992 - Photo CD created by Kodak.[12]

• 1993–95 – The Jet Propulsion Laboratory develops devices using CMOS or active pixel sensors.

• 1994 – Nikon introduces the first optical-stabilized lens.

• 1995 - "Kodak DC40 and the Apple QuickTake 100 become the first digital cameras marketed for consumers.”[12]

• 1996 – Eastman Kodak, FujiFilm, AgfaPhoto, and introduce the Advanced Photo System (APS).

• 1997 - first known publicly shared picture via a cell phone, by Philippe Kahn.

• 2000 – J-SH04 introduced by J-Phone, the first commercially available mobile phone with a camera that can take and share still pictures.[13]

21st century

• 2005 – AgfaPhoto files for bankruptcy. The production of Agfa brand consumer films ends.

• 2006 – Dalsa produces a 111 megapixel CCD sensor, the highest resolution at that time.

• 2008 – Polaroid announces it is discontinuing the production of all instant film products, citing the rise of digital imaging technology.

• 2009 – Kodak announces the discontinuance of Kodachrome film.[14]

• 2009 – FujiFilm launches world’s first digital 3D camera with 3D printing capabilities.[15]

• 2011 – Lytro releases the first pocket-sized consumer light-field camera, capable of refocusing images after being taken.

9.1.2 See also

• Timeline of historic inventions

• List of inventions named after people

• Computational photography 114 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

9.1.3 Notes

[1] “The First Photograph – Heliography”. Retrieved 2009-09-29. from Helmut Gernsheim’s article, “The 150th Anniversary of Photography,” in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later.

[2] This date is commonly misreported as 1725 or 1727, an error deriving from the belief that a 1727 publication of Schulze’s account of experiments he says he undertook about two years earlier is the original source. In fact, it is a reprint of a 1719 publication and the date of the experiments is therefore circa 1717. The dated contents page of the true original can be seen here (retrieved 2015-02-21)

[3] Niépce House Museum: History of Photography, part 1. Retrieved 26 May 2013.

[4] Niépce House Museum: History of Photography, part 3. Retrieved 26 May 2013.

[5] Boris Kossoy (2004). Hercule Florence: El descubrimiento de la fotografía en Brasil. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. ISBN 968-03-0020-X.

[6] “WHF Talbot: Biography”, a concise account by widely acknowledged and extensively published Talbot expert Larry J. Schaaf. Retrieved 10 September 2014.

[7] Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.

[8] Ronalds, B.F. (2016). “The Beginnings of Continuous Scientific Recording using Photography: Sir Francis Ronalds’ Contribution”. European Society for the History of Photography. Retrieved 2 June 2016.

[9] Kodak Chronology of Motion Picture Films 1889 to 1939. Retrieved 2 June 2013.

[10] Kirsch, Russell A., “Earliest Image Processing”, NISTS Museum; SEAC and the Start of Image Processing at the National Bureau of Standards, National Institute of Standards and Technology

[11] http://www.pjwn.co.uk

[12] Cornell University Library (2003). “Digital Preservation and Technology Timeline”. Digital Preservation Management. USA. Retrieved August 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[13] http://www.puremobile.com/cameraphones.asp

[14] http://www.kodak.com/eknec/PageQuerier.jhtml?pq-path=2709&gpcid=0900688a80b4e692&ignoreLocale=true&pq-locale= en_US&_requestid=5434

[15] “FujiFilm camera”. dpreview.com. dpreview.

9.1.4 External links

• The Photo History Timeline Collection • More about the earliest photograph

• In the eye of the camera — Illustrated historical essay about early photography • Lippmann’s and Gabor’s Revolutionary Approach to Imaging

• The Digital Camera Museum with accurate history section and many rare items Chapter 10

Day 10

10.1 Photograph

“Photos” redirects here. For the Apple application, see Photos (Apple). For the Microsoft application, see Photos (Windows). For other uses, see Photograph (disambiguation). For the technique, see Photography. A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene’s visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography. The word “photograph” was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς (phos), meaning “light”, and γραφή (graphê), meaning “drawing, writing”, together meaning “drawing with light”.[1]

10.1.1 History

Main article: History of photography

The first permanent photograph, a contact-exposed copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based "heliography" process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. The first photographs of a real-world scene, made using a camera obscura, followed a few years later, but Niépce’s process was not sensitive enough to be practical for that application: a camera exposure lasting for hours or days was required.[2] In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process. After Niépce’s death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He exposed a silver-plated copper sheet to iodine vapor, creating a layer of light-sensitive silver iodide; exposed it in the camera for a few minutes; developed the resulting invisible latent image to visibility with mercury fumes; then bathed the plate in a hot salt solution to remove the remaining silver iodide, making the results light-fast. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype, after himself. Its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the required exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making truly practical and widely popular. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the mirror-like image surface and the particular viewing conditions required to see the image properly. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera. Inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the less expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype, which made use of the recently introduced collodion process. Glass plate collodion negatives used to make prints on albumen paper soon became the preferred photographic method and held that position for many years, even after the introduction of the more convenient gelatin process in 1871. Refinements of the gelatin process have remained the primary black-and-white photographic process to this day, differing primarily in the sensitivity of the emulsion and the support material used, which was originally glass, then a variety of flexible plastic films, along with

115 116 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Woman picking flowers various types of paper for the final prints. Color photography is almost as old as black-and-white, with early experiments including John Herschel's Anthotype prints in 1842, the pioneering work of Louis Ducos du Hauron in the 1860s, and the Lippmann process unveiled in 1891, but for many years color photography remained little more than a laboratory curiosity. It first became a 10.1. PHOTOGRAPH 117

The earliest known surviving product of Nicéphore Niépce's heliography process, 1825. It is an ink-on-paper print and reproduces a 17th-century Flemish engraving showing a man leading a horse.

View from the Window at Le Gras (1826 or 1827), by Nicéphore Niépce, the earliest known surviving photograph of a real-world scene, made with a camera obscura 118 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

widespread commercial reality with the introduction of Autochrome plates in 1907, but the plates were very expen- sive and not suitable for casual snapshot-taking with hand-held cameras. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type. These early processes produced transparencies for use in slide projectors and viewing devices, but color prints became in- creasingly popular after the introduction of chromogenic color print paper in the 1940s. The needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. In contemporary times, laws were developed wherein prohibitions have been placed against the productions of certain photographs, such as those of highly classified regions,[3] copyrighted works[4] and children’s genitalia.[5]

10.1.2 Types of photographs

Long-exposure photograph of the Very Large Telescope.[6]

Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-step process the light-sensitive film captures a negative image (colors and lights/darks are inverted). To produce a positive image, the negative is most commonly transferred ('printed') onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to manufacture motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, yielding positive transparencies. Such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film. Originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color. Although methods for developing color photos were available as early as 1861, they did not become widely available until the 1940s or 1950s, and even so, until the 1960s most photographs were taken in black and white. Since then, color photography has dominated popular photography, although black and white is still used, being easier to develop than color. Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like the Hasselblad Xpan on standard film. Since the 1990s, panoramic photos have been available on the Advanced Photo System (APS) film. APS was developed by several of the major film manufacturers to provide a film with different formats and computerized options available, though APS panoramas were created using a mask in panorama-capable cameras, far less desirable than a true panoramic camera, which achieves its effect through a wider film format. APS has become less popular and is being discontinued. 10.1. PHOTOGRAPH 119

The advent of the microcomputer and digital photography has led to the rise of digital prints. These prints are created from stored graphic formats such as JPEG, TIFF, and RAW. The types of printers used include inkjet printers, dye- sublimation printer, laser printers, and thermal printers. Inkjet prints are sometimes given the coined name "Giclée". The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, Picasa, PhotoBucket and 500px are used by millions of people to share their pictures.

10.1.3 Preservation

Paper folders

Ideal photograph storage involves placing each photo in an individual folder constructed from buffered, or acid-free paper.[7] Buffered paper folders are especially recommended in cases when a photograph was previously mounted onto poor quality material or using an adhesive that will lead to even more acid creation.[8] Store photographs measuring 8x10 inches or smaller vertically along the longer edge of the photo in the buffered paper folder, within a larger archival box, and label each folder with relevant information to identify it. The rigid nature of the folder protects the photo from slumping or creasing, as long as the box is not packed too tightly or under filled. Folder larger photos or brittle photos stacked flat within archival boxes with other materials of comparable size.[9]

Polyester enclosures

The most stable of plastics used in photo preservation, polyester, does not generate any harmful chemical elements, but nor does it have any capability to absorb acids generated by the photograph itself. Polyester sleeves and encapsulation have been praised for their ability to protect the photograph from humidity and environmental pollution, slowing the reaction between the item and the atmosphere. This is true, however the polyester just as frequently traps these elements next to the material it is intended to protect. This is especially risky in a storage environment that experiences drastic fluctuations in humidity or temperature, leading to ferrotyping, or sticking of the photograph to the plastic.[7] Photographs sleeved or encapsulated in polyester cannot be stored vertically in boxes because they will slide down next to each other within the box, bending and folding, nor can the archivist write directly onto the polyester to identify the photograph. Therefore, it is necessary to either stack polyester protected photographs horizontally within a box, or bind them in a three ring binder. Stacking the photos horizontally within a flat box will greatly reduce ease of access, and binders leave three sides of the photo exposed to the effects of light[10] and do not support the photograph evenly on both sides, leading to slumping and bending within the binder. The plastic used for enclosures has been manufactured to be as frictionless as possible to prevent scratching photos during insertion to the sleeves. Unfortunately, the slippery nature of the enclosure generates a build-up of static electricity, which attracts dust and lint particles. The static can attract the dust to the inside of the sleeve, as well, where it can scratch the photograph.[7] Likewise, these components that aid in insertion of the photo, referred to as slip agents, can break down and transfer from the plastic to the photograph, where they deposit as an oily film, attracting further lint and dust. At this time, there is no test to evaluate the long-term effects of these components on photographs. In addition, the plastic sleeves can develop kinks or creases in the surface, which will scratch away at the emulsion during handling.[10]

Handling and care

It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them. Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level. Every time the photograph bends, even a little, this can break down the emulsion.[11] The very nature of enclosing a photograph in plastic encourages users to pick it up; users tend to handle plastic enclosed photographs less gently than non-enclosed photographs, simply because they feel the plastic enclosure makes the photo impervious to all mishandling. As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it; simply remove the folder from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the folder. If for some reason the researcher or archivist does need to handle the actual photo, perhaps to examine the verso for writing, he or she can use gloves if there appears to be a risk from oils or dirt on the hands. 120 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.1.4 Myths and beliefs

See also: Aniconism

Because daguerreotypes were rendered on a mirrored surface, many spiritualists also became practitioners of the new art form. Spiritualists would claim that the human image on the mirrored surface was akin to looking into one’s soul. The spiritualists also believed that it would open their souls and let demons in. Aborigines believed that taking one’s picture took part of one’s soul away. Among Muslims, it is makruh (offensive) to perform salah (worship) in a place where photographs are decorated.[12]

10.1.5 See also

• Aerial photography • Archival science • Largest photographs in the world • Slide show • Photograph stability • Pseudo-photograph • Director of Photography • Hand-colouring of photographs

10.1.6 References

[1] “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Retrieved 16 January 2017.

[2] “The First Photograph - Heliography”. Retrieved 2009-09-29. from Helmut Gernsheim’s article, “The 150th Anniversary of Photography,” in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later.

[3] Masco, Joseph. "“Sensitive but Unclassified”: Secrecy and the Counterterrorist State.” Public Culture 22.3 (2010): 433- 463.

[4] Turnbull, Bruce H. “Important legal developments regarding protection of copyrighted content against unauthorized copy- ing.” IEEE Communications Magazine 39.8 (2001): 92-100.

[5] Slane, Andrea. “From scanning to sexting: The scope of protection of dignity-based privacy in Canadian child pornography law.” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 48 (2010): 543.

[6] “A Stream of Stars over Paranal”. ESO Picture of the Week. Retrieved 27 May 2014.

[7] “5.6 Storage Enclosures for Photographic Materials”. Retrieved 16 January 2017.

[8] Norris, Debbie Hess. “Caring for Your Photographic Collections.” Library of Congress. Feb. 9 2008, LOC.gov

[9] “How Should I Store my Photographic Prints?" Preservation and Archives Professionals. The National Archives and Records Administration. 9 February 2008, Archives.gov

[10] International Organization for Standardization. ISO 18902:2001(E). Geneva, Switzerland: ISO Office, 2007.

[11] Baggett, James L. “Handle with Care: Photos.” Alabama Librarian. 54.1 (2004): 5.

[12] Rizvi, Sayyid. Your Questions Answered. p. 32.

10.1.7 External links

• Media related to Photographs at Wikimedia Commons • The dictionary definition of photograph at Wiktionary 10.2. CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 121

10.2 Conservation and restoration of photographs

The Conservation and restoration of photographs is the study of the physical care and treatment of photographic materials. It covers both efforts undertaken by photograph conservators, librarians, archivists, and museum curators who manage photograph collections at a variety of cultural heritage institutions, as well as steps taken to preserve collections of personal and family photographs. It is an umbrella term that includes both preventative preservation activities such as environmental control and conservation techniques that involve treating individual items. Both preservation and conservation require an in-depth understanding of how photographs are made, and the causes and prevention of deterioration. Conservator-restorers use this knowledge to treat photographic materials, stabilizing them from further deterioration, and sometimes restoring them for aesthetic purposes. While conservation can improve the appearance of a photograph, image quality is not the primary purpose of con- servation. Conservators will try to improve the visual appearance of a photograph as much as possible, while also ensuring its long-term survival and adhering the profession’s ethical standards. Photograph conservators also play a role in the field of connoisseurship. Their understanding of the physical object and its structure makes them uniquely suited to a technical examination of the photograph, which can reveal clues about how, when, and where it was made. Photograph preservation is distinguished from digital or optical restoration, which is concerned with creating and editing a digital copy of the original image rather than treating the original photographic material. Photograph preser- vation does not normally include moving image materials, which by their nature require a very different approach. Film preservation concerns itself with these materials.

10.2.1 Overview of Photographs and Photographic Processes

Physical photographs usually consist of three components: the final image material (e.g. silver, platinum, dyes, or pigments), the transparent binder layer (e.g. albumen, collodion, or gelatin) in which the final image material is sus- pended, and the primary support (e.g. paper, glass, metal, or plastic). These components affect the susceptibly of photos to damage and the preservation and conservation methods required.[1] Photograph preservation and conser- vation are also concerned with the negatives from which photographic prints are made. There are two basic types of negatives: glass plate and film-based.

Significant Developments in Photographic Processes[2]

Main article: List of photographic processes

1816: Heliography The first person who succeeded in producing a paper negative of the camera image was Joseph Nicephore Niepce. He coated pewter plates with bitumen (an asphaltic varnish that hardens with exposure to light) and put it in a Camera Obscura. After exposure to sunlight for a long time, the parts that were exposed to light became hard and the parts that were not could be washed off with lavender oil. 1837: Daguerreotype The daguerreotype process (named after Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre) produces a unique image, as there is no negative created. After coating a copper plate with light-sensitive silver iodide, the plate is exposed to an image for over 20 minutes and then treated with fumes from heated mercury. The longer the exposure to light, the more mercury fumes are adsorbed by the silver iodide. After the plate is washed with salt water, the images appears, reversed. This was the earliest photographic process to gain popularity in America.[3] It was used until around 1860.[4] 1839: Salt print This was the most dominant form of paper print until Albumen prints was introduced in 1850. Salt prints was made using both paper and glass negatives. 1841: Calotype William Henry Fox Talbot invented the negative-positive system of photography commonly used today. He first developed the Talbotype, which used silver chloride to sensitize paper. After improving the process by using silver iodide, he renamed it Calotype. The process could produce many positive images, but they were not as sharp because they were printed on fibrous paper rather than glass. 1842: Cyanotype (Ferro-plusiate, Blue process) This process forms blue-colored images through a reaction to iron salts. John Herschel studied it in order to re- 122 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

produce his complicated math formulas and memos. Other processes that fall into this category include Kallitype, Vandyketype, and Platinum printing. 1850: Albumen print This process, introduced by Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard, was the most common kind of print in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Beautiful sepia gradation images were created by using albumen and silver chloride. The surfaces of prints made with this process were glossy because of the egg whites which were layered heavily to prevent the originally thin prints from curling, cracking, or tearing easily. This type of print was especially common for studio portraits and landscape or stereoviews.[5] 1851: Wet collodion process and Ambrotype Frederick Scott Archer developed the wet collodion processes, which used a thick glass plate unevenly hand-coated with a collodion-based, light-sensitive emulsion. Collodion, which means ‘glue’ in Greek, is nitrocellulose dissolved in ether and ethanol. The Amrotype, an adaptation of the wet collodion process, was developed by Archer and Peter W. Fry. It involved placing a dark background behind the glass so that the negative image would look positive, and was popular in America until around 1870.[6] 1855: Orange colored dichromate has photosensitivity when it is mixed with colloids, such as, gum arabic, albumen, or gelatin. Using that feature, Alphonse Poitevin invented gum printing process. It gained in popularity after 1898, and again in 1960s and 1970s because of its unique look. 1858: Tintype (also called Ferrotype and Melainotype) In this photographic process the emulsion was painted directly onto a japanned (varnish finish) iron plate. it was much cheaper and sturdier than the Ambrotype and Daguerreotype. 1861: RGB Additive Color Model Applied physician James Clerk Maxwell made the first color photo by mixing red, green, and blue light. 1871: Gelatin dry plate Richard L. Maddox discovered that gelatin could be a carrier for silver salts. By 1879, the gelatin dry plate had replaced the collodion wet plate. It was a revolutionary innovation in photography since it needed less light exposure, was usable when dry (meaning photographers no longer needed ), and could be standardized because it could be factory produced. 1873: Platinum Printing (Platinotype) William Willis patented platinum printing in Britain. The process rapidly spread and became a dominant method in Europe and America by 1894 since it had a visibly different color tone compared to albumen and gelatin silver prints. Late 1880s: Gelatin silver print This has been the major photograph printing process since the late 1880s up to the present.[7] Prints consist of paper coated with an emulsion of silver halide in gelatin. The surface is generally smooth; under magnification, the print appears to sparkle.[8] 1889: Kallitype Dr. W. W. J. Nicol invented and revined the Kallitype. Vandyketype (Single Kalliitype) is simplest type of Kalltype and creates beautiful brown images. 1889: Film Negatives Cellulose nitrate film was developed by Eastman Kodak in 1889 and refined in 1903. It is made of silver gelatin on a cellulose nitrate base. The negatives are flammable and therefore can be dangerous. Nitrate sheet film was used widely though the 1930s, while nitrate roll film was used through the 1950s. The nitrate base was replaced with cellulose acetate in 1923. By 1937, Cellulose diacetate was used as the base, and beginning in 1947 Cellulose triacetate was used.[9] Polyester film was introduced around 1960.[10] 1935: Color Photographs Kodak introduced color film and transparencies in 1935. The first process was called Kodachrome.[11] Ektachrome, introduced in the late 1940s, became equally popular There are now a variety of color processes that use different materials; most consist of dyes (cyan, magenta, and yellow, each of which have different absorption peaks) suspended in a gelatin layer.[12] 10.2. CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 123

Photograph Stability

Photograph stability refers the ability of prints and film to remain visibly unchanged over periods of time. Different photographic processes yield varying degrees of stability. In addition, different materials may have dark-storage stability which differs from their stability in light (An extreme case with slides, was stability under the intense light of projection). For example, when stored in darkness, Kodachrome’s long-term stability under suitable conditions is superior to other types of color film. Images on Kodachrome slides over fifty years old retain accurate color and density. Kodachrome film stored in darkness is largely responsible for excellent color footage of World War II, for example. It has been calculated that the yellow dye in Kodachrome, the least stable, would suffer a 20% loss of dye in 185 years.[13] This is because developed Kodachrome does not retain unused color couplers. However, Kodachrome’s color stability under bright light, especially during projection, is inferior to substantive slide films. Kodachrome’s fade time under projection is about one hour, compared to Fujichrome’s two and a half hours.[14] Thus, old Kodachrome slides should be exposed to light only when copying to another medium. Silver halide Black-and-white negatives and prints made by the silver halide process are stable so long as the photographic substrate is stable. Some papers may yellow with age, or the gelatin matrix may yellow and crack with age. If not developed properly, small amounts of silver halide remaining in the gelatin will darken when exposed to light. In some prints, the black silver oxide is reduced to metallic silver with time, and the image takes on a metallic sheen as the dark areas reflect light instead of absorbing it. Silver can also react with sulfur in the air and form silver sulfide. A correctly processed and stored silver print or negative probably has the greatest stability of any photographic medium, as attested by the wealth of historical black-and-white photography. Chromogenic Chromogenic dye color processes include Type “R” and process RA-4 (also known as “type C prints”), process C-41 color negatives. and process E-6 color reversal (Ektachrome) film. Chromogenic processes yield organic dyes that are less stable than silver, and can also leave unreacted dye couplers behind during developing. Both factors may lead to color changes over time. The three dyes (cyan, magenta, and yellow) which make up the print may fade at different rates, causing a color shift in the print. Modern chromogenic papers such as Kodak Endura have achieved excellent stability, however, and are rated for 100 years in home display. Dye destruction Dye destruction prints are the most archival color prints, at least among the wet chemical processes, and arguably among all processes. The most well-known kind of dye destruction print is the Cibachrome, now known as Ilfochrome. Ink jet Some ink jet prints are now considered to have excellent stability, while others are not. Ink jet prints using dye- pigment mixtures are now common in photography, and often claim stability on par with chromogenic prints. How- ever, these claims are based on accelerated aging studies rather than historical experience, because the technology is still relatively young.

10.2.2 Types and Causes of Deterioration

There are two main types of deterioration found in photographic materials. Chemical deterioration occurs when the chemicals in the photograph or negative undergo reactions (either through contact with outside catalysts, or because the chemicals are inherently unstable) that damage the material. Physical or structural deterioration occurs when chemical reactions are not involved, and include abrasion and tearing. Both types of deterioration are caused by three main factors: environmental storage conditions, inappropriate storage enclosures and repair attempts, and human use and handling. Chemical damage can also be caused by improper chemical processing.[15] Different types of photographic materials are particularly susceptible to different types and causes of deterioration.

Environmental Factors

• Temperature and Humidity interact with one another and cause chemical and physical deterioration. High temperature and relative humidity, along with pollution, can cause fading and discoloration of silver images and color dyes. Higher temperatures cause faster deterioration: the rate of deterioration is approximately doubled with every temperature increase of 10 °C. Fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity are particularly 124 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

damaging, as they also speed up chemical deterioration and can cause structural damage such as cracked emul- sions and warped support layers.[16]

• Too-high relative humidity can cause fading, discoloration and silver mirroring,[17] and can cause binders to soften and become sticky, making photographs susceptible to physical damage.[18] It can also cause photographs to adhere to frames and other enclosures.[19] • Too-low relative humidity can cause physical damage including desiccation, embrittlement, and curling.[20]

• Pollution can include oxidant and aciding/sulfiding gases that cause chemical deterioration, as well as dust and particulates that can cause abrasion.”[21] Sources of indoor pollution that affect photographs include paint fumes, plywood, cardboard, and cleaning supplies.[22] • Exposure to light causes embrittlement, fading, and yellowing. The damage is cumulative and usually ir- reversible. UV light (including from sunlight and fluorescent light) and visible light in the blue part of the spectrum are especially harmful to photographs, but all forms of light, including incandescent and tungsten, are damaging.[23] • Mold growth is fostered by high temperatures and humidity[24] as well as dust particles.[25] They cause damage to the surface of photographs and help break down binder layers.[26] • The presence of Insects and rodents is also fostered by high temperatures and humidity[27] They eat paper fiber, albumen, and gelatin binders,[28] leaving chew marks and droppings. Species likely to cause problems include cockroaches and silverfish.[29]

Other Factors

Inappropriate storage containers and repair attempts: Cabinets made of inferior materials can give off harmful gases,[30] while other reactive materials such as acidic paper sleeves, rubber bands, paper clips, pressure sensitive tape, and glues and adhesives commonly used for storage and repairs in the past can also cause chemical deterioration.[31] Storing items too loosely, too tightly, or in enclosures that do not provide adequate physical protection can all cause physical damage such as curling and breakage.[32] Human handling and use, including by researchers and staff, can also cause both chemical and physical deteriora- tion. Oils, dirt, lotions, and perspiration transmitted through fingerprints can destroy emulsion and cause bleaching, staining, and silver mirroring.[33] Physical damage caused by human handling includes abrasion, scratches, tears, breakage, and cracks.[34] Improper chemical processing, including use of exhausted fixer, insufficient length of fixing, and residual fixer left behind by inadequate washing can cause fading and discoloration. Heat, humidity, and light can accelerate such damage. Adherence to ISO standards at the time of processing can help avoid this type of deterioration.[35]

Examples of Threats to Specific Photographic Materials

Glass plate negatives and ambrotypes are prone to breakage.[36] Deterioration of film negatives, regardless of type, is humidity and temperature dependent. Nitrate film will first fade, then become brittle and sticky. It will then soften, adhere to paper enclosures, and produce an odor. Finally, it will disintegrate into a brown, acrid powder.[37] Because of its flammability, it must be handled with particular care. Cellulose aetate, diacetate, and triacetate film produce acetic acid, which smells like vinegar. The deterioration process is therefore known as "vinegar syndrome.” The negatives become very brittle and, in diacetate and triacetate film, the base shrinks, causing grooves (“channeling”).[38] In addition to fading, silver-based images are prone to silver mirroring, which presents as a bluish metallic sheen on the surface of the photograph or negative and is caused by oxidation, which causes the silver to migrate to the surface of the emulsion.[39] Color photographs are inherently unstable medium, and are more susceptible to light and fading than black and white photographic processes. They are composed of various dyes, all of which eventually fade, albeit at different rates (causing discoloration along with fading).[40] Many color photographic processes are also susceptible to fading even in the dark (known as “dark-fading”).[41] There is little that can be done to restore faded images, and even under ideal conditions, most color photographs will not survive undamaged for more than 50 years.[42] 10.2. CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 125

10.2.3 Preservation Strategies

Temperature and Relative Humidity Control

Maintenance of a proper environment such as control of temperature and relative humidity (RH; a measure of how saturated the air is with moisture)[43] is extremely important to the preservation of photographic materials. Temperature should be maintained at or below 70 °F (the lower the better); an “often-recommended” compromise between preservation needs and human comfort is 65-70 °F (storage-only areas should be kept cooler).[44] Temper- ature is the controlling factor in the stability of contemporary color photographs. For color photographs, storage at low temperatures (40 °F or below) is recommended.[45] Relative humidity should be maintained between 30-50% without cycling more than +/- 5% a day.[46] The lower part of that range is best for “long term stability of several photographic processes”.[47] Not only do relative humidity levels above 60% cause deterioration, but also low and fluctuating humidity may also damage them.[48] Climate control equipment can be used to control temperatures and humidity. Air conditioners, dehumidifiers, and humidifiers can be helpful, but it’s important to make sure they help instead of hurt (for example, air conditioning raises humidity).[49]

Cold Storage

Cold storage is recommended for especially vulnerable materials.[50] Original prints, negatives, and transparencies (not glass plates, daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, tintypes, or other images on glass or metal) should be placed in packaging (archival folders in board boxes in double freezer weight Ziplock bags) in cold storage, and temperatures should be maintained at 1.7-4.4”C (35-40 °F).[51] According to the guideline of National Archives facilities, clear plastic bags such as Zip-locks or flush-cut bags with twist-ties (polyethylene or polypropylene plastic bags) and cotton gloves are needed.[52] Removing items from cold storage requires letting them acclimate to room conditions.[53] Photographs must be al- lowed to warm up slowly in a cool, dry place, such as an office or processing area.[54] Original items should be retrieved from the storage only in an emergency and no more than once a year.[55] Without cold storage, temperature-sensitive materials will deteriorate in a matter of a few decades; with cold storage they can remain unchanged for many centuries.[56]

Light Control

Photographs should not be hung near light. Hanging photographs on a wall can cause damage from the exposure to direct sunlight, or to fluorescent lights. Displays of photographs should be changed periodically because most photographs will deteriorate in light over time.[57] UV-absorbing sleeves can be used to filter out damaging rays from fluorescent tubes and UV- absorbing sheets can be placed over windows or in frames. Low UV-emitting bulbs are available.[58] Light levels should be kept at 50- 100 Lux (5-10 footcandles) for most photographs when in use for research as well as exhibit.[59] Exposure of color slides to the light in the projector should be kept to a minimum[60] and photographs should be stored in dark storage.[61] The best way to preserve a photograph is to display a facsimile.[62]

Pollution Control

Controlling air quality is difficult. Ideally, air entering a storage or exhibition area should be filtered and purified. Gaseous pollution should be removed with chemical filters or wet scrubbers. Exterior windows should be kept when possible. Interior sources of harmful gases should be minimized. Metal cabinets are preferable to wooden cabinets, which can produce harmful peroxides.[63] Air can be filtered to keep out gaseous pollutants and particulates such as nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and ozone[64] Air filters must be changed regularly to be effective. Air circulation should also be checked periodically.[65] 126 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Handling Control

Handling and use policies should be established and staff should be trained in policies and policy enforcement and telling users the policies when they arrive. Policies for processing, handling for loaned or exhibited items, and disaster prevention and recovery should also be created and followed.[66] Work spaces should be clean and uncluttered.[67] Clean gloves or clean, dry hands should be used whenever pho- tographs are handled.[68] Foods, drink, dirt, cleaning chemicals, and photocopy machines should be kept away from photo storage, exhibit, or work spaces.[69] For precious materials, users should be provided with duplicates, not originals.

Storage Systems Control

Proper storage materials are essential for the long-term stability of photographs and negatives. Enclosures keep away dirt and pollutants. All enclosures used to house photographs and those should meet the specifications provided in the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[70] Most photographs can be safely kept in paper enclosures; some can also be safely stored in some types of plastic enclosures.[71] Paper enclosures protect objects from light, but may result in increased handling for viewing.[72] Paper enclosures must be acid-free, lignin-free, and are available in both buffered (alkaline, pH 8.5) and unbuffered (neutral, pH 7) stock. Storage materials must pass the ANSI Photographic Activity Test (PAT) which is noted in suppliers’ catalogs.[73] Paper enclosures also protects the photographs from the accumulation of moisture and detrimental gases[74] and are relatively inexpensive.[75] Plastic enclosures include uncoated polyester film, uncoated cellulose triacetate, polyethylene, and polypropylene.[76] Plastic enclosures are transparent. Photographs can be viewed without removal from the enclosure, thus it can reduce handling. However, plastic enclosures can trap moisture and cause ferrotyping (sticking, with a resultant glossy area).[77] Plastic is not suitable for prints with surface damage, glass or metal-based photographs, nor for film-based negatives and transparencies from the 1950s, unless the latter are in cold storage.[78] It should not to be used to store older safety film negatives as this may hasten their deterioration.[79] Horizontal storage is preferable for many photographic prints and oversize photographs. It provides overall support to the images and prevents mechanical damage such as bending. Vertical storage is often more efficient and may make access to a collection easier. Materials of similar size should be stored together. Boxes and files should not be overcrowded.[80]

Reproduction and Digitization

Unlike the born-digital photographs that are widely produced and consumed these days, historical photographs such as old slides, films, and printed photos are not easy to preserve. An important component of long-term photograph preservation is making reproductions (by photocopying, photographing, or scanning and digitizing) of photographs for use in exhibitions and by researchers, which reduces the damage caused by non-controlled environments and handling.[81] Digitizing photographs also allows access by a much wider public, especially where the images have intrinsic historic value. Digital scans, however, are not replacements for the original, as digital file formats may become obsolete. Orig- inals should always be preserved, even if they have been digitized. Born-digital photographs also require preservation, using digital preservation techniques.[82] Safeguarding European Photographic Images for Access (SEPIA) lists ten principles for digitization of historical photograph.[83] Summarized, they are:

1. Photographs are an essential part of our cultural heritage, which contain our past, documentary and artistic value and the history of photographic processes;

2. Digitizing photographs that deteriorate quickly is urgent matter to facilitate access for a large audience;

3. Since digitization is not an end itself but a tool, selection of photographs to digitize should be based on an understanding of the nature and potential use of the collection;

4. It’s essential to define the aims, priorities, technical requirements, procedures and future use for investments; 10.2. CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 127

5. The creation of a digital image is a sophisticated activity which requires photographic expertise with ethical judgment;

6. Digital images need regular maintenance in order to keep pace with changing technologies;

7. A good digitization project requires teamwork, combining expertise on imaging, collection management, IT, conservation, descriptive methods and preservation strategies;

8. The input of specialists in every project is essential to integrate preservation measures in the work-flow, handle fragile materials and avoid damage to the originals;

9. Preservation specialists need to manage of digital assets in line with the overall preservation policy of the organization; and

10. Museums, archives and libraries actively involve to develop international standards for the preservation of digital collections in the long-term view.

Original from the north

Examples An example of digitization as part of a photograph preservation strategy is the photographic collection of the Tay Bridge disaster of 1879. These photographs have been digitized and disseminated more widely. Only the positive prints survive, owing to the widespread practice of recycling the original glass negatives to reclaim the silver content. Even when carefully preserved and kept in the dark, damage can occur through intermittent exposure to light, as shown by damage to the image of the intact bridge (at left). An example of a larger digitization project is the Cased Photographs Project, which provides access to digital images and detailed descriptions of daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, tintypes, and related photographs in the collections of the Bancroft Library and the California State Library.

10.2.4 Conservation Treatments

Photograph conservation involves the physical treatment of individual photographs. As defined by the American Institute for Conservation, treatment is “the deliberate alteration of the chemical and/or physical aspects of cultural property, aimed primarily at prolonging its existence. Treatment may consist of stabilization and/or restoration.” Stabilization treatments aim to maintain photographs in their current condition, minimizing further deterioration, while restoration treatments aim to return photographs to their original state.[84] Conservation treatments range from very simple tear repairs or flattening to more complex treatments such as stain removal. Treatments vary widely depending on the type of photograph and its intended use. Therefore, conservators must by knowledgeable regarding both of these issues. Guides for the preservation of personal and family photograph collections, such as Cornell University’s Preserving Your Family Photographs and the AIC’s Caring for Your Treasures, 128 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Fallen Tay Bridge from the north recommend that people contact a trained conservator if they have rapidly deteriorating negatives or photographs with active mold growth, staining from pressure sensitive tape, severe tears, adhesion to enclosures, and other types of damage requiring conservation treatment.[85]

10.2.5 Professional Organizations

There are a number of international organizations concerned with conservation of photographs along with other sub- jects, including the International Council on Archives (ICA), the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) , and the International Council of Museums - Committee for Conservation (ICOM-CC). The Photographic Records Working Group is a specialty group within the ICOM-CC. In the United States, the national membership organization of conservation professionals is the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic works(AIC) to which the Photographic Materials Group (PMG) belongs. The Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC) and the Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts (CCAHA) also play an important role in the field of conservation. The Image Permanence Institute (IPI) at Rochester Institute of Technology is one of the leaders in preservation research of images in particular.

Codes and Standards

Photograph conservators and preservation managers are guided in their work by codes of ethics and technical stan- dards. The International Council on Archives publishes a Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice. Additionally, members of other professions (such as archivists and librarians) who deal with preservation of photographs do so in accordance with their professional organization’s codes of ethics. For example, the Society of American Archivists Code of Ethics states that “Archivists protect all documentary materials for which they are responsible and guard them against defacement, physical damage, deterioration, and theft.”[86] The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) both publish technical standards that govern the materials and procedures used in photograph preservation and conserva- tion. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions has published a list of ANSI standards pertaining to the care and handling of photographs.[87] 10.2. CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 129

10.2.6 Education and Training

Photograph conservators can be found in museums, archives, and libraries, as well as in private practice. Conser- vators often have earned their Master’s degrees in art conservation, though many have also been trained through apprenticeship. They often have backgrounds in art history, chemistry, or photography. Among numerous programs concerned with conservation of photographs around the world are:

• University of Melbourne in Australia

• The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts

• Canadian Conservation Institute

• The National School of Conservation, Restoration and Museology in Mexico (ENCRyM)

• Royal Institute for the Study and Conservation of Belgium’s Artistic Heritage

• Institut national du patrimoine

• Université Paris 1

• Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW)

• Fachhochschule Köln

• Staatlichen Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart

• Swiss Conservation-Restoration Campus

• Hochschule der Künste Bern

• Fratelli Alinari

• Studio Art Centers International, Florence (SACI)

• Royal College of Art/Victoria and Albert Museum

• The International master Program in Conservation of Antique Photographs and Paper Heritage held at the EICAP Faculty of Applied arts-Helwan University

In addition, Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) works internationally to advance conservation practice in the . The United States, in particular, has many training or degree programs for photograph conservators offered by grad- uate schools and organizations such as:

• Conservation Center for Art and Historic Artifacts (CCAHA)

• Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC)

• George Eastman House

• Buffalo State College

• Institute of Fine Arts, New York University

• University of Delaware

• Campbell Center for Historic Preservation Studies

• Northern States Conservation Center

• Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education. 130 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.2.7 See also

• Preservation (library and archival science) • Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera • Collections care • Media preservation • Conservation (cultural heritage)

10.2.8 Notes

[1] American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC), Caring for Your Treasures, accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.conservation-us.org/_data/n_0001/resources/live/photographs.pdf.

[2] Unless otherwise noted, material in this section comes from the following sources: Joanna Norman, “Photographic Col- lections Management,” Journal of Educational Media and Library Sciences 39, no. 4 (2002): 365-69; Bruce Warren, Photography (Minneapolis/St. Paul: West Pub. Co., 1993); , ( ) (: , 2005).

[3] Debbie Hess Norris, “The Proper Storage and Display of a Photographic Collection,” The Book and Paper Annual 2 (1983), accessed August 12, 2011, http://cool.conservation-us.org/coolaic/sg/bpg/annual/v02/bp02-08.html.

[4] Gary Albright and Monique Fischer, Types of Photographs, Preservation Leaflets (Northeast Document Conservation Cen- ter), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.nedcc.org/resources/leaflets/5Photographs/02TypesOfPhotos.php.

[5] Norris, “Proper Storage and Display.”

[6] Albright and Fischer, Types of Photographs.

[7] Norris, “Proper Storage and Display.”

[8] Diane DeCesare Ross, “An Overview of the Care of Silver-Based Photographic Prints and Negatives,” Mississippi Libraries 65, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 42.

[9] Paul Messier, “Preserving Your Collection of Film-Based Negatives” (Rocky Mountain Conservation Center, 1993), ac- cessed August 12, 2011, http://cool.conservation-us.org/byauth/messier/negrmcc.html.

[10] International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Core Programme Preservation and Conservation, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet, (1992, revised and updated 2002), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.loc.gov/preservation/resources/care/photolea.html.

[11] Henry Wilhelm, “Monitoring the Fading and Staining of Color Photographic Prints,” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 21, no. 1 (1981), accessed August 12, 2011, http://cool.conservation-us.org/jaic/articles/jaic21-01-003. html.

[12] Mary Fahey, The Care and Preservation of Photographic Prints (Dearborn, MI: The Henry Ford), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.thehenryford.org/research/caring/prints.aspx.

[13] The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs (Chapter5) (PDF). Wilhelm Imaging Research. p. 164.

[14] “The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs (Chapter 6)" (PDF). Wilhelm Imaging Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 30, 2006. Retrieved December 27, 2006.

[15] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet.

[16] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet; Gary Albright and Monique Fischer, Care of Photographs, Preservation Leaflets (Northeast Document Conservation Center), accessed August 12, 2011, “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on 2008-04-15. Retrieved 2008-04-23..

[17] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs.

[18] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet

[19] AIC, Caring for Your Treasures.

[20] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs. 10.2. CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 131

[21] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs; IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet; Ross, “Silver-Based Photographic Prints and Negatives,” 40.

[22] Michele Hamill, Preserving Your Family Photographs (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library Department of Preservation and Conservation, 2001): 3, accessed August 12, 2001, http://www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/brochure/Family% 20Photos%20Text%2001.pdf.

[23] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs; IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet.

[24] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs.

[25] Ross, “Silver-Based Photographic Prints and Negatives,” 40.

[26] AIC, Caring for Your Treasures.

[27] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs.

[28] AIC, Caring for Your Treasures.

[29] John H. Slate, “Not Fade Away: Understanding the Definition, Preservation and Conservation Issues of Visual Ephemera,” Collection Management 25, no. 4 (2001): 56.

[30] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet.

[31] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs.

[32] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet.

[33] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs; James L. Bagget, “Handle With Care: Photos,” The Alabama Librarian 54, no. 1 (2004): 5; Hamill, Preserving Your Family Photographs, 2.

[34] Albright and Fischer, Care of Photographs; Hamill, Preserving Your Family Photographs, 2.

[35] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet.

[36] AIC, Caring for Your Treasures.

[37] Messier, “Preserving Your Collection of Film-Based Negatives”.

[38] Messier, “Preserving Your Collection of Film-Based Negatives”.

[39] National Library of Australia, Care and handling guidelines for digitization of Library materials, accessed August 17, 2011, http://www.nla.gov.au/digital/care_handling.html.

[40] Norman, “Photographic Collections Management.”

[41] Wilhelm, “Fading and Staining of Color Photographic Prints.”

[42] Norman, “Photographic Collections Management.”

[43] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet.

[44] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[45] Library of Congress, ‘’Caring for Your Photographic Collections’’, accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.loc.gov/preservation/ care/photo.html.

[46] IFLA ,Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet’’.

[47] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[48] Library of Congress, ‘’Caring for Your Photographic Collections’’

[49] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[50] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[51] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines,” Conserve-O-Gram 14, no. 4 (June 1997), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/publications/conserveogram/14-04.pdf.

[52] Sarah S. Wagner, ‘’Cold Storage Handling Guidelines for Photographs’’ (1991), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www. archives.gov/preservation/storage/cold-storage-photos.html. 132 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

[53] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[54] Wagner, ‘’Cold Storage Handling Guidelines for Photographs’’.

[55] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[56] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet’’.

[57] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[58] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[59] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[60] Library of Congress, ‘’Caring for Your Photographic Collections’’

[61] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[62] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet’’.

[63] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[64] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[65] IFLA, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Information Leaflet’’.

[66] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[67] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[68] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[69] National Park Service, “Caring for Photographs: General Guidelines.”

[70] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[71] Icon, The Institute of Conservation, ‘’Care and conservation of photographic materials’’ (2006), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.conservationregister.com/carephotographs.asp.

[72] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[73] Library of Congress, ‘’Caring for Your Photographic Collections’’

[74] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[75] Library of Congress, ‘’Caring for Your Photographic Collections.’’

[76] Library of Congress, ‘’Caring for Your Photographic Collections’’

[77] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[78] Icon, The Institute of Conservation, ‘’Care and conservation of photographic materials.’’

[79] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[80] Albright and Fischer, ‘’Care of Photographs’’.

[81] AIC, Caring for Your Treasures

[82] Bagget, “Handle With Care: Photos,” 5.

[83] SEPIA (Safeguarding European Photographic Images for Access), Preservation issues in digitizing historical photographs (200 ), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.ica.org/?lid=5668&bid=744.

[84] American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC), Definitions of Conservation Terminology, ac- cessed August 12, 2011, http://www.conservation-us.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=620

[85] Hamill, Preserving Your Family Photographs, 7-8.

[86] SAA, Code of Ethics for Archivists (2005), accessed August 12, 2011, http://www2.archivists.org/code-of-ethics

[87] International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Core Programme Preservation and Conserva- tion, Care, Handling and Storage of Photographs: Standards, accessed August 12, 2011, http://www.loc.gov/preservation/ resources/care/photostn.html. 10.3. OUTLINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 133

10.2.9 Further reading

• Clark, Susie, and Franziska Frey. Care of Photographs. Amsterdam: European Commission on Preservation and Access, 2003.

• Eaton, George T. Conservation of Photographs. Kodak Publication No. F-40. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Co., 1985.

• Hayes, Sandra. “Preserving History: Digital Imaging Methods of Selected Mississippi Archivists.” Mississippi Archivists 65, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 101-102.

• Norris, Debra Hess, and Jennifer Jae Gutierrez, eds. Issues in the Conservation of Photographs. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute, 2010.

• Reilly, James. Care and Identification of 19th Century Photographic Prints. Kodak Publication No. G2S. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Co., 1986.

• Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn and Diane Voght-O'Connor, et al. Photographs: Archival Care and Management. Chicago: Society of American Archivistis, 2006.

10.2.10 External links

Organizations

• The Photographic Materials Group of the American Institute for Conservation

• The Advanced Residency Program in Photograph Conservation at the George Eastman House

• Notes on Photographs, a Wiki from George Eastman House

• The Image Permanence Institute

• ICOM-CC Photographic Materials Working Group

Guides

• Basics of Photograph Preservation

• Preservation and Archives Professionals

• Care, Handling, and Storage of Photographs, Library of Congress

• The Care and Preservation of Photographic Prints, The Henry Ford Museum

• Preservation of Photographs: Select Bibliography, Northeast Document Conservation Center

• Caring for Your Photographs, The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC)

• A Consumer Guide to Digital and Print Stability, Image Permanence Institute

10.3 Outline of photography

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to photography: Photography – process of making pictures by the action of recording light patterns, reflected or emitted from objects, on a photosensitive medium or an image sensor through a timed exposure. The process is done through mechanical, chemical, or electronic devices known as cameras. 134 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.3.1 Forms of photography

•

• Aerial photography

• Architectural photography

• Astrophotography

•

• Black and white photography

•

• Celebrity photography

• Cloudscape photography

• Conceptual photography

•

• Digital photography

• Documentary photography

• Endoscopy

• Environmental portrait

•

• Fashion photography

• Fine-art photography

•

•

• photography

• Food photography

• Forensic photography

• Fundus photography

• Geophotography

• Glamour photography

• High-speed photography

• Industrial photography

• iPhoneography

•

• Lifestyle photography

• Lo-fi photography

• Lomography

• Long-exposure photography 10.3. OUTLINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 135

• Macro photography

•

• Monochrome photography

•

• Nature photography

• Night photography

•

• Old-time photography

•

• Paparazzi

• Photojournalism

• Photomicroscopy

• Portrait photography

• Post-mortem photography

• Senior portraits

• Social photography

• Social documentary photography

• Still life photography

•

• Straight photography

•

• Subminiature photography

• Time-lapse photography

•

• Ultraviolet photography

• Underwater photography

•

•

• Wedding photography

• 136 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.3.2 Camera and photography equipment

• Camera • Dry box • • • • • • Filter • Flash • Movie projector • Photographic film • Photographic lens • Slide projector • Still camera • • Tripod •

10.3.3 Photographic processing

Main article: Photographic processing

• C-41 process • • Developer • • E-6 process • Fixer • Push processing

10.3.4 Photographic techniques

• • Bokeh • Contre-jour • Color photography • Cross processing 10.3. OUTLINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 137

• Cyanotype

• Dodging and burning

• Film developing

• Full-spectrum photography

• Harris shutter

• Kinetic photography

•

• High-dynamic-range imaging (HDR)

• Holography

• Light painting

• Macro photography

• Miniature faking

• Monochrome photography

• Motion blur

• Night photography

• Panoramic photography

• Panning

•

• Photographic print toning

• Photographic processing

• Push printing

•

• Rollout photography

• Solarisation

• Stereoscopy

• Stopping down

•

• –shift photography

• Infrared photography

• Ultraviolet photography

• Time-lapse photography 138 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.3.5 History of photography

Main article: History of photography

• Timeline of photography technology

• Camera obscura

• Daguerreotype

• Autochrome Lumière

•

• Farm Security Administration

• William Fox Talbot

10.3.6 General photography concepts

• Composition in visual arts

• • Field of view • Perspective (visual)

• Image histogram

• Exposure

• Negative

• Focus

• Autofocus • Depth of field

• Photograph

• Vignetting

• Shutter speed

• Aperture

• F-number

10.3.7 Lists

• List of photographers

• List of most expensive photographs

• List of photographic equipment makers

• List of street photographers

10.3.8 See also

• Photography by indigenous peoples of the Americas 10.3. OUTLINE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 139

10.3.9 External links

• This outline displayed as a mindmap, at wikimindmap.com • Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the State Library & Archives of Florida. • Judging the authenticity of Photographs: 1800s to Today Guide for collectors and historians

• Rarities of the USSR photochronicles Pioneers of Soviet Photography. • “Every Picture Has a Story” - uses pictures from the Smithsonian’s collections to show the development of the technology through the nineteenth century. • Shades of Light (Australian Photography 1839 - 1988) the online version of the original Shades of Light published 1998, Gael Newton, National Gallery of Australia. • Illustrated Photography - Basic Photography - The basics of photography explained in a series of articles.

• Camera Obscura - digital library on the history photographic techniques Chapter 11

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

• History of photography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography?oldid=762559370 Contributors: The Anome, Leandrod, Frecklefoot, Infrogmation, Darkwind, Rawr, HarryHenryGebel, Postdlf, Rhombus, Xanzzibar, Alan Liefting, Tagishsimon, Alexf, MisfitToys, Kaldari, Ukexpat, ArnoldReinhold, Roodog2k, Michael Zimmermann, Tinus, Bender235, ESkog, Shanes, Small- jim, Jakew, Alansohn, Arthena, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Tainter, WadeSimMiser, KymFarnik, Stefanomione, Driftwoodzebulin, Madness~enwiki, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, The wub, MarnetteD, Nivix, SportsMaster, Arctic.gnome, Nammarci, DVdm, Quentin X, Midg- ley, Groogle, RadioFan, Rsrikanth05, Grafen, ONEder Boy, Howcheng, Ragesoss, Jpbowen, Lcmortensen, Closedmouth, Spawn Man, Modify, Caballero1967, Bibliomaniac15, Myrabella, SmackBot, Travuun, Federalist51, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Jagged 85, Jrockley, Delldot, Gilliam, Durova, Chris the speller, Roscelese, George Ho, Sdomburg~enwiki, Anoopkn, Portugue6927, Eliyak, Rigadoun, Rodsan18, Ubertoaster, Peterlewis, IronGargoyle, Stwalkerster, Dicklyon, InedibleHulk, Neddyseagoon, KurtRaschke, No- vangelis, Iridescent, Paul venter, Newone, Wjejskenewr, 20th Century (Zenhan) Art, ChrisCork, Charvex, Sbn1984, Dgw, Funnyfarmof- doom, Equendil, Cydebot, Mato, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Ginosal, Headbomb, Legend Saber, Seaphoto, Jbaranao, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, JAnDbot, Tony Myers, Gcm, Matthew Fennell, BCube, Struthious Bandersnatch, PhilKnight, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JamesBWat- son, MartinBot, J.delanoy, Svetovid, Uncle Dick, Benscripps, It Is Me Here, Ypetrachenko, Balthazarduju, Ipigott, NewEnglandYankee, Dlsnider, Vanished user 39948282, Useight, Scewing, Vranak, Hammersoft, Thomas.W, Uyvsdi, TheMindsEye, Firstorm, Philip True- man, Oshwah, Crohnie, Cremepuff222, Robesean, Eubulides, Dirkbb, RobertSL, Dassiebtekreuz, FlyingLeopard2014, Arturo zuniga, DerbyCountyinNZ, Parhamr, Cwkmail, Keilana, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Lightmouse, Rkarlsba, Kinzele, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, LAX, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jkshepherd, Enthusiast01, Arakunem, Drmies, Somno, Ktr101, Excirial, RPSM, Ce- narium, Aurora2698, Frozen4322, Audaciter, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, PotentialDanger, Skariz, Avoided, Graham Harrison, Silvonen- Bot, EEng, Addbot, Element16, Non-dropframe, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Itfc+canes=me, 84user, Tide rolls, Rrmsjp, Legobot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Alfonso Márquez, Jan Arkesteijn, Lonepointe, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Daniel 1992, AnomieBOT, VX, Mate- rialscientist, Pepo13, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Cmircea, Maxis ftw, WieDiRoc, Zad68, Polymeris, Lazairus, Amaury, Sabrebd, Shadowjams, Astatine-210, Appeltree1, FrescoBot, Grandcraft, Pepper, Jteaser, KuroiShiroi, Sir Floyd, Citation bot 1, Ori- umX, Pinethicket, Elockid, HRoestBot, Fosekfotos, Hamtechperson, A8UDI, Codwiki, SpaceFlight89, Fumitol, Full-date unlinking bot, Cramyourspam, Pratheekrebala, Lotje, TBloemink, Theo10011, Reaper Eternal, Zelderu Maryoto, Reach Out to the Truth, Lord of the Pit, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Lopifalko, Iscrewthisup, WikitanvirBot, Parkywiki, Eatmyfayce, GoingBatty, Jaliz- abraxton, RenamedUser01302013, Kimpossibleof07, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Ida Shaw, Knight1993, WoodLooker, Atelierelealbe, Wayne Slam, Viloris, LarsFrietman, EricWesBrown, GeorgeBarnick, L Kensington, AVarchaeologist, Philafrenzy, Noodleki, Donner60, Tar- garyen, Rocketrod1960, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Ladyphototeacher, ConcernedPhotographer, Vacation9, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aper- ture2011, Communication ccl, John2006cks, Krenair, MBojje, Tereivoolenjüri, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Darafsh, OttawaAC, Rjlanc, Au- gustes, Soerfm, Insidiae, L.forough ebrahimi, Klilidiplomus, Bonkers The Clown, BattyBot, Khazar2, MadGuy7023, Grzegorznadolski, ToBeFree, Lugia2453, Frosty, Mikolaj Liberacki, Nothinghere008, Yosemite Chief, Benpark1, Rybec, 19WSD21921, ImagePerma- nenceInstitute, Ithinkicahn, 7Sidz, Concord hioz, Monkbot, Wattkins, Owais Khursheed, PiperWeasly, LOKROXS2013, The-Fat-Matt, Ryubyss, 0xF8E8, Dennomanno, GeorginaMat, 19wsd17583, Maltice, Jason.nlw, Julio Zaid, CAPTAIN RAJU, Razor Blaze123123, Yabeshchandrasekar, CLCStudent, Rollingcontributor, Tony Abigail, Malena2222, Jammer092, Niceguy149, Ty wensley, Sperth, John “Hannibal” Smith, Wikishovel and Anonymous: 433 • Photography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography?oldid=763871955 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Derek Ross, WojPob, Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Fcueto, Rmhermen, Little guru, Karen Johnson, William Avery, SimonP, 0, Ellmist, Daniel C. Boyer, Graft, Heron, Camembert, Ewen, Olivier, Ericd, Chuq, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Edward, Bdesham, Infrogmation, Pit~enwiki, Llywrch, Gabbe, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Sannse, Dori, Gbleem, Arpingstone, Pde, Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, CatherineMunro, Darkwind, Julesd, Gisle~enwiki, Netsnipe, Kwekubo, TonyClarke, Efghij, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, TheStick, Hashar, Rodney Topor, Markb, Disdero, RodC, Guaka, Dfeuer, Pladask, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Floydian, Samsara, Thue, Reellis67, Finlay McWalter, Lumos3, RadicalBender, Calieber, Robbot, Palnu, Noldoaran, KeithH, Kizor, RickDikeman, Icebox, Comi- dadehospital, Altenmann, Seglea, Naddy, Modulatum, Mirv, Postdlf, Pingveno, Academic Challenger, Steeev, Rtfisher, Hadal, Kd4ttc, David Edgar, Borislav, Raeky, TPK, Seth Ilys, GreatWhiteNortherner, Woodpainter, Alan Liefting, SimonMayer, ShutterBugTrekker, Giftlite, Gwalla, JamesMLane, Pat Kelso, DocWatson42, Lunkwill, Kurt Eichenberger, Aphaia, Angmering, Mark.murphy, Everyking, Wyss, Wikibob, Jgritz, Leonard G., Romanito, Bovlb, Jorge Stolfi, Ptk~enwiki, Mboverload, Siroxo, Solipsist, Chameleon, Just Another

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Mi7734, GeorginaMat, British Reds, Caprisunphone, Noirlama, Bra17a, IEditEncyclopedia, Some Gadget Geek, Iazyges, Shwetasoni72, Kcotter87, Banumathi vasudevan, Benjehmon, Photography.., Supdiop, Sabman- shar, KasparBot, Sophiacruz, Nikiem87, Dominoe3045, Adam9007, Simma1972, Azelbo, Julio Zaid, Luisitorey22, Shakur447, Halftime Hero, Shahen books, OddTetrapod, Faisallion, Zenedits, Aakas adhikary, Ceruppert, Yabeshchandrasekar, VeganBeast, Spate99, Hectic Ranking, Davedumbell, Cameron Roper, Jordandlee, Cari Lliwen, Doulph88, Allthefoxes, Fierysunset, Govinda KK, Shaik sunain, For- battleon, Productimage, Imawikipediauser, Vily26, Britty192, Kayking2, Uky347, Eneritz Buenetxea UD, RileyUnicorns, Rijulrajkhu- rana, ArtHistorianEmeritus, Sperth, John “Hannibal” Smith, Toddgack21, Sfdgsdeg\s, Iipmahendra, Kaijubaby, Marvellous Spider-Man, Anju Raghav, AnthonyTorricelli, Carocasalduc, Claycook, Espservice, Jaimessoon, Iancharbonneau, GaryGill, Khalil Javed, Jamesradio, Azelleza.2017, Jtbosarge, LiridonaJashari, Heididoerr061, Sankhyac, Shofiul Alam, VaibhavArora and Anonymous: 1888 • Science of photography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_photography?oldid=706586211 Contributors: Julesd, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Topbanana, Rholton, Duncharris, Girolamo Savonarola, Nefertiti~enwiki, Imroy, Night Gyr, Konetidy, Hvc, Wen- dell, Hohum, Kelly Martin, Sparkit, Rjwilmsi, Pinkville, GreyCat, Srleffler, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, David R. Ingham, ONEder Boy, MPerdomo, CharlesHBennett, SmackBot, TestPilot, Bluebot, Runcorn, Eldoubleee, BeSherman, Dicklyon, Dr.K., CmdrObot, Mblumber, Sadharan, Mactographer, John254, Mentifisto, Saimhe, Bobbfwed, Cinegrefx, Think outside the box, GordonMcKinney, Tiberius47, Neobaba, EEye, Barkeep, Arjen Dijksman, ClueBot, EoGuy, Gu1dry, Sun Creator, Addbot, Materialscientist, Conr.PL, He- actkin, Strice, Hirumon, Donner60, ClueBot NG, O0goodiegoodie0o, Insidiae, Ysawires, ChrisGualtieri, Mike.pietrzyk and Anonymous: 36 • Shutter speed Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed?oldid=763935060 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Koyaanis Qatsi, 11.1. TEXT 143

Heron, Ericd, PhilipMW, JeremyR, Egil, Doradus, Omegatron, Rrjanbiah, Seano1, ShutterBugTrekker, Wronkiew, Bobblewik, Mark- Sweep, Kaldari, Girolamo Savonarola, Aramgutang, Canterbury Tail, Milkmandan, Qutezuce, Jpk, Barcex, Fir0002, Elipongo, Physi- cistjedi, Andersju, Hooperbloob, A2Kafir, Shirimasen, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Arthena, Photojpn.org, Velella, Gmaxwell, Kelly Mar- tin, OwenX, Mindmatrix, Justinlebar, Carcharoth, Triddle, Yurik, Edison, George Burgess, Quietust, Bubba73, The wub, Ian Dunster, RexNL, Gurch, Atif.hussain, Srleffler, RobotE, Kafziel, Bhny, Groogle, Chick Bowen, Voidxor, Jeh, Sandstein, Ziggur, Dspradau, Mikus, NeilN, Rwwww, Sprocket, Ramonkienhuis, Bluebot, Ctrlfreak13, Icaruspassion, Nbarth, DR04, Mr.Z-man, Mosca, Trailbum, Dreadstar, Filpaul, Daniel.Cardenas, Paul 012, Severoon, Special-T, Dicklyon, Storm2005, H, Dreftymac, Irwangatot, Balazer, Zureks, Mactogra- pher, Rosuna, KamStak23, Majorly, Tewy, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, JAnDbot, Kaobear, JeffConrad, Marjoriedawes, VoABot II, DjiXas, GordonMcKinney, Mmustafa~enwiki, MartinBot, Shermlindcastle, Leyo, Fred.e, Uncle Dick, Ijustam, SJP, Justinwyne, Christophore, Amaraiel, TheMindsEye, Philip Trueman, Ph33rspace, Beyond silence, Dpgtime, Adam.J.W.C., IndulgentReader, Ponyo, Keilana, Oxy- moron83, BrightRoundCircle, Rooh23, Dillard421, Shoeshirt, C'est moi, Iknowyourider, Latics, ImageRemovalBot, Twinsday, ClueBot, Manamarak, The Thing That Should Not Be, Postmortemjapan, Cygnis insignis, CounterVandalismBot, Excirial, Simon Jensen, Flyjedi, Bchalifour, XLinkBot, Rror, Mitch Ames, WikHead, Addbot, Fyrael, Non-dropframe, Superbleachbrothers, UAWeBeR, Tide rolls, Neu- rovelho, Jarble, TaBOT-zerem, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Leaflucy, Ulric1313, Flewis, MaiSecawan, Kyng, Doulos Christos, Erik9, SD5, FrescoBot, 2+2=4. Probably, Pinethicket, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, Ravenperch, Lotje, Specs112, Bo- mogo, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Tuankiet65, Parkywiki, Jmencisom, Wikipelli, Hirumon, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Helpful Pixie Bot, AvocatoBot, Aranea Mortem, Snow Blizzard, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Jmendeth, Fmccarth, Dead-Dog Rocks your sox, Jimbobamy, Amandacelles, Monkbot, Srezz, EstherSmarts, Abouzuhayr, Darshank641, Bender the Bot, Bigbutts69420 and Anonymous: 142 • Exposure (photography) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)?oldid=763754828 Contributors: The Anome, Ericd, Michael Hardy, Sam Francis, JeremyR, Egil, Whkoh, Rl, Mulad, Head, Morven, Seano1, BenFrantzDale, Reub2000, Leonard G., Christopherlin, Slowking Man, MarkSweep, MisfitToys, Bcordes, Jpk, Deelkar, Alxndr, Fir0002, Shenme, Thebassman, Konetidy, Hooperbloob, Linuxlad, Musiphil, Alansohn, Jopxton, Gene Nygaard, Mrtngslr, Mindmatrix, Rgbea, BD2412, JIP, Cambridgeincolour, The wub, Nandesuka, Jonathan Kovaciny, Srleffler, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Hellbus, Bachrach44, Ravedave, Voidxor, Pym98, Bota47, BorgQueen, Nlitement, SmackBot, Obakeneko, Thorseth, Jrockley, Feralaas, Ohnoitsjamie, VJ Emsi, Blue- bot, Dazecoop, Nbarth, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jonrev, SteveHopson, Jeenuv, Dicklyon, Dr.K., Stephen B Streater, Levineps, W0lfie, Twas Now, Neelix, Nauticashades, Dept of Alchemy, Thijs!bot, Joshburkart, Mactographer, Barryfitzgerald, C.anguschandler, Gh5046, JAnDbot, Leuko, Afaz, JeffConrad, VoABot II, Swpb, Stromdal, JJ Harrison, Steevven1, GordonMcKinney, Schmloof, Ibn Battuta, J.delanoy, Ksempac, Yuzerid, Tiberius47, W.M.DeJardine, Koobmeej, Mhevans, STBotD, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TheMinds- Eye, Adam.J.W.C., SieBot, Mbz1, Triwbe, Casablanca2000in, ARIFMEMON, Twinsday, ClueBot, Yamanbaiia, Grantyale, The Thing That Should Not Be, Unbuttered Parsnip, Puchiko, Gu1dry, Manishearth, DragonBot, Excirial, Resoru, Louxema, XLinkBot, Rror, Ks- bjA, Dthomsen8, JCA169, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Jncraton, AndersBot, George Gastin, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Porcelanosa, Tempodivalse, Götz, Redbobblehat, B137, Citation bot, Sorobansensei, Mononomic, Kelseymariebell~enwiki, Shadowjams, Nagualdesign, D'ohBot, OgreBot, Maggyero, Tom.Reding, Ɱ, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Taiko3615, RobotQuistnix, EmausBot, Jnanadevm, Klbrain, Jmen- cisom, Hirumon, AVarchaeologist, ChuispastonBot, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, O0goodiegoodie0o, Matthiaspaul, Widr, Rrwms, Patnyabhay, Helpful Pixie Bot, Darafsh, CitationCleanerBot, GRPH3B18, Bobn2, ChrisGualtieri, Ccronje, Irfanbhatt099, Jamesmcma- hon0, Efaja, Quenhitran, Natehaskovec, JaconaFrere, Livvysoda147, Darshank641, Karlfonza, Bender the Bot, HuniSenpai, DrStrauss and Anonymous: 93 • Exposure compensation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_compensation?oldid=758942310 Contributors: Morven, Jason Quinn, Girolamo Savonarola, Peter bertok, Moxfyre, Hooperbloob, YDZ, Recury, Rjwilmsi, Valentinejoesmith, The wub, Mahlum~enwiki, Srleffler, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Dicklyon, JeffConrad, Jadedcrypto, Aqwis, Denisarona, Kikos, PhotoSchool, Truthlobby, Addbot, Poxnar, Luckas-bot, Mononomic, KrisBogdanov, LucienBOT, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Raghith, BG19bot, Darafsh, Sminthopsis84 and Anonymous: 15 • Film speed Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed?oldid=763529124 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Leandrod, Edward, Doug Pardee, Julesd, Victor Engel, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Ed g2s, Morven, Robbot, Hankwang, Warling, RedWolf, Guy Peters, Cut- ler, David Gerard, ShutterBugTrekker, Alexwcovington, Reub2000, Ciantic, Danio, Ehusman, Plutor, Lightst, Beland, MarkSweep, Girolamo Savonarola, Askewchan, Abdull, Moxfyre, Imroy, Rich Farmbrough, Smyth, AlanBarrett, Bender235, Protohiro, Makomk, Hooperbloob, Jumbuck, Andrewpmk, Hoary, Isaac, BRW, Skatebiker, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mindmatrix, Bellhalla, Jyavner, Pol098, Gisling, David Levy, Coneslayer, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, SMC, Bubba73, The wub, Mahlum~enwiki, Lmatt, Fsguitarist, Tysto, Sr- leffler, Kri, Aspro, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Borgx, Peter G Werner, Groogle, Chensiyuan, Pseudomonas, Mesolimbo, Panscient, Shotgunlee, Gadget850, Kgyt, Petri Krohn, Fourohfour, SmackBot, FishSpeaker, InverseHypercube, JulianL, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Projectbluebird, Bowlhover, Jowston, John, ML5, KengRu, LACameraman, Dicklyon, Storm2005, MIckStephenson, Jerry-va, Vanisaac, Hertzsprung, Cydebot, Asknine, Boardhead, JohnClarknew, Epbr123, Ab aditya, Adam2288, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Jef- fConrad, JNW, Magica48, UnaLaguna, HuttyMcphoo, PEBill, DukeTwicep, Railhk0512, Digitalslrguide, AirCombat, Gah4, MrBell, KylieTastic, VolkovBot, 4300streetcar, TheMindsEye, Fences and windows, Jepabst, Jonmaclaren, Wikidemon, Sintaku, Lamro, Oscil- lon, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Lightmouse, Rooh23, Goldmund100, Curtdbz, Twinsday, Martarius, ClueBot, HaarFager, CounterVandalismBot, Trivialist, Richardigrub, DragonBot, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, KenDenier, Lionelpcn, Bjdehut, Downtown- gal, XLinkBot, Rror, Mitch Ames, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Baffle gab1978, 84user, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Redbobblehat, Henriqueqc, Mahmudmasri, Xqbot, DrRevXyzzy, AbigailAbernathy, Ubcule, Nasa- verve, SCΛRECROW, Catpowerzzz, FrescoBot, Mykolanovik, Bobbybob010, Suffusion of Yellow, RjwilmsiBot, Lopifalko, EmausBot, John of Reading, ISOGuru, NotAnonymous0, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Robbee2010, Gsarwa, Edgar.bonet, Kensenjiha, ClueBot NG, Matthias- paul, Smokeyfire, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Runner1616, Reimannk, GRPH3B18, Marshal247, Graphium, Gsleaf, Monkbot, Hosam95551, BlueFenixReborn, BD2412bot, OrganicEarth, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 161 • 35 mm equivalent focal length Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length?oldid=759214893 Contributors: Leandrod, Glueball, Hankwang, Hooperbloob, Justinbb, Woohookitty, Długosz, SmackBot, Nbarth, Dicklyon, Lofote, Stybn, Bernopedia, DSiegfried, Magioladitis, Jim.henderson, PatríciaR, Speed8ump, RenniePet, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, StAnselm, Mild Bill Hiccup, Alexbot, Addbot, Yobot, Efa, RibotBOT, Lopifalko, Pericles Xanthippou, Gut informiert, BG19bot, Gorthian, Applied Logics and Anonymous: 6 • Timeline of photography technology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology?oldid=755929663 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Rmhermen, DavidLevinson, Graft, Ericd, Edward, Infrogmation, Bbtommy, Yann, Chadloder, Egil, Kricke, Jay, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Fabricator4, Spinster, Chrisjj, Kinohead, Naddy, Walloon, Giftlite, Solipsist, Be- land, MarkSweep, Girolamo Savonarola, Beardless, Lucanos, Kate, Imroy, Murtasa, Shanes, Richard Cane, Linuxlad, Ben davison, Mind- 144 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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KENT, Skarebo, Lexaxis7, Addbot, MrOllie, 84user, Narayan, Legobot, Aldebaran66, Materialscientist, ,بدارين ,Xqbot, Loveless, Xavier debeerst~enwiki, Methcub, FrescoBot, Grandcraft, , Jteaser, M2545, Serols, White Shadows Look2See1, GoingBatty, A1b4c8, Jay-Sebastos, AVarchaeologist, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, Thomas6574, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Justincheng12345-bot, EuroCarGT, Vanamonde93, DavidLeighEllis, BethNaught, Ryubyss, Kgirl1234, Dennomanno, Adrtii loghania, Whatwasitagain, Sperth, Bender the Bot, Cyril J and Anonymous: 111 • Photograph Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photograph?oldid=760388675 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Karen Johnson, Merphant, Maury Markowitz, Heron, Olivier, Ericd, Patrick, Bbtommy, Ixfd64, Chmouel, Zanimum, Arpingstone, Michael- Janich, Gaz~enwiki, Vzbs34, Andres, Samw, Peregrine981, Maximus Rex, Bevo, Raul654, Spinster, Pollinator, Jni, Chuunen Baka, Rob- bot, Blades, Icebox, Mayooranathan, Academic Challenger, Hadal, Umlautbob, Marc Venot, Lupin, Everyking, Quinwound, Dmmaus, Quadell, Lesgles, Zfr, P G Henning, Muijz, Squash, Imroy, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Aardark, Hapsiainen, Dkroll2, Aude, Shanes, EurekaLott, Bobo192, Jeffmedkeff, BarkingFish, Nich148 9, Twobells, Sam Korn, Mdd, Alansohn, Guy Har- ris, Sade, Lightdarkness, Mac Davis, Hu, Rwendland, Wtshymanski, Rick Sidwell, Evil Monkey, Sakus, Versageek, Recury, Tournesol, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), OwenX, RHaworth, Camw, Madchester, Sdgjake, Neftin, Nikiforov, BD2412, T0ny, Quiddity, DirkvdM, Titoxd, Old Moonraker, GünniX, SouthernNights, Nivix, SportsMaster, Elmer Clark, Ewlyahoocom, Arctic.gnome, TeaD- rinker, Srleffler, Acefitt, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, Sceptre, WAvegetarian, Anonymous editor, Zafiroblue05, Stephenb, Manop, CambridgeBayWeather, Aburad, Ugur Basak, Gvbi, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Spike Wilbury, Megapixie, Howcheng, Irishguy, Nebby~enwiki, Nephron, Trollderella, Retarded hamster, Jim jim, Hakeem.gadi, Wknight94, LifeStar, Sandstein, Bidiot, Theda, Jwissick, Reyk, Staxringold, Smurfy, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Moomoomoo, GrinBot~enwiki, DVD R W, Quadpus, SG, A bit iffy, Myrabella, SmackBot, Prodego, FloNight, Pgk, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Persian Poet Gal, NCurse, Ctbolt, John Reaves, George Ho, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Shalom Yechiel, Yidisheryid, VMS Mosaic, Addshore, Radagast83, Шизомби, Makemi, Nakon, Kalathalan, Richard0612, Pilotguy, Sunroof, Pile3d, J 1982, Heimstern, LSD, Accurizer, Bendzh, Arkrishna, Peyre, CapitalR, Tawkerbot2, Van helsing, Charvex, Jac16888, Ameyjw, Cydebot, Soetermans, Dynaflow, Nikopoley, Lee, Ward3001, Omicronpersei8, Elmeri B. Suokirahvi, Epbr123, Mactographer, O, Kablammo, Relmi, Tellyaddict, Cool Blue, Hoof38, Visik, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Yonatan, Followeroffash- ion, Jj137, Alphachimpbot, MER-C, Matthew Fennell, Freddicus, Kirrages, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Mapetite526, DXRAW, Filippos Greece, PtPrinter, Steve37, DerHexer, Gjd001, Mmustafa~enwiki, MartinBot, Physicists, Poeloq, Ash, Manticore, Svetovid, Thaurisil, Good-afternun!, Bcartolo, AntiSpamBot, Floaterfluss, Joshafina, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Brian Pearson, Bigdumbdinosaur, Omen666, 2help, KylieTastic, SBKT, Huzefahamid, Macedonian, Jeff G., TheMindsEye, Smart-pari, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, Mercurywoodrose, Rebornsoldier, Calineed, Ghighi31~enwiki, Elphion, BwDraco, Joesaphier, Saturn star, Miwanya, WikiCantona, Johndouglascimfl2, Smilegood, Meters, Falcon8765, My favourite teddy bear, Hemia, Bo, B. Nuhanen, Nihil novi, Parhamr, GlassCobra, Dataneger~enwiki, Oxymoron83, Bagatelle, Lightmouse, Hyker, Correogsk, Behtis, Globulinapr1966, Slapazoid, Vonones, Fm19, Martarius, Rachelf8582, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Wysprgr2005, Piledhigheranddeeper, Cherylpok, Excirial, Ottawa4ever, Thehelpfulone, Aitias, XLinkBot, Cmr08, Coewiddabikdik, Addbot, Aelkris, Rummy9000, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, 3193wct, Favonian, LittlePrincess23, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, Raymond W Chan, Erinn1234, Yobot, Backdropsmadhu, The Iron Rooster, Ripper0607, GaiusStat, Marshall Williams2, Robert Treat, Blackwellmas229, Killiondude, Jim1138, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, Ad- justShift, Paterson229, Ulric1313, Capricorn42, WilsonGMas229, FergusonMAS229, Zuluetamas229, LATTINMAS229, Gbchaosmas- ter, Omnipaedista, Kekela, IcedNut, Shadowjams, Historygoof, Nagualdesign, FrescoBot, Liquidluck, 123spot, Stsnoopy, Arte&Ficção, Pinethicket, Serols, Primaler, Nslimak, The WikiProwler, Caribibble, Lotje, Begoon, Miracle Pen, Aoidh, Nn4beatbox, Smartgod, As- ddassda, Mean as custard, Dalba, Lopifalko, WikitanvirBot, Jonosrummerboy, Gfoley4, Look2See1, Ibbn, Saad Tarik, Jmencisom, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, AsceticRose, Fæ, Hirumon, Natvh4, WeRon, EricWesBrown, JoeSperrazza, Pula123, Gray eyes, AVarchaeolo- gist, Tomer Gott, Targaryen, Katemo5, 28bot, ClueBot NG, PhotoShoot19, Satellizer, ConcernedPhotographer, Hiuby, Irpm, Darafsh, ChrisGualtieri, Garion Mywaywood, Sariys, Asisman, Barriebain, Mogism, Adamdarain, Tima1234554, Grizzly853741, PinkAmper- sand, Seren4219, Henryonus17, Rybec, Muricaaa, Drchriswilliams, UY Scuti, Racer Omega, Dark Mistress, Fixuture, Conaugh12, Karimmundere, Boboboboblol, Nischal bhandari, Dilkeshvar.wiki, Zirkusfan, Swayum mishra, Kangerzuur, TeaLover1996, Some Gad- get Geek, Abdulla181293, Jfjjfhffnfnfnfndnd, Brendan Anapoell, Ali Hàmmadh, Kral3463, Piglander, BBC mort, Adam9007, Inayath innu'z, Talosm03, Davedumbell, Drewdahle, DatGuy, DBZFan30, Joeman Empire, ILoveMyselfandOthers and Anonymous: 404 • Conservation and restoration of photographs Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs? oldid=752176587 Contributors: Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Sbharris, BullRangifer, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, RichardMcCoy, John- bod, Yobot, LilHelpa, Drahmedbelal, GrindtXX, Hyschube, BG19bot, Jakinia and InternetArchiveBot • Outline of photography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_photography?oldid=755217145 Contributors: Stefan-S, Jossi, Till Ulen, JoeSmack, Maurreen, Clubmarx, BDD, Woohookitty, Pegship, Auroranorth, SmackBot, David Kernow, Scwlong, Nahum Reduta, Nexus Seven, Dicklyon, Cydebot, Mojo Hand, The Transhumanist, SwiftBot, Coolrighthere2, Jim.henderson, Mbeatty, The Transhumanist (AWB), Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Uyvsdi, TheMindsEye, Auntof6, Robert Skyhawk, Dolace Triade, Sypecom, Zest777, Jarble, AnomieBOT, Minnecologies, Thehelpfulbot, Heactkin, Look2See1, Widr, Communication ccl, Northamerica1000, EuroCarGT, Melonkelon, Thewikiguru1, KBH96, Some Gadget Geek, Dakotagreene, Sureshkumarthephototoday, KOneill and Anonymous: 21

11.2 Images

• File:'Willy'_smiling._Mary_Dillwyn_Col._1853.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/%27Willy%27_ smiling._Mary_Dillwyn_Col._1853.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Library of Wales Original artist: Mary Dillwyn (1816-1906) • File:1855-daguerrotype-familyphoto-joke-Punch.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/1855-daguerrotype-familyphoto-joke-Punch. gif License: Public domain Contributors: Punch’s Almanack for 1855 Original artist: unknown 1854 artist • File:19th_century_photo_print_sizes.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/19th_century_photo_print_ sizes.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Drawn with inkscape Original artist: Polymeris 11.2. IMAGES 145

• File:ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: mybook Original artist: Singapore 1952 • File:A_Stream_of_Stars_over_Paranal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/A_Stream_of_Stars_over_ Paranal.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1421a/ Original artist: ESO/G. Lombardi • File:Aktikompositsioon_19_(J._Künnap).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Aktikompositsioon_19_ %28J._K%C3%BCnnap%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Jaan Künnap Original artist: Jaan Künnap • File:Alfred_Stieglitz_(American_-_The_Steerage_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ d/da/Alfred_Stieglitz_%28American_-_The_Steerage_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: VgFMwBlWg- XTrw at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Alfred Stieglitz (American, 1864 - 1946) (1864 - 1946) – pho- tographer (American) Details of artist on Google Art Project • File:All_Around_Chajnantor_—_A_360-degree_panorama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/All_ Around_Chajnantor_%E2%80%94_A_360-degree_panorama.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/ potw1215a/ Original artist: ESO/E. Emsellem • File:Auto_vs_manual_settings_comparison,_barn_and_trees.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/ Auto_vs_manual_settings_comparison%2C_barn_and_trees.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: B137 • File:Autochrome_of_Mark_Twain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Autochrome_of_Mark_Twain. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Art Stack Original artist: Alvin Langdon Coburn (1882-1966) • File:Blown-out_highlights.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Blown-out_highlights.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Blériot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Bl% C3%A9riot_XI_Thulin_A_Mikael_Carlson_OTT_2013_08b.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Julian Herzog (Website)

• File:Boulevard_du_Temple_by_Daguerre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Boulevard_du_Temple_ by_Daguerre.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from The Photography Book, Phaidon Press, London, 1997. Original artist: Louis Daguerre • File:Box_Camera.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Box_Camera.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: I(Ericd) took this picture myself with a digital camera Olympus C-960. The picture was digitally edited Original artist: User Ericd on en.wikipedia • File:CCD_Image_sensor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/CCD_Image_sensor.jpg License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sphl • File:Camera_obscura_box.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Camera_obscura_box.jpg License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: en:Image:Camera obscura box.jpg Original artist: en:User:Meggar • File:Capas-d1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Capas-d1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: WikiCapa at English Wikipedia • File:Clifton_Beach_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Clifton_Beach_5.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JJ Harrison ([email protected]) • File:Colonel_William_Willoughby_Verner,_Sanger_Shepherd_process,_by_Sarah_Acland_1903.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Colonel_William_Willoughby_Verner%2C_Sanger_Shepherd_process%2C_by_Sarah_Acland_1903.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://mattersphotographical.wordpress.com/2012/11/14/sarah-angelina-acland-images/ Original artist: Sarah Angelina Acland • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Contax-s.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Contax-s.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Trans- ferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Jeff dean at English Wikipedia • File:Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Crystal_ Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublications/Worlds-Fairs/ WF_object_images.cfm?book_id=191 Original artist: Philip Henry Delamotte, Negretti and Zambra • File:Daguerreotype_tintype_photographer_model_studio_table_brady_stand_cast_iron_portrait_photos.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Daguerreotype_tintype_photographer_model_studio_table_brady_stand_cast_iron_portrait_photos. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Composite assembled by Cramyourspam, vintage photos by Anony- mous 1864 photographer, Anonymous mid 19th century tintype photographer • File:Dark_room.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Dark_room.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib- utors: Own work Original artist: Inkaroad • File:Dorothy_Catherine_Draper_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Dorothy_Catherine_Draper_ crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Dorothy_Catherine_Draper.jpg Original artist: John William Draper • File:Duhauron1877.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 – 1920) • File:E17_-_korte_sluitertijd.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/E17_-_korte_sluitertijd.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Newbie~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims). 146 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:E17_-_lange_sluitertijd.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/E17_-_lange_sluitertijd.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Newbie~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc- by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Freak_Out,_Oblivion,_night.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Freak_Out%2C_Oblivion%2C_ night.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? 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Lyon • File:Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Olympiastadion_at_dusk.JPG Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin Falbisoner • File:Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Original_ Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: old photography; originally scanned and uploaded by Peterrhyslewis in 2007 [1] Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 11.2. IMAGES 147

• File:Phatman_-_Lightning_on_the_Columbia_River_(by-sa).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/ Phatman_-_Lightning_on_the_Columbia_River_%28by-sa%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Lightning on the Columbia River Original artist: Ian Boggs from Astoria, US • File:Phone_photography.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Phone_photography.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Petar Milošević • File:Photograph_of_18th_century_woman.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Photograph_of_18th_ century_woman.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Photographer-studio-1893.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Photographer-studio-1893.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3a20638. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: A.H. Wheeler, photographer, Berlin, Wis. • File:Photography_using_Canon_Digital_IXUS_850_IS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Photography_ using_Canon_Digital_IXUS_850_IS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martinmaniac at English Wikipedia • File:Polaroid_Colorpack_80.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Polaroid_Colorpack_80.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bilby • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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