.$ TELEOLOGY

(1642-1 727))himself possibly homophile, and Stalin were as convinced as any Roman argued that the perfect mechanism of the pope or Southern Baptist that homo- universe required a clockmaker-a "prime sexuality is unnatural. The most recent mover" as Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas pronouncements of the Roman Catholic had supposed. The things of the world church still teach that homosexual acts manifest such order, so it was claimed, are "intrinsically disordered because they that they could only have reached their lackfinality," which is to say that they are present state through the purposeful guid- immoral because they cannot lead to pro- ance of a creator who endowed each thing creation-as if any good would result if with its own specific character, which every sexual act did have procreative con- man should not seek to alter. Hence the sequences. The prospects for world popu- penis is suited only for placement in a lation densities would be horrifying. In the vagina, not in an anus or mouth. The twentieth century the increasing longev- argument oddly neglects the point that ity of the population and the need to the penis has a dual function: it serves to maintain the proper equilibrium with urinate (presumably not in the vagina) as available resources has forced heterosexu- well as emit semen. If it can have two als to adopt birth control techniques rang- distinct types of emissions, why must it ing from periods of abstinence and the use have only one proper vessel? Conversely, of the condom to abortion to keep the pro- if God had been opposed to putting the creative consequences of their own sex- penis in the mouth or anus, could he not ual activity within bounds. Yet even most have shaped these latter organs in such a of those branches of Protestantism way as to make penetration difficult? which do not completely reject birth Voltaire ridiculed the argument from de- control and other forms of non-procrea- sign because by it one could demonstrate tive sex (as the Catholics and Orthodox that God had foreseen ships, since he pro- do), still tend to condemn homosexua- vided harbors for them, and eyeglasses, lity as against the law of God and nature. since he gave noses a bridge. It is incumbent on thinkers not beholden Of course modern biologists rec- to a revealed religion to expose such posi- ognize purpose in the world, in the lim- tions as inconsistent, and above all to ited sense that birds build nests in which affirm that they embody no inherent to hatch and raise their young and logic sufficient to compel a secular, plural- spiders weave webs to trap insects. What istic society to adopt them. they generally do not hold, however, is William A. Percy that some cosmic mind has predeter- mined the purposes of all living things. TELEPHONE Even today, however, Aristotle's See Phone and Computer Sex. discarded model of a grand teleology rul- ing nature inspires Roman Catholic and TELEVISION much other Christian doctrine. In spite of Although the technology on all subsequent criticism and the repudia- which it is based came into existence as tion by the physical and biological sci- early as 1923, it was only in the early 1950s ences of the concept of "Nature" as a that television became a fixture of Ameri- personified feminine principle whose in- can domestic life, gradually elbowing the tentions are somehow frustrated by non- Hollywood film out of its primacy in the entertainment field. Establishing itself in procreative sexual activity, these religious Europe at the same time, television even- thinkers persist in their antiquated views. tually spread throughout the globe, even Though scarcely metaphysicians and to the poorest Third World countries. While unwilling to discuss how many angels in America most television stations are could dance on the head of a pin, Hitler TELEVISION O commercially owned, in many countries lessly edited out, a practice that continues the medium (like radio) is a government to this day. For this reason many now monopoly. It is uncertain, however, prefer to buy or rent uncensored versions whether the exigencies of censorship in to play on home VCR equipment. state systems are more restrictive than In the 1960s the civil rights the "tyranny of the ratings" in theunited movement, and increasingly the women's States. The spread of cable TV and in- movement, were big news. This opened creased use of satellite transmissions in the way for some rare excursions into the the 1970s reduced the stranglehold of the realm of . Mike Wallace's major networks. In a few cities gay people CBS Report, "The homosexual^,^^ aired were even able to secure their own pro- nationwide on March 7, 1967, was some- grams, thanks to public access legisla- thing of a landmark, but it had been pre- tion. In the 1980s the widespread use of ceded in England by BBC-TV's "One in VCRs [recording equipment operating Twenty" (1966),based on more thorough through television sets) further promoted research by Brian McGee. Occasional dis- diversity, and users could, if they wished, cussions on local stations were generally rent a wide variety of porno films to be dominated by the judgmental views of shown through their home sets. The new psychiatrists. field of video emerged as a means for After the Stonewall Rebellion in minority artists to create individualized 1969 coverage increased somewhat, and works which could be shown on televi- gay activists appearedonl'TheDickCavett sion screens. Show," "Jack Paar Tonight," and "The GayMen and Lesbiansin Televi- David Susskind Show." In 1972 ABC's sion. From the beginning children formed "Movie of the Week" aired a sensitive a large portion of the TV audience. Com- portrayal of a gay-male couple in the San mercial advertisers were sensitive to Francisco Bay Area, "That Certain Sum- campaigns by pressure groups. These fac- mer," featuring Hal Holbrook and Martin tors excluded sex of any kind from the Sheen. Situation comedy series produced small screen, and reduced controversy to a by Norman Lear ("All in the Family" and minimum. Only in the news services, "Maude") occasionally showed nonstere- which were to some extent insulated from otypical homosexuals. In the 1980~~prime- the rest of programming, was some discus- time series such as "Cagney & Lacey," sion of issues possible. In the view of "Designing Women," and "L.A. Law" many, the early decades of television jus- treated the subject. Such popular series as tified the claim of Federal Communica- "Brothers" (acable series),"Dynasty" (with tions Commission commissioner New- its "sensitive son," Steven Carrington), ton Minnow that television was a "vast "Hooperman," "Love, Sidney," and "Soap" wasteland." have included gay and lesbian characters. The fledgling industry inherited A few long and lavish British series based many practices and trends from Holly- on literary classics have provided por- wood-among them self-censorship. traits of gay people in the round (e.g., "Br- However, Hollywood had created a genre ideshead Revisited," 1980; "The Jewel in of "sissy" character, a figure with veiled the Crown," 1984),but these have reached gay traits. This type occasionally appeared, only elite audiences. When all is said and in even more disguised form, in such early done, however, after forty years of the situation comedy series as "Mr. Peepers," hegemony of network television, gay with Wally Cox. When motion pictures people have had good reason to feel that that contained references to homosexual- they are woefully underrepresented. ity were shown, even on late-night televi- Gay Influence over Television. It sion, the offending sections were ruth- was to be expected that from the first, 4 TELEVISION television, recruiting much of its talent against offensive programs, and new civil from Hollywood and Broadway, had many rights groups, such as 's Gay gay and lesbian participants, especially in and Lesbian Alliance Against Defama- such behind-the-scenes work as makeup tion (GLAAD)organized their own efforts. and costuming. Yet an unwritten law (itself AIDS and Television. When the inherited from Hollywood) held that the AIDS crisis appeared in 1981 mainstream actors who appeared on the screen must be newspapers were the main vehicle of in- heavily closeted. The revelation of Rock formation for the general public. Eventu- Hudson's homosexuality, after he had ally, through news programs and specials, appeared in several television dramas, sent television made a contribution, though its shock waves through the industry. Symp- insensivity sometimes fueled a climate of tomatic of the prejudice that exists is the panic that could have been avoided or at fact that open membership organizations least reduced. In 1983 the hospital series to defend the rights of gay people in televi- "St. Elsewhere" introduced an AIDS story sion have never really gotten off the line,whilethemade-for-TVfilmUAnEarly ground, and homosexuals have had to rely Frost," about the effect of knowledge of on informal groups of friends. Fear of loss the disease on a middle-class homo- of work--even blacklisting-continues to sexual's family, garnered an Emmy (Arne- be a powerful deterrent to speaking out. rican television's highest award) in 1985. Following the pattern of Jewish Although Hollywood stars lent and black organizations fighting stereo- their support to campaigns to raise money typinginthemedia,gay "pressuregroups" in the fight against AIDS, many felt that a have had some success in reducing blatant silent backlash was taking place. In the expressions of prejudice on television late 1970s several major performers screens. A 1974 episode of "Police Wo- seemed on the verge of "," but man" called "Flowers of Evil," about three the atmosphere shifted radically. Even lesbians who murder patients in an old- heterosexual actors who had portrayed agehome, provokedjustifiedoutrage. Soon gays found that it was hard to get work. If afterward, the National Gay Task Force kissing scenes were involved, actresses induced the Television Review Board of demanded to be able to veto leading men the National Association of Broadcasters who were gay. Those in the industry who to issue a directive stating that the Televi- did contract the disease felt the need to sion Code's injunction that "material conceal it in order to retain benefits, and to with sexual connotations shall not be avoid "incriminating" friends. treated exploitatively or irresponsibly" All in all, the AIDS crisis revealed applied to homosexuals. In Los Angeles the inadequacy of television's feeble ef- Newton Deiter, a gay psychologist and forts to mend its ways. Much work re- activist, successfully ran the Gay Media mains to be done by activists, but even so Task Force (GMTF).He and his associates it is unlikely that mass-market television were able to monitor scripts for the net- will ever be a true friend of gay men and works, and to obtain frank meetings with lesbians. Rather, hope lies in the spread of producers. GMTF was particularly alert new technologies which will cut the for lisping, limp-wristed mannerisms for commercial networks down to size by gay men and truck-driver characteriza- making communications accessible to a tions of lesbians. Such offensive words as full range of viewpoints, not just those faggot and queer were taken out. that a few opportunistic and amoral TV In the 1980s these lobbying ef- executives judge appropriate. forts seemed to falter. However, gay news- See also Communications. papers publicized writing campaigns Ward Houser