Pedagogy and Artistry in Select Twentieth-Century Piano Etudes

A document submitted to the

Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

in the Keyboard Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music

August 2020

Grace Eunhye Lee

P.D., Southern Methodist University, 2013

M.M., University of Cincinnati, 2011

B.M., Sookmyung Women’s University, Korea, 2006

Committee Chair: Samuel Y. Ng, PhD ABSTRACT

The twentieth-century concert etude drew from and expanded upon the achievements of nineteenth-century composers such as Chopin and Liszt. Many composers wrote sets of etudes for piano exploring many disparate styles and techniques. While some composers rely on a general difficulty or complex compositional formulas for connection to the genre, other composers were more explicit about the technical difficulties, thus linking more directly to the tradition began by Chopin and others.

This document examines and compares sets of etudes that retain this balance between concert artifice and pedagogical concerns and will examine works by Louise Talma (Six Etudes for Piano, 1954), Einojuhani Rautavaara (Etydit, Op. 42, 1969), Ned Rorem (Eight Etudes for

Piano, 1975), György Ligeti (Études pour Piano Premier Livre, 1985), and William Bolcom (12

New Etudes for Piano, 1986).

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Most of all, I would like to express my thanks to God. I may have not been able to finish this journey without his help. He is always with me, guides me and gives me the strength.

I want to say thanks to my advisor, Dr. Sam Ng, and two readers, Dr. Michelle Conda and

Professor Awadagin Pratt. I appreciate their guidance and commitment for my document.

Also, I want to give my thanks to my friends. Whenever I was struggling, they prayed for me and encouraged me. Especially, when I felt emotionally suffering because of the covid-19, they helped me to stay calm and encouraged for me to be able to finish this work.

Lastly, I want to send huge thanks to my family. Though they are in Korea, they always give supports and send love. Especially, my mom supports me with endless love. I appreciate her praying for me day and night and the devotion.

I am blessed to study with good professors. I see their passion to teach, deep understanding of music, and devotion to the practice and research. I will keep trying to be a better musician, educator and good person by following you all. Thank you, all my teachers.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………………..iv

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES……………………………………………………………….vi

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….1

2. LOUISE TALMA’S SIX ETUDES FOR PIANO……………………………………10

3. EINOJUHANI RAUTAVAARA’S ETYDIT………………………………………...21

4. NED ROREM’S EIGHT ETUDES FOR PIANO……………………………………32

5. GYÖRGY LIGETI’S ÉTUDES POUR PIANO, PREMIER LIVRE………………...46

6. WILLIAM BOLCOM’S TWELVE NEW ETUDES FOR PIANO…………………...54

7. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………67

BIBLOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………...72

v LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

PAGE

2.1 Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 1, mm. 22–26……………………………...……12

2.2 Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 2, mm. 32–36…………………………...………14

2.3 Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 2 mm. 48–51……………………………………14

2.4 Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 3, mm. 1–2.….………………………………….15

2.5a Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 4, mm. 1–5……………………………………..16

2.5b Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 4, mm. 31–35...... ……………………………...16

2.6 Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 4, mm. 41–45...…………………………………17

3.1 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 1, “Thirds,” mm. 6–7…………………………….……23

3.2 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, No. 1, “Thirds,” mm. 12–13…………………………...... 23

3.3 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, No. 2, “Seventh,” mm. 1–2………………………………..24

3.4 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 3, “Tritones,” mm. 1–2………………………………..26

3.5 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 4, “Fourths,” mm. 1–4………………………………...27

3.6 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 4, “Fourths,” mm. 13–16……………………………...28

3.7 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 5, “Seconds,” mm. 7–9………………………………..29

3.8 Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 6, “Fifths,” mm. 5–6…………………………………..31

4.1 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 1, mm. 13–21………………………………...…34

4.2 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 1, mm. 33–38………………………………...…35

4.3 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 3, mm. 25–28…………………………………...37

4.4 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 3, mm. 1–6…………………………………...…38

4.5a Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 6, mm. 15–17………………………………….42

4.5b Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 6, mm. 21–23………………………………….42

vi 4.6 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 6, mm. 28–34…………………………………...43

4.7 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 8, m. 2…………………………………………..45

5.1 György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 1, “Désordre,” mm. 1–4…………..47

5.2 György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 3, “Touches bloquées,” Performance

Note………………………………………………………………………………………….49

5.3 György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 3, “Touches bloquées,” mm. 1–4…50

5.4 György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 5, “Arc-en-ciel,” mm. 7–8………..52

5.5 György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 6, “Automne a Varsovie,” mm. 43–

46…………………………………………………………………………………………….53

6.1 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 1, “Fast, Furious,” fourth system……….55

6.2 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 2, “Récitatif,” m. 4……………………...56

6.3 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 6, “Nocturne,” mm. 5–9………………...61

6.4 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 8 “Rag infernal,” mm. 6–8……………...62

6.5 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 10 “Vers le silence,” m. 10……………..65

6.6 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 11 “Hi-jinks,” first and second system….66

vii Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The etude is one of the most important genres for pianists. Its origins can be traced to the many types of teaching pieces designed by instructors for their students since the Baroque period, such as François Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin, George Frederic Handel’s four volumes of keyboard studies, Domenico Scarlatti’s Sonatas, originally named Essercizi per Gravicembalo

(Exercises for harpsichord), and the four volumes of “keyboard practice” by J. S. Bach known as

Klavier Übung.1 These pieces to some degree or another address technical and intellectual issues of keyboard playing while providing quality music for amateur and professional musicians. By the end of the eighteenth-century and the beginning of the nineteenth-century, specifically pedagogical publications became popular. Johan Baptist Cramer’s Etudes pour le pianoforte Op.

39, Johann Hummel’s Klavierschule, and Ignaz Moscheles’s Twenty-four Etudes Op. 70 and

Charakteristiche Studien Op. 95 are good examples of this trend; however, Muzio Clementi’s

Gradus ad Parnassum is perhaps the most famous of these sets. The pieces found in these collections are generally short, use binary and rounded binary forms primarily, and focus on one to two technical problems within a melodic framework; as sets, they are often graded, gradually becoming more and more difficult. In his numerous publications, Karl Czerny kept these basic principles while greatly expanding on the length as well as difficulty and technical aspects.2

In the nineteenth century, the etude developed in several ways. Some composers such as

Louis Köhler and Friedrich Burgmüller (mainly writing for young students) continued to compose studies in the Clementi or Czerny vein, while others reduced the technical problems to

1 Eun Young Kang, “Late Twentieth-Century Piano Concert Études: A Style Study” (DMA document, University of Cincinnati, 2010), 1. 2 John Gillespie, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music (New York, NY: Dover, 1965), 248–249. 1 more basic elements. Joseph Pischna, Charles-Louise Hanon, Aloys Schmiddt and many others published collections of studies designed to develop good technique; some of these are still used today. Generally, a simple pattern is repeated in descending and ascending scales. Even Johannes

Brahms contributed to this type of work with his 51 Übung für Klavier in which various polyrhythms are explored in great detail, among other techniques.3

The third major development was the advent of the concert etude. Largely credited with initiating this genre for piano, Frederic Chopin’s Etudes Op. 10 and Op. 25 combine technical difficulties with musicianship. While each etude tackles a technical difficulty, such as the arpeggio (Op. 10, No. 1), or octaves (Op. 25, No. 10), etc., they were also performed in concerts.4 Later composers such as Franz Liszt, Alexander Scriabin, Moritz Moszkowski, Sergei

Rachmaninoff, and Claude Debussy expanded this genre. Liszt, especially, handles several technical difficulties in his etudes (compared to Chopin’s) and each of his transcendental etudes includes evocative titles.

In the twentieth century, the concert etude continued to be important to composers. As musical styles developed into various trends, techniques to convey these styles developed as well. While traditional techniques continued to be explored, such as arpeggios, scales, intervals of thirds or sixths, composers also focused on intervals not common in the nineteenth century, rhythmic complications and extended techniques. Many of these composers are more interested in the use the etude to develop their own style.5 For instance, Leopold Godowsky arranged all of

Chopin’s etudes in his own manner (53 Studies on Chopin Etudes); John Cage’s Etudes Astrales uses star charts to compose the pieces, and Philip Glass’s etudes eschews technical demands for

3 Johaness Brahms, 51 Exercise for Piano, ed. Maurice Hinson (Los Angeles, CA: Alfred, 1985), 5. 4 Stewart Gordon, A History of Keyboard Literature (Belmont, CA: Schirmer, 1996), 283–285. 5 Kang, 99–101. 2 intimate explorations of tempo and harmony. Other composers, however, are committed to the principles of pedagogy within the artistic parameters of the concert etude. This document explores these types of works.

The purpose of this document is to explore twentieth-century piano etudes that combine pedagogical and artistic concerns. While there are many such works that qualify, I will limit my study to sets of etudes in which the composer identified the specific technique developed in each etude. By removing any guess-work as to the nature of the technical problems, this approach will allow me to focus on the interaction of the technique and art. In this document, I will survey and compare Loise Talma’s Six Etudes for piano, Einojuhani Rautavaara’s Etydit, Op. 42, William

Bolcom’s 12 New Etudes for Piano, Ned Rorem’s Eight Etudes for Piano, and György Ligeti’s

Études pour Piano Premier Livre. These etudes usually focus on one main piano difficulty each and represent a very wide variety of styles and expression as well. It is my hope, that teachers will use these works to a greater extent as they develop their students’ technique and artistry. As such, I will include helpful practice and performing tips as well, and I will provide a guide that suggests twentieth-century etudes (from this list) that teachers can substitute for the more commonly used nineteenth-century etudes.

Research concerning the piano etude is varied and there are many studies that will benefit the current one. For general information and history of the etude, Maurice

Hinson’s Guide to the Pianist’s Repertoire, John Gillespie’s Five Centuries of

Keyboard Music, and David Burge’s Twentieth-Century Piano Music are excellent sources that help to contextualize the pieces within the larger repertoire.6 Although

6 Gillespie, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music; Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist’s Repertoire, 3rd ed. (Bloomington, IA: Indiana University Press, 2000); David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004). 3 more concerned with nineteenth-century etudes, Robert Dale Marler’s comprehensive study of Charles-Valentin Alkan’s etudes and Woori Kim’s comparison of Chopin and

Debussy etudes will help me as I deal with different composers’ handling of similar technical difficulties.7 For example, Kim’s comparison of Chopin’s Etude Op. 25, No.

10 with Debussy’s Pour le Octaves, examines each piece looking at tempo, articulation, and melodic and harmonic writing, and shows the ways composers can use similar aspects to achieve varied results. There is one comparative study of late twentieth- century etudes by Eun young Kang which provides explanations of Cage’s Etudes

Australes, Bolcom’s Twelve New Etudes for Piano, John Corigliano’s Etude Fantasy, and Ligeti’s Etudes pour Piano, Premier Livre.8 Her study is primarily a performance guide and her comparison mainly focuses on how these composer’s deviate within their styles while maintaining many of the nineteenth-century etude characteristics. She also compares etude and non-etude works of each composer. My attention to specific pedagogical concerns will contrast with her document.

Many of the composers within my study have significant resources. Rorem’s etudes, however, have received very little attention compared to other pieces in his repertoire. The exception is Lawrence Campbell’s document, which provides a comprehensive examination of

Rorem’ s Eight Etudes, giving detailed surveys and analyses of each, and their individual characteristics.9 Campbell focuses on Rorem’s pianistic style through investigating thematic material, which Rorem uses to unify whole pieces, and rhythmic strategies and structural

7 Robert Dale Marler, “The Role of the Piano Etude in the Works of Charles-Valentin Alkans” (DMA document, University of Cincinnati, 1990); Woori Kim, “A Comparative Study of the Etude Genre in Chopin and Debussy” (DMA document, University of Cincinnati, 2014). 8 Kang, “Late Twentieth-Century Piano Concert Études: A Style Study.” 9 Lawrence Campbell, “Works for Solo Piano by Ned Rorem” (DMA document, Indiana University, 1983). 4 considerations. Campbell investigates the pitch class sets in each piece using set theory and observes where the set is reused within the whole etude collection. The reuse of earlier materials in Etude 8, for example is especially important to his analysis and he further demonstrates that Rorem shapes melodic themes in both previous musical styles without any transformation, or in serial style by inversion, retrograde, or reordering notes. He also situates

Rorem’s earlier pieces historically and compositionally, examining their musical style.

Campbell also discusses how a pianist might demonstrate different musical styles when playing Rorem’s thematic material. For example, the first theme of the fourth movement of

Rorem’s Sonata No. 2 is derived from the opening motive of the first movement of the sonata, but with a different rhythm. While his discussion of each etude is detailed, he provides little comparison between them. Campbell’s work is indispensable for my discussion on defining and explaining Rorem’s compositional style in the eight etudes, and I build on it to compare

Rorem’s style to that of other piano etudes of the twentieth century.

More research is especially necessary for both Talma and Rautavaara. Kendra Preston

Leonard provides general biography and discussions of Talma’s compositions but provides only a cursory examination of the etudes.10 Chien-Wei Wang’s concern in her document is with extended techniques and Eunice Wonderly Stackhouse’s is with Talma’s serial techniques.11

Though Talma’s etudes are only discussed in each of these studies briefly, these issues will be important to my understanding of Talma’s compositional style. Matthew Ming Li examines

Rautavaara’s etudes, focusing on what he calls symmetrical elements in Rautavaara’s music. He

10 Kendra person Leonard, Louise Talma: A Life in Composition (Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge, 2016). 11 Chien-Wei Wang, “Examples of Extended Techniques in Twentieth-century Piano Etude by Selected pianist-Composers” (DMA doctoral essay, university of Miami, 2010); Eunice Wonderly Stackhouse, “A Survey of the Solo Piano Compositions of Louise Tamla, Composed from 1943 to 1984” (DMA lecture-recital, University of Kansas, 1995). 5 analyzes Nos. 1, 3, and 5 in terms of form and tonality, and compares these pieces with etudes by Chopin and Debussy which treat the same intervals. Erik Thomas Tawastst Jerna delves into political issues of Finland in the twentieth century and certain composers’ involvement therein.12 His analysis is of the second piano sonata, but elements of sound, harmony, melody, rhythm and growth he highlights in this piece will benefit my understanding of Rautavaara’s music.

There are three documents that discuss Bolcom’s etudes that, although very different in scope and focus to mine, will benefit my understanding of this music. Andria Rachel Fennig examines the dynamics, articulations, notations, extended techniques, etc., used in the etudes from an interpretive and performance viewpoint, comparing and contrasting his two sets.13 She concludes that between the suites, there are pairs in which Bolcom handles the same or very similar techniques but in differing ways, noting that he is most interested in experimenting with techniques, contrasting articulation, and dynamics. Ji Sun Lee discusses these works primarily in terms of vocal language, seeing bel canto and recitative principles at play. 14 This study also considers Bolcom’s philosophy. Ran Dank’s study explores the balance between musical invention and audience expectation detailing dynamics, compositional language, range texture, articulation, contour, meter, rhythm and form.15

Ligeti’s etudes have also received some attention. Miyeon Jang’s dissertation specifically compares Ligeti’s etudes to those of his pupil Unsook Chin focusing on their

12 Matthew Ming Li, “Symmetrical Elements in the Piano Music of Einojuhani Rautavaara” (DMA thesis, University of Toronto, 2018); Erik Thomas Tawastst Jerna Delves, “Finnish Piano Music since 1945” (PhD dissertation, New York University, 1982). 13 Andria Rachel Fennig, “A Performance Guide to William Bolcom’s Twelve Etudes” (DMA research paper, Arizona State University, 2002). 14 Ji Sun Lee, “Revolutionary Etudes: The Expansion of Piano Technique Exploited in the Twelve New Etudes of William Bolcom” (DMA document, The University of Arizona, 2001). 15 Ran Dank, “Twelve New Etudes (1988): Theoretical and interpretative Analysis” (DMA dissertation, City University of New York, 2017). 6 dynamics, virtuosity, extended techniques, rhythms and unusual notations.16 Her approach, mainly a study guide, is helpful to understanding Ligeti’s music and her comparison of the virtuosic writing between etudes will help me with my own comparison. Richard Steinitz’s

György Ligeti: Music of the Imagination is helpful in order to understand the composer’s general musical style and his life.17 Ian Pace focuses on rhythm in Ligeti’s etudes and its effects on performance.18

The methodology for this document is based on a detailed stylistic study that focuses on elements of form, harmonic structure and writing, melodic writing, phrase structure, rhythmic writing, as well as articulations and dynamics. I will also examine how the primary technical challenge of each etude as specified by the composer interacts with these compositional concerns. Rautavaara names each etude in his set with the interval that governs the harmonic and melodic content. Rorem stipulates the technical difficulties in his preface to the published score.

Talma’s comes from interviews or conversations and Bolcom’s are written at the top of the first page of each as an instruction or subtitle. Ligeti titles several pieces with their technical challenges, and also provides detailed instructions. The following table lists each etude and its technical demand. (Key: T=title, C=conversation/interview, I=instruction/subtitle,

P=performance notes.)

16 Miyoun Jang, “A Comparative Study of Piano Etudes by György Sandor Ligeti and Unsuk Chin: A Technical and Stylistic Guide to Mastering the Difficulties of their Etudes” (DMA dissertation, University of North Texas, 2018). 17 Richard Steinits, György Ligeti: Music of the Imagination (London, United Kingdom: Faber & Faber, 2013). 18 Ian Pace, “Maintaining Disorder: Some Technical and Aesthetic Issues Involved in Performance of Ligeti’s Etude for Piano,” Contemporary Music Review 31, No. 2–3 (April 2012): 177–201. 7

Talma Rautavaara

No. 1: Dynamics contrasts (C) No. 1: Third (T)

No. 2: Staccato without pedal (C) No. 2: Seventh (T)

No. 3: Sostenuto pedal (C) No. 3: Fourth (T)

No. 4: Wide skips (C) No. 4: Second (T) No. 5: Hand crossings (C) No. 5: Fifth (T)

No. 6: Rhythmic issues (C)

Rorem Ligeti

No. 1: Loud contrary motion (P) No. 2: No. 1: Disorder (T)

Softness (P) No. 2: Open Strings (T)

No. 3: Speed without pedal (P) No. 4: No. 3: Blocked Keys (T)

Sevenths (P) No. 4: “Aksak-influenced rhythms and an ostinato” (I)

No. 5: Slow tune with fast filigree (P) No. 6: Quick No. 5: “Rhythmic texture with chromatic

fourths (P) descending” (I)

No. 7: Right hand alone (P) No. 6: [Polyrhythms]

No. 8: Parallel motion with conflicting rhythms (P)

Bolcom

No. 1: “Sweeping gestures” (I) No. 2: “Smoothness” (I)

No. 3: “Leaps” (I)

No. 4: “A steady, rhythmic ostinato vs varied irrational rhythm” (I)

No. 5: “The lateral tremolo” (I)

No. 6: “Absolute contrast in dynamics, tone” (I) No. 7: “Inside piano plucking” (I)

No. 8: “Lateral hand-jumps and stretches” (I)

No. 9: “Controlled legato lines with minimal pedal” (I)

No. 10:” Wide leaps” (I)

No. 11: “Dynamic contrast” (I)

No. 12: “Contrast of timbres” (I)

Questions that I will try to answer are: How does a particular composer’s style participate within the pedagogical aims of an etude? To what extent does the individual

8 etude explore traditional technical demands? To what extent does it expand technical demands? To what extent are the techniques developed in a particular etude transferable to other pieces in this style? Finally, I will compare these composers’ etudes in order to make clear distinctions of style and pedagogical benefits.

Chapter 2

LOUISE TALMA’S SIX ETUDES FOR PIANO

Louise Talma composed her Six Etudes in 1954; they were published by G. Schirmer in

1962. Each is dedicated to a different person: No. 1 to her friend, Thornton Wilder; No. 2 to her student, Estelle Hershler; No. 3 to John Edmunds who commissioned the set; No. 4 to a composer, Paul Nordoff; No. 5 to her friend, Guiomar Novaes; and No. 6 to her friend, a pianist,

Beveridge Webster. Webster premiered the set on April 18, 1955 at Carnegie Recital Hall and also made a studio recording of the work.

The etudes demarcate a significant departure in Talma’s style and works. Up until this point, she composed in an overwhelmingly tonal language and often in a neo-classical style.

These etudes are the first pieces in her output in which she applied serial techniques. She further explored this style in her Piano Sonata No. 2 (1955), Three Bagatelles (1955), and the

Passacaglia and Fugue (1955). Each etude in the set has one prime row.

In terms of specific difficulties, the third etude is the only one to receive a comment concerning pedagogical purpose from Talma in the original score; the subtitle reads, “for the study of the sostenuto pedal.” However, in a letter written to Julia Ann Morris, who wrote a master’s thesis on Talma in 1980, the composer specified the teaching aspects of each etude in a similar manner that Rorem had used in his program notes: pianissimo; staccato; sostenuto pedal; wide leaps; crossing left hand; and for no. 6, increasing number of notes per beat.19 Talma specified in this letter that “The etudes were written to challenge the pianist technically and musically. For this [I] chose six pianistic problems which, with the exception of the staccato one

19 Louise Talma, Letter to Julia Ann Morris, June 15, 1980, quoted in Susan Carol Teicher, “The Solo Works for Piano of Louise Talma” (DMA dissertation, The Peabody Conservatory of Music, Peabody Institute of The Johns Hopkins University, 1983), 97.

(No. 2), had not been the subject of previous etudes, at least of those known to me.”20 Each difficulty she mentioned is approached in multiple ways in its etude.

No. 1

According to Talma, the first etude responds to a lack of etudes in the repertoire that specifically deal with softness (pianissimo) as a technical issue. She recounts:

The first [etude] was the study of pianissimo (this was suggested to me by Thornton Wilder who, when he heard about the project, said: “Has anyone written an etude for the study of pianissimo?” I couldn’t think of one, so I decided to do it, and to make it harder by contrasting it with a few fortissimo passages, since it is much harder to pull back to pianissimo from fortissimo than it is to keep on all the time pianissimo. This is why that etude is dedicated to him.21

This comment can seem odd in light of large passages if not entire etudes devoted to extreme softness in the sets of etudes by Chopin, Liszt, Scriabin, Rachmaninoff and especially Debussy, whose etudes are overwhelmingly soft. However, Talma’s contribution focuses the contrasts of fortissimo and pianissimo within very quick changes as well as atonal structures.

The form is ABA’ and texture is one of the key differentiating aspects of the form. Part A

(mm. 1–13) consists of a pair of two-part canons introduced and then interrupted by loud arpeggio figures. While the canons consist of different notes, the arpeggios are the same except slightly different endings. In the A’ section, the canon begins in the right hand with left hand accompaniment in a contrapuntal texture in sixteenth notes, then the hands switch, and the left hand plays the full melody; at m. 52, a more traditional canon separated by three sixteenth-notes begins. A final arpeggiated outburst follows and then a coda is heard that texturally speaking has

20 Ibid, 98. 21 Ibid, 99. 11 little to do with the material that came before it. The B section is in a more homophonic style, with very clear melody plus accompaniment textures.

In this etude, the prime tone row is d, f, a-flat, b-flat, c, e, g, a, b, e-flat, d-flat, g-flat.22

Talma uses this prime row both for the beginnings of the A section and B section. It serves as the two-measure arpeggiation figure. In the B section, it is in the combination of right-hand accompaniment and left-hand melody. She also employs retrograde techniques in these sections as well.

The difficulty concerning the dynamics comes mostly in the voicing and in this regard, due to the texture, the B section’s repeated chords require a tremendous amount of control on the part of the performer. The voicing of the independent lines in the A section is another difficulty.

Each entrance of the canon needs to be slightly louder while maintaining balance. In the B section, the performer needs clear phrasing in the alternations between melody plus accompaniment as well as the hand crossings.

Example 2.1, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 1, mm.22–26.

No. 2

Talma composed the second etude for her student, Estelle Hershler who had lost her leg in a car accident. The composer hoped to maintain Hershler’s interest in piano despite her physical limitations.23 This etude focuses on staccato playing and includes the marking: sempre

22 Ibid, 102. 23 Ibid, 106–107. 12 senza ped. (always without pedal). The ABA’ form is fast and light and has the character of a scherzo. In the A section, the two hands play similar monophonic material in mm. 1–17, but independently, each hand with its own rhythm. The two lines share the same continuous rhythm and are more symmetrical from mm. 18–31. The B section, mm. 32–56, sees the addition of more voices, first in the right hand, then in the left also (m. 49). The texture is different as well, in that a melodic voice (on top) has a different rhythm than the accompanying voices. The A’, which begins in m. 58, is a truncated version of the original.

The prime tone row in this etude is a, c, f-sharp, d, g-sharp, b, f, d-flat, g, e-flat, b-flat, e.24

In the first four measures, only seven of the pitches are used, but by the end of the phrase in m. 7, she has finished the row. The B section follows a similar procedure. Thus, Talma utilizes her twelve-tone techniques within the designs and purposes of the etude genre, which often features a repeated pattern allowing for focus on a technical difficulty. Here, she repeats the pattern in these measures, then slowly adds to the pattern as the general idea is worked out.

The overwhelmingly soft dynamics (except for the climax and ending) combined with the intricate articulation writing create many challenges for the pianist. In broad terms, the stark contrast between the A section’s sempre staccato, molto secco and the B section’s legato la melodia requires control from the pianist, but even more difficult is that in the B section, it is mixed staccato and legato in one hand. The top line maintains legato while the alto line plays staccato.

24 Ibid, 108. 13

Example 2.2, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 2, mm.32–36.

Adding to the challenges are the mix of parallel and contrasting motions in which slight variances of intervals between the hands are noticeable. A good example of these slight variances can be found in 48–51.

Example 2.3, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 2 mm. 48–51.

3rd 2nd 4th 3rd 6th 5th 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 7th 4th

Talma seldom repeats the exact intervals, but rather continuously changes them. For instance, in m. 50, the left hand proceeds with a fifth, second, third, fourth and fifth interval.

No. 3

Etude 3 is the only one in which she indicated the purpose in the title: “for the study of the sostenuto pedal.” The form is ABA’ with a coda, but as is the case with several of the other etudes in this set, the change from A to B is a subtle shift in the use of the tone row as well as texture and articulation rather than outright contrasts of style. The A section here (mm. 1–15), is

14 a series of long-held sostenuto chords that surround faster rhythmic passages mostly in unison between the hands. While sostenuto chords continue in the B section (mm. 16–27), as well as the sixteenth notes in the right-hand melody, the left-hand accompaniment changes to eighth notes.

A’ begins in m. 39 with a return to the original texture.

In the A section, the hands play unison versions of the row, except there is some changes of direction. For instance, after the sustained notes in m. 1, the notes are G-D-E-C#-D# in unison, but when C arrives, the right hand moves down whereas the left hand leaps up a sixth.

Example 2.4, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 3, mm. 1–2.

The B section, while rhythmically unison, uses different melodic material in each hand.

The interaction of the sustained chords and quicker lines create much difficulty. Talma

(perhaps anticipating careless playing) indicates in the footnote to this piece that the durations of the long-held notes are the exact parameters for the use of the sostenuto pedal. The pianist must be precise in the use of this affect. Further, the sostenuto chords are usually set apart from the quicker lines. In the A section, the chords are generally in the middle of the keyboard, while the filigree surrounds them in the highs and lows of the piano. In the B, often the two hands are together above or below the sustain chords. Thus, the moves in and out of the sostenuto chords

15 can be quite challenging to the pianist. Articulation is another aspect of the difficulty, and there are many legatos, and staccatos, in the fast lines that should not be affected by the reverb quality of the sostenuto chords. Overall, this etude requires a light and relatively dry sound in the melodic part. Talma specifies that except for mm. 25–27, the damper pedal is not to be used.

No. 4

The fourth etude concentrates on wide leaps. A study that is in a continuous eighth-note rhythm from the beginning to the end, the form is though composed, though there is a middle part in which the procedure differs. For instance, in m. 1–26, on each downbeat, the right hand had leapt down and the left hand up, but from mm. 28–55 the reverse occurs. In m. 56, the direction is again as it was in the beginning.

Example 2.5a, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 4, mm.1–5.

Example 2.5b, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 4, mm.31–35.

Talma’s approach to the tone row is similar to how she uses it in the other etudes. It is broken into smaller units that are then repeated frequently. For instance, in the first measure she uses seven notes, c-d-flat-f-a-e-g-sharp-g, and this pattern repeats for four measures, until in mm.

5–9 she changes to f-sharp, b, d, b-flat. The final note of the row, e-flat, is finally introduced in m. 10.25 The phrasing structure is tied to these repeating patterns; at first it is regular but it is irregular beginning in m. 10.

Difficulties in this etude stem from changes to the pattern amid the wide leaps. For instance, in mm. 27–30, where the left hand has a consistent pattern, the playing is straight- forward: the top voice remains the same while the lower voice alternates between e-flat and a- flat. However, mm. 16–18, comparatively, are much more challenging as the leaps are irregular in terms of interval and direction (a mix of contrary and parallel motions). As the piece progresses, the dyads involved in the leaps become wider (such as fourths, fifths, sixths, and chords) which often include sevenths. In mm. 41–45, for instance, the performer must change quickly between these intervals and the fingers will change as well.

Example 2.6, Louise Talma, Six Etudes for Piano, No. 4, mm. 41–45.

Example Talma Etude No. 4 m.41-45

25 Ibid, 115–116. 17

No. 5

Etude 5 focuses on hand crossings. The form is ABA’ but the B section can be further divided into two parts. Throughout the etude, there is a voice that plays continuous sixteenth notes opposite a voice that plays in slower note values: often eighth notes, but some longer notes as well. Both hands participate in these two voices and they continuously switch between them.

The hand crossings occur in the voice with the slower note values; in the A sections these crosses are extremely quick, every other note, or sometimes a couple of notes, whereas in the B sections, longer phrases are used in the different registers. The A section is mm. 1–20, the first part of B is mm. 21–33, the second part of B is mm. 34–40, and the A’ starts in m. 40.

This etude’s prime row is c, e, f-sharp, b, g-sharp, d-sharp, a, c-sharp, f, g, d, b-flat.26

While in her other etudes, she often uses part of the row in repetitive patterns rather than the whole, here she uses the row several times in the first five measures without interruption. The A’ section repeats this action even more exactly. In the B section, she uses only ten notes for the first two measure and then, introduces the complete row. Coupled with the twelve-tone writing is a pervasive rhythmic pattern. Written in 5/8 meter, each measure in the A sections as well as the first part of B groups the beats as 3+2 or 2+3. In the B section’s second part, the meter changes to 6/8, and while the right hand has regular groupings (3+3), the left hand has irregular rhythms.

This etude is extremely fast (eighth note = 176), and the execution of the crossings requires careful control while simultaneously keeping a delicate touch in the sixteenth-note voice. Adding to the complication are subtle changes in the articulation: the voice with the longer note values is to be played leggiero, and there are many two-note slurs, as well as longer

26 Teicher, 120. 18 phrasings. Further, there are no rests when alternating the hands, and the hands must switch techniques very quickly while maintaining control.

No. 6

The final etude is an exercise in which each phrase sees increasingly shorter note values.

As if applying Baroque diminution to an extreme degree, Talma’s use of this compositional technique results in a through-composed form. The first phrase, mm. 1–7, employs both half notes and quarter notes, then in mm. 8–12, quarter notes, mm. 13–15, eighth notes, etc. The values continue to get smaller: triplets, sixteenth notes, quintuplets, sextuplets, and thirty-second notes, then groups of 10, 11, 12 and 13 (they don’t always appear in order). The only real disruption to this scheme is in mm. 41–43, when the first theme is heard before moving to a grouping of thirteen. This restatement is played two octaves higher than the original.

The tone row changes as the rhythmic values decrease. The prime row is a, f, e-flat, g- flat, d-flat, d, b, b-flat, c, g, d, g-sharp.27 She uses a different row for each diminution. The phrasing in this piece relates to the rhythm in that one phrase coincides with each diminution; and, while no rests separate these phrases, a short pause is appropriate following the tradition established by Webster’s recording. The shortest of the phrases is two measures occurring in mm. in 27–28 and the longest is five measure phrasing in mm. 13–19 and 20–24. The texture at the beginning is in two-part counterpoint, but from mm. 8–28 it becomes melody + accompaniment. The accompaniment, which alternates between the hands, is generally in a slower value than the main voice.

27 Ibid, 122–123. 19

Two of the key difficulties aside from the rhythmic concerns is pedaling and articulation.

Talma includes a note that the sound should be clear and not over-pedaled and she puts more exact markings in mm. 29–30 and after 39. This technique requires much legato between the hands without the pedal. One-quarter pedal or one-half pedal would also be appropriate. A further challenge are the large leaps like those in m. 19 or m. 25.

Chapter 3

EINOJUHANI RAUTAVAARA’S ETYDIT

Einojuhani Rautavaara’s Etudes were composed in 1969, during a short two-year period of his output, when he had begun to move away from the strict serial styles he had employed earlier and to a more eclectic style that drew from many disparate styles. This time also saw him focusing on piano music (except for one opera and one motet); apart from the etudes, he composed Concerto No. 1 (1969), Piano Sonata No. 1 “Christus und die Fischer” (1969), and

Piano Sonata No. 2 “Fire Sermon” (1970). 28 The etudes were published by Fennica Gehrman and dedicated to Finnish-German pianist, Ralf Gothóni, who also premiered the first five on

March 15, 1970. Later that year, Izumi Tateno gave the first complete performance on October

26. Tateno as well as Laura Mikkola have made recordings of these works.

Rautavaara uses the specific intervals that are the basis of each piece as the title in a manner similar to what Debussy had done in his etudes. Rautavaara’s six etudes are: No. 1

Thirds, No. 2 Sevenths, No. 3 Tritones, No. 4 Fourths, No. 5 Seconds, and No. 6 Fifths. These etudes demonstrate a very clear amount of sparsity and focus as the musical material in each etude is derived almost exclusively from the compositional boundaries (i.e., intervals) he has placed on himself. Further, these etudes showcase a particular aspect of this composer’s style.

Rautavaara is interested in large-scale contrasts and in these pieces, there are constant alternations between contrasting elements such as parallel motion versus contrary motion, thicker textures versus thinner, blocked chords versus arpeggios, conjunct melodic movement versus disjunct, angular movement, etc. These contrasts often are integral to the form, construction of phrase structure, and the harmonic language.

28 Matthew Ming Li, “Symmetrical Elements in the Piano Music of Einojuhani Rautavaara” (DMA Thesis, University of Toronto, 2018), 48. 21

No. 1 Thirds

Playing thirds in on hand at a time (often simultaneously with the other) is one of the most ubiquitous etude constructions. Composers like Liszt, Scriabin, and Rachmaninoff, who include many disparate technical difficulties within one etude, often have large passages that concentrate on thirds technique, while composers such as Chopin and Debussy both have etudes that concentrate almost exclusively on thirds. (Chopin Etude Op. 25 No. 6, and Debussy Etude

No. 2). The thirds in these passages and pieces are played in scales, trills, arpeggiations, broken chord patterns, and other intricate figures. Rautavaara’s approach is quite different. The interval creates the musical material, while the technique is concentrated in monophonic arpeggiations built out seventh, ninth, and eleventh chords. Thick blocked chords of thirds are also used. The form is ABA’. The A section is comprised of alternating blocked chords with ascending arpeggios. In m. 6, the B section begins: it features arpeggios first in slightly slower durations but then back to 32nd-notes, which ascend and descend, and it includes a melodic line in long notes usually in the middle of the range. Before the A’ concludes the piece from m. 64 ff., a transitional passage that combines elements of the two sections is heard in mm. 50–63.

Overwhelmingly, the harmonies showcase bi-tonality between the hands as the harmonies change chromatically through the piece (especially in the B section). For instance, at the beginning of the B section, the left hand has an A chord, while the Right has a F#.

Example 3.1, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 1, “Thirds,” mm. 6–7.

A Later, this dichotomy becomes D+7, F+7, then F#+7, A+7, then F+7, A+7, E-flat+7,

G+7, B-flat+7, D-flat+7, and etc.

Example 3.2, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 1, “Thirds,” mm. 12–13.

D+7

F+7

Indeed, the C7 chord heard in the opening of the A section is one of the only places where bi-tonality is not evident. Melodically speaking, Rautavaara uses either a hymn-like line or arpeggios. In the B section, arpeggios with a longer melody is heard in the top line, but no clear phrasing exists; rather these notes are like held punctuations over the quickly moving lower voices. While the rhythmic writing is very consistent, Rautavaara employs many unusual meters such as 10/4, 7/4, 7/16, 9/8, and 5/4. His dynamics range from ff to pp, and his instructions for playing the B section is “la melodia marcato, legato e cantabile.”

The difficulty in this piece focuses on the very fast arpeggios and voicing of the inner non-third melody. As no real contrast of mood or even dynamics is noticeable, the performer must maintain balance between these materials.

No. 2 Sevenths

The sevenths in etude 2 are performed continually broken rather than blocked, so that unlike in a similar etude of Rorem, the sonority of the seventh is not the main point. Again, this texture is extremely light. The form is through composed and with the regular and constant sixteenth notes at a speed of eighth note equals c. 192, this piece has quite a drive to it. Longer notes, usually heard at the downbeat create some melodic interest similarly to that in etude 1, although this melody also maintains the strict sevenths (or seconds).

Rautavaara applies 12-tone techniques in this etude, but through the light texture, the music often sounds tonal. He also has passages in which not all 12 tones are heard, but rather repeating segments and motives create repeating figures. For instance, in the beginning, a two- measure figure is introduced that includes all of the tones except f, f-sharp, and g.

Example 3.3, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, No. 2, “Seventh,” mm. 1–2.

The first notes are d# and e. In the next measure, they are d and e-flat. A motive of c, b, b-flat, a, g-sharp, d-flat and c is heard in both measures after the initial notes. Mm. 3 and 4 are the same, but in mm. 5 and 6, a different figure built out of the notes, a-flat, g, a, g-sharp, c, and b, completes the phrase. This whole phrase repeats and reappears at various times later, though

24 eventually the music, though related, tends to focus on other tones. These repeating figures lend some stasis to the otherwise constantly changing tonality. The opening figure also expands over time and the rest of the tones are involved. The g is included in m. 5 and both f and f-sharp in m.

14.

Rautavaara’s difficulty in this piece is easy to understand but arduous to execute. That the sevenths in one beat are separated mostly by a second in the next beat creates for large leaps.

Other intervals also add to these leaps. Thus, the pianist must keep their hands in the basic shape of the seventh while moving very quickly up and down the keyboard. The notes are played almost entirely with fingers 1 and 5, and then the entire hand moves quickly. His focus is one of hand shape and through the twelve-tone material in sparse textures that relies on broken sevenths, he composes a very challenging etude that addresses a very specific complication. The extremely fast tempo and largely varied dynamics contribute to overall difficulty.

No. 3 Tritones

Etude 3 is slow and short (14 measures). Based on a repeating melodic motive, c, c-sharp, d-sharp, e, f-sharp, e, d-sharp, c-sharp, that is heard in mm. 1–2, 3–4, 5–6, 8–9, and 10–11, the form is through composed.

Example 3.4, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 3, “Tritones,” mm. 1–2.

Every repetition of the motive sees it in a different register; the other voices are also similar to the motive but often heard in contrary motion. This etude is quite homophonic, even hymn-like.

Rautavaara employs the octatonic scale (from c) throughout the piece except in m. 7, a short transition, and the ending coda, mm. 11–14. The scale generates many tritones, but especially on downbeats (except m. 12, 14, 15), this sonority is heard and contributes to the forward motion.

The challenges of this etude come from very thick textures, a scale in ninths, and the contrary motion. It starts in the right-hand soprano and alto and in the left-hand tenor and bass, but it keeps changing due to the interval. From m. 5 on, there are more than five voices and balance should be of central concern for the performer.

No. 4 Fourths

Arpeggiation returns in the fourth etude and for much of this etude, the long notes surrounded by arpeggios is reminiscent of the first etude. In terms of texture, the form is ABA

26 with mm. 39–47 serving as the B section; however, though mm. 48–end is similar to mm. 1–38, texturally, in terms of harmonic writing, it is different, which suggests a through composed form.

The harmonic language for this etude is almost entirely quartal in nature. Rather than appearing as a stack of fourths, however, Rautavaara places one of the fourths as a second above or below the other creating—in popular music parlance—a giant set of suspended chords (i.e., Dsus4,

Gsus2, etc.).

Example 3.5, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 4, “Fourths,” mm. 1–4.

Dsus4

E-flat sus4

Thus, the outer fifth of these chords is as important as the fourth and occasionally the seventh

(i.e., two fourths; mainly in the opening section) is as well. Further, symmetry between the hands is noticeable as the left hand plays sus4 chords and the right hand plays sus2 chords.

Example 3.6, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 4, “Fourths,” mm. 13–16.

Dsus2 Csus2 Asus2 Dsus2

Esus2 Gsus2

Dsus4 Overall, the harmony is largely diatonic, but with shifting tonal centers. For instance, in the first twelve measures, it moves d minor-e-flat minor-d minor – F major – e-flat minor – d minor. At times, the chords are combined with chromaticism, and the second section, especially, is much more dissonant. The rhythmic writing is mostly regular, but towards the end of the first section,

Rautavaara utilizes a waltz pattern beginning in m. 26 that continues till the next section.

This etude uses mostly loud dynamics, f to fff. The only soft section is the waltz-pattern section from m. 26–38. The challenges in this piece are the fast speeds and the voicing of the melodic elements within the arpeggiated accompaniment.

No. 5 Seconds

The controlling aspect of etude 5 is seconds, mostly chromatic, moving linearly. The form is through composed, though texturally, the end is somewhat similar to the beginning.

Throughout the piece, excepting mm. 22–29, a repeating figure of d-flat (enharmonically, c- sharp in mm. 35 and 36) and e-flat, creates an ostinato that provides consistency and unity.

This ostinato begins on an upbeat and remains on the off beats until the end, an approach that creates numerous syncopations. Perhaps the greatest controlling device in this piece is in the symmetry Rautavaara employs on several levels. It is seen in the individual hands, themselves as

28 the melodic motion moves out and back in minor seconds. It is also seen in the hands switching their roles. What the left hand had played in mm. 1–11, the right hand has after and vice versa.

Only in mm. 22–28 are the hands moving in the same directions, but even here, imitation occurs between the hands.

In the beginning, the ostinato is played in the right hand, but it needs to be played by left hand from mm. 10–19 as the right hand is now in a higher registration. In mm 20–24, the right hand again plays it. While there are no instructions from the composer in this regard, the performer should switch back and forth between the hands for the ostinato in mm. 31–34, allowing the other hand to play the notes in the outside of its range.

The difficulty lies in controlling the ostinato. Even in the alternations, an even sound maintaining the dynamic is necessary. Further, the performer must be concerned with balance between the ostinato and melodic line. For example, in mm. 7–9, the ostinato will be played in right hand which also has the contrary-motion line in the top.

Example 3.7, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 5, “Seconds”, mm. 7–9.

The ostinato here should be not louder than outer melodies, though it is marked with the same dynamic and is a busier motion.

No. 6 Fifths

This etude has the quality of Toccata with its fast and light character and overwhelming dedication to a particular motive. The form is ABA’: while the rhythmic motive continues, the B section, beginning in m. 29, has clear differences from that of the A. In. m. 41, the music returns to the A section slightly varied. In measure 1, the left hand has a slur from the first beat to the last beat. This phrasing repeats four times and in the next two measures this motive ascends with the same motion as in the beginning. After repeating the same phrasing in mm. 7 to 12, a transition occurs in which the texture is reduced to single notes between the hands (mm. 15–28).

The biggest difference in the B section is in the clear melodic line heard in the left hand in mm.

29–40.

Rautavaara uses bi-tonality in this etude. In the B section, this technique is especially noticeable. From mm. 29–37, every chord in the left hand is a major 6/4 chord, that then in m.

38, the bottom voices rise chromatically, until they are together, while the top voice is a pedal- tone G. The right hand in this section continues the 7th chord patterns (sometimes major seventh, sometimes minor sevenths) established in the beginning with a fifth and the second below the fifth. These intervals are harmonically ambiguous, but also act outside of the left-hand harmonic language. The phrasing is a mix of regular and irregular. In the A section, it is mainly 6 bars, but in the transition, it is 5+2 and in the B section, it is 6+3+4+5+3. The rhythms, with a 3+2+3 division in 8/8 time are very consistent.

The closed registration Rautavaara employs for both hands creates difficulty for a performer as it is not easy to play in such a narrow registration in a fast tempo, especially, in mm. 5–6, when there are also hand crossings.

Example 3.8, Einojuhani Rautavaara, Etydit, no. 6, “Fifths”, mm. 5–6.

Also, the hands have a common note g. The g4 is first played in the left hand, but it is maintained with alternations of both hands.

Chapter 4

NED ROREM’S EIGHT ETUDES FOR PIANO

Ned Rorem composed his Eight Etudes in 1975 while living in Nantucket, Massachusetts.

This set ended a six-year hiatus from piano compositions starting after his Concerto in Six

Movements (1969), and it had been over twenty years since his previous solo composition, the third sonata (1954). The etudes were commissioned by Emanuel Ax on a grant from the Edyth

Bush Charitable Foundation, Inc., for the Bicentennial Piano Series of the Washington

Performing Arts Society. They were dedicated to the memory of Edyth Bush. Emmanuel Ax premiered the set in Kennedy Center, Washington, D.C., on March 13, 1976 and Boosey &

Hawkes published them in 1977. Walter Cosand recorded the set of etudes in 1993.

Rorem titled each etude in the set simply with numbers, but in his program notes to the first publication, he elaborates on the set as a whole as well as the individual difficulties associated with each:

My Eight Etudes for solo piano form a series of problems, not the least of which is their contrast with each other. Thus, they are conceived as a suite (indeed, the same thematic matter is flung about between several, and number eight is a disguised medley of all the preceding ones), though eventually, I suppose, they may be played separately. The first is a study in loud contrary motion. The second, a study in softness. The third is for speed without pedal. The fourth, for sevenths. The fifth, slow tune with fast filigree. The sixth, quick fourths. The seventh, right hand alone. The last, parallel motion plus simultaneously conflicting rhythms. These features are too obvious for further comment except in talk between pianists differentiating the pieces (as, for instance, they speak — incorrectly — of Chopin’s double-third Etude), or to fill space for Program Notes. The “study” as a mode for one instrument is always implicitly far simpler than the simplest sonatina.29

29 Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano (New York: Boosey & Hawkes, 1977). 32

Rorem’s assessment of each etude’s central challenge as “too obvious for further comment” and his invoking of wrong-headed interpretations among pianists of pieces like Chopin’s etudes are different in style and tone than the comments of other composers in the present study. While

Talma’s stated difficulties seem to address each etude as a stand-alone piece and, in many ways, as a compositional challenge she gave to herself, or Bolcom’s allowances for numerous possibilities in how one might program his etudes, Rorem stresses the connections of his. With words like “series,” “suite,” and “contrasts,” the composer’s understanding of these pieces places the importance not on the individual difficulties themselves, but in how they interact with each other. And, while contrasts are crucial between one etude and the next, similar compositional material is used to unite them. His conception of the totality of the parts should be taken seriously by any pianist wishing to program them.

No. 1

Rorem’s first etude, in his own words, focuses on loud contrary motion. This contrary motion produces many figures built out of symmetrical shapes between the hands that often serve to unify the music. In this regard, the form can be seen as essentially through composed, with bits of these symmetrical motives punctuating the more lyrical lines through the pieces. It can also be viewed as in three large sections: the first (mm. 1–74) demarcated with tense q = 126; the second (mm. 75–97), more relaxed, quarter note = 104; and the third, beginning in m. 98, tense again, quarter note = 132. Texture is a defining aspect of the form as well. The outer sections feel very similar while the middle section is imbued with much more homophonic textures and lyrical elements; it is also the only section to include alternations of parallel fourths and fifths. Interruption by fast moving motives are common to all three sections.

Rorem’s material is used motivically. He repeats the same pitch class over several measures, changing the pitches and order, but maintaining the pitch class. For example, in m. 14, he uses 013467, and this class reappears in m. 19 again using enharmonic notes.30

Example 4.1, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 1, mm.13–21.

013467

This 013467 comes from 0167, a pitch class important to other etudes in the set such as No. 3.31

Coupled with the relatively narrow harmonic writing in this etude is a focus on the quintuplet rhythm which accompanies the contrary-motion figures. It is used in all three sections, and in the third, there is a very large passage of this figure in a “brilliant” manner. The motives also often start small, and Rorem grows them in several ways: by repetition, by additional notes in subsequent repetitions and by stringing several motives together. In a way, due to the nature of

30 Chester Lawrence Campbell, “Works for solo piano by Ned Rorem” (DMA document, Indiana University, 1983), 82. 31 Ibid, 80–81. 34 the symmetry, the individual motives are easy to recognize and the performer will be able to concentrate on gestures that generally start small and grow as s/he practices.

Two difficult components of this etude concern dynamics and asymmetric moving.

Dynamics are a very important aspect of this etude. Frequent and sudden dynamic changes are used in conjunction with the motivic interruptions. An example in mm. 33–38 demonstrates that suddenly in the midst of a loud and strong marcatto passage, a quiet lyrical passage disrupts the music’s flow and changes course very quickly.

Example 4.2, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 1, mm.33–38.

Registration changes also accompany these shifts in dynamics and textures. Each phrase, which is usually one to two measures, tends to start in a different position. In the first section, measure-long rests separate these phrases, but later, the pianist has very little time to move, and articulate the next phrase.

No. 2

Etude No. 2 is one of the smallest of the set as well as one of the more straight forward. It is a quiet hymn-like piece, in which the pianist continually plays three and four note chords in both hands at the same time. It is through-composed in terms of overall style, but a clear melody presented in the first twelve measures, is heard again with differing harmonic and rhythmic writing and phrasing structure from mm. 19. As is one of Rorem’s distinguishing features, small phrases separated by rests are noticeable. In mm. 1–12, there are four phrases with the pitch classes, 013, 0148, 0147 and 0147. While the pitch classes repeat in mm. 13–18, he changes the order as well as enharmonic spellings.

The challenge in this piece lies in playing clearly demarcated chords very quietly. Much control is needed by the performer, Further, the hand positions sometimes overlap as occurs in mm. 1–6. The left hand here will need to be slightly above the right hand and closer to the fallboard. In the last statement of the melody, both hands are playing wide chords with a dynamic of pppp: the left hand in a low register and the right in a high one. The performer must keep the left hand very quiet while voicing the top melodic note in the right hand.

No. 3

The indication at the beginning of Etude 3 is “Very fast and not too wet, quarter note =

152). While the phrase “not too wet” does not totally negate the use of any pedal, in the program note he specifies this etude’s difficulty as “speed without pedal.” In this mostly soft and fast etude, most passages can be played well without any pedal as only one gesture is necessary to maintain the slur; however, in passages like the very loud arpeggios in mm. 25–28, which is quite the contrast dynamically and texturally, a little pedal would help maintain the legato.

Example 4.3, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 3, mm.25–28.

The form here is again thorough composed and it is built out of three reoccurring gestures that supply a significant unity to the piece: an alternating arpeggio between the hands (m. 1), a parallel circular gesture (m. 2), and a parallel arpeggio shape (mm. 5–7).

Example 4.4, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No.3, mm.1–6.

Like with other of his pieces, Rorem employs rests to separate the motives from each other and with subsequent repetitions of a motive, he adds to it. The parallel oscillation and arpeggio pattern employ contrasting motion in the middle of the piece, especially in mm. 17–18, 27–32.

Each gesture has its own pitch class, but in subsequent appearances of that gesture,

Rorem varies the shape and starting note. For example, the 01367 pitch class introduced for the circular gesture in m. 2 uses d, eb, f, ab, a. In mm. 3, 4, 7, and 8, the pattern begins on a different note causing a different shape.32 In mm. 34–36, he uses a similar device to again create differing shapes out of the same material. He also uses it motivically (different pitches but same pitch class) as in mm. 15 and 16.

Rhythmically, this etude is one of the least complicated. There are no meter changes and it consists mainly of sixteenth-notes and, for the alternating arpeggios, thirty-second notes. The

32 Ibid, 78. 38 dynamics are assigned to the differing gestures: He uses f for the alternating hands gesture, p for the circular gesture, and ff for the parallel motion gesture in mm. 1–16. Rorem uses more variety in dynamics in mm. 17 and ff., but contrasts between these gestures continue throughout.

While dexterity and complicated motivic writing is certainly the main performance issue, the constant and quick changes of registration and dynamics present the pianist with a further challenge. The beginning of a new pattern is usually accompanied by a change of registration.

For example, in m. 25, the alternating hand gesture starts on a-flat2 in the left hand and it ends on a6, in mp, after which the circular gesture begins on e3 and c-sharp2 with pp, and then the right

hand moves to c8 while left hand moves to b-flat0 with fff. Even with the rests between the gestures, the performer must move very quickly while maintaining control.

No. 4

In the fourth etude, Rorem’s musical material is nearly entirely derived from the interval of the seventh, and the difficulty from the persistence of parallel sevenths in quick succession.

The form is through composed, but it is based on alternating passages of slow and fast tempi: there are five slow passages marked as either dotted-quarter-note = 40 or 44, and there are five fast passages marked as either dotted-quarter-note = 126 or 132. Both the slow and fast passages vary in lengths with subsequent alternations, but in general, the slows are much shorter than the fasts, with two of the slows using just one measure, one that is two measures, one that is three, and the longest that is seven (mm. 62–68). All of the short sections are based on the same material. The fast sections are more varied than their slow counterparts, mainly in terms of textures and motivic writing: for instance, in the first fast section (mm. 2–16), seventh dyads in each hand are played together in parallel motion; in the second section (mm. 18–32), the hands

39 alternate; in the third section (mm. 36–61), alternations of broken seventh dyads and thicker chordal writing are used in addition to the motives from the first two sections, and there is an increase in contrary motion; the fourth section (69–100) plays with the motives and textures introduced in the previous fast sections with growing intensity (Rorem indicates, “frantic” at m.

93); and the two-measure final fast section is merely a descending parallel scale in sevenths.

These contrasting sections incorporate most of the other musical components. The dynamics of the slow sections are soft, the articulation smooth, the pedaling is fully utilized, while in the fast sections, the dynamics vary from very soft to fffff, and the playing and pedaling are much drier. Repetitive rhythmic patterns are used and will present challenges for the performer. For instance, in mm. 2–16, a mixture of on-beats with off-beats that simultaneously require well-articulated clear rhythms and a light sound is very difficult. In mm. 68–82, the alternating dyads between the hands would not be more difficult than they had been previously if

Rorem had kept the pattern (R-L-R-L), but instead he writes an unusual pattern, R-L-RR-L-RR-

L-R, that is very tricky to maintain. This passage is also very low, (especially b0 to b2 in mm. 68–

78) and soft, requiring a controlled and light touch.

No. 5

In this etude, Rorem handles his specified contrasting difficulties, slow and fast filigrees, by alternating between them and emphasizing contrasts of dynamics, textures, phrasing and rhythmic patterns. The slows, which in general are longer than the fasts, are stately and plodding, while the fasts are free and cadenza-like. The filigree in the fasts is mostly for the right hand, except in the third and final ones, in which the left hand joins in the difficult passage work.

These moments of slow and fast are usually divided by trills and fermatas and breaks. The slows

40 are mostly built out a motive that becomes more and more contrapuntal in the subsequent returns

(until the last which is again simple). There is also a textural change in the second slow in mm.

10 and 11 that returns in the fourth in mm. 18 to 2 lending an arch-like quality to the otherwise through-composed nature of the alternations.

As is a defining characteristic of Rorem’s style in these etudes, his motivic writing is closely related to each other but with constant slight variances, including additions, subtractions, and imitation. His phrasing structure participates in this procedure. For instance, the second slow moment’s phrase would be identical to the opening three-measure phrase, except Rorem changes meter and reduces it to two measures. In the third and fourth slow section, there is an increasing number of repetitions of the motive as well as hearing two of them together in a contrapuntal manner. The last slow part returns the phrasing to three measures after the expanded phrasing in measure 18 to 24. In the fast filigree parts, Rorem indicates senza misura which means “no meter,” and no bar lines exist in these moments either.

Aside from the stretto-like procedures in the third and fourth slow sections and for some tricky rhythms in the fast filigrees, the challenges in this etude are not technically demanding.

Above all, a performer should capture the contrasting characters between the two sections.

No. 6

Parallel intervals, especially the fourth, are written in rapid ascending and descending succession to create the basis of this short and extremely difficult etude. Among all eight etudes, this etude requires the most dexterity and exhibits the qualities of finger exercises more than the others. There are no sustained notes and few repeating ones, but rather constant movement up and down, often in parallel motion between the hands, occasionally contrary, and sometimes

41 with greater independence between the hands. While his form is through composed like as in many of the other etudes, his phrase structure is quite different. Missing are the short phrases separated by rests. Here, the material is connected and continuous, and indeed, the first stopping point arrives in m. 36 out of 41.

Compared to the other etudes which rely on twelve-tone techniques, this etude has a simpler chromatic character. There are many chromatically ascending and descending passages that also contain consecutive fourths or thirds or seconds.

Example 4.5a, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 6, mm. 15–17.

Example 4.5b, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 6, mm. 21–23.

The rhythmic writing, and expressions are in general, quite simple in this etude, probably in order to focus on technical difficulties. The meter is 12/8 throughout and the rhythms are mostly steady eighth notes with some faster sixteenth-note passages mixed in. The dynamics are overwhelmingly soft which add to the overall difficulty of the piece.

Ostensibly, the difficulty in this piece as stated by Rorem is in the interval of the fourth; however, seconds, thirds and fifths are used so abundantly as well, that perhaps “etude of small intervals” would have been equally appropriate. The fast tempo and quick changes in the

42 intervals being used create many challenges. No interval continues past three measures at a time.

A good example of the shifting occurs in mm. 28–34, where fourths, seconds, and single notes are used in quick succession. Contrasting motions, differing intervals between the hands and asymmetry add to the complexity.

Example 4.6, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 6, mm. 28–34.

No. 7

Etude 7 is for the right hand alone. While a common tradition began in the twentieth century of pieces for left hand alone, including pieces by Scriabin, Ravel, Godowsky, and others, right hand only music is rare. Using a free, cadenza-like approach in this etude, Rorem explores leaps, broad registrations, and fast filigree, among others. The form is a palindrome: beginning

43 after the g-sharp, which is the last note of m. 11, all the subsequent notes are played in reverse order. In this large retrograde passage, the music speeds up and shorter rhythmic values are used.33

The music follows in a through-composed manner, but Rorem indicates eleven separate metronome speeds (on the eighth note); the first is 52, the fastest is 104, and the last is 84. Often, the tempo change occurs in the middle of a phrase, and so, these tempo changes are not a good indication of sectional division.

The difficulties in this piece include the wide registration at play. The range is from a0 to

b-flat7, and in each phase, there are many leaps included, creating an angular quality to the melodic line. Slurs often accompany these leaps, requiring full use of the damper pedal. The performer must also anticipate the wide variety of dynamic changes including many crescendos and diminuendos.

No. 8

The form is ABA’. In the first A section (mm. 1–38), the musical material alternates between passages of quarter-note rolled chords and sixteenth-note runs shared by both hands, mostly in parallel motion, but with some contrary as well. In mostly regular phrasing, the chordal parts are two measures each and the sixteenth-note parts are five measures each. In the A’ section the sixteenth-note parts vary the figures first found in mm. 3–13. The A’ also reverses the rhythmic shape and chords in a similar manner as had happened in the seventh etude. For instance, mm. 49–52 reverse the pattern of mm. 35–38. While the A sections are primarily homophonic, the B section (mm. 39–48) has a polyphonic character. It is written across three

33 Campbell, 102. 44 staves with each stave using a different meter and its own note value: whole notes in the bottom stave in 5/1; quarters in the middle in 13/4; and half notes on top in 7/2. M. 49 ff. are a retrograde of the A section.

Etude 8 reuses pitch class content from the previous etudes in a way that links and unifies the set and lends credence to Rorem’s intention of these as a suite. According to Campbell, no new pitch class is introduced, but rather transformations such as retrograde, inversion, and differing orderings of earlier pitch classes are building blocks for this etude.34 For instance, 013,

0148 and 0147, the main pitch classes of etude 2, are reused here in mm. 65–66 with different notes and shapes. Further, the 0167 appearing right after the first arpeggio and the 012367 in the top voice of m. 39 are both varied forms of the 01367 pitch class set of etude 3.

The quick moves in this etude create difficulty; however, Rorem uses repeated notes at the beginnings of both A and A’ to facilitate these in the beginning part A and A’. M. 2 provides a good example of these repeated-note shifts (d-sharps and a-sharps in the rights hand, bs and c- sharps in the left).

Example 4.7, Ned Rorem, Eight Etudes for Piano, No. 8, m. 2.

Through these, the hand is changing the position and going up. In order to moving smoothly, a performer needs different fingering between repeated notes. It happens most sixteen notes passage until measure 18 as well as showing in A’.

In B section, it shows polyrhythm and it is challenging for a performer. Moreover, the number of beats are different each staff. (See example)

34 Campbell, 89. 45

Chapter 5

GYÖRGY LIGETI’S ÉTUDES POUR PIANO, PREMIER LIVRE

György Ligeti has three set of etudes. The first book of six etudes was composed in 1985.

The second book (eight etudes) was composed between 1988 and 1994 and the last book (four etudes) was composed between 1995 and 2001. The focus of this section will be the first book, which was published in 1986. Pierre-Laurent Aimard premiered the set in 1987 and made the first recording. The first and third etudes are dedicated to Pierre Boulez, No. 4 to Volker

Banfield, No. 5 to Louise Sibourd, and he also placed a general dedication to “my Polish friends”

(dédiée à mes amis Polonais). In book one, each etude’s title either references technical difficulties or a poetic term. These etudes demonstrate Ligeti’s style as in their use of polyrhythms, polytempos, bi-tonalities and other complex harmonic language, and extended piano techniques.

No. 1 Désordre

As this etude is built out of each hand having the same patterns but in an offset manner, which creates much disruption in the phrasing, the disorder suggested by the title could refer to this lack of alignment between the hands; the bitonality might add to this disorder.

Example 5.1, György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 1, “Désordre,” mm.

1–4.

The form is ABA’. In the A sections, continuing ascending eighth note patterns are accompanied by a melodic pattern outlined in chords whose rhythms are a mix of quarter and dotted-quarter notes. The groupings of three and five eighth notes are especially important. The pattern continues in the B section (56–98), but the rhythms are shorter. The phrasing for the right hand at the beginning is 2+2/2+2/2+1/3 (14 measure) and repeats three times (m. 56). At m. 57, the phrasing changes to 2/2/2/1, and with the melodic rhythms shortening, the allusion of speeding up is evident without a change in tempo. The left hand’s pattern has longer phrasing—

2+2/2+2/2+2/2+2/2+2/2—and more consistent rhythms in the melody. The bitonality created by the different key signatures ensures that the right hand plays only white keys and the left only black keys.

The differing eighth-note groupings and phrasing structure creates a tremendous amount of challenge for the performer. Furthermore, the different phrasing produces offset accents.

Ligeti places accents usually on the first note of a slur, and this is coupled with dynamics that are loud on the first eight note (also notated with a quarter note or dotted quarter note) and soft on the rest. This constant back and forth in tone is very difficult. While a few sections, such as mm.

1–4 see the hands together, mostly they don’t overlap; so, the timing changes continuously.

Later, the thicker textures, as in m. 85 ff., add to the virtuosity.

No. 2 Cordes à vide

In the second etude, Ligeti uses the piano to approach the open string sounds on string instruments such as violin, cello, viola and double bass. The form is through composed.

Rhythmic diminution gradually speeds up the feel of this piece as eighth notes, triplet, sixteenth notes, triplets in sixteenths, and smaller, make up the rhythmic writing. The interval of the fifth, both blocked and broken, serves as the fundamental building block for both the melodic and harmonic writing. Chromaticism is heavily used as well; for instance, in mm. 1–11, a chromatic melody proceeds with accents. Phrasing is irregular and asymmetric and groupings in the hands often cross the bar line as is typical in Ligeti’s music.

Aside from the rhythmic and phrasing difficulties including the accents on different timings between the hands, legato playing is especially challenging for the performer. Although he marks “with much pedal” at the start, the player must concentrate on careful legato in their practice in order to fully capture the dolce espressivo sensitivity of this piece, especially in conjunction with the soft dynamic which is prevalent (except for the climax in mm. 25–26). The frequent crescendos and diminuendos add to the expressive challenges.

No. 3 Touches bloquées

As the title suggests, Etude No. 3 is concerned with blocked keys, but extended techniques are important as well. In a detailed note before the score, he stipulates and provides

48 notation for four kinds of notes: played notes, notes depressed and held without making any sound, notes held with making sound, and notes making sound tied to silent ones.35

Example 5.2, György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 3, “Touches bloquées,” Performance notes, p. 20.

The form is ABA’. In the A section, one hand has an oscillation while the other a few pointillistic notes; this approach alternates between the hands until m. 71. The shorter B section

(mm. 72–91), which begins with right hand alone, features descending chromatic notes. The A’ follows with the same pattern as in A but the oscillation is more frequent. The harmonic and melodic material is built out of the chromatic scale. The A section’s ostinato is a chromatic progression except for the major third used in m. 6 and the major second in mm. 15 and 17. A texture of three distinct voices, the ostinato pattern, held notes, and pointillistic melody, is clear in the A sections, while homophony and unison are used in the B. The phrasing in both A and B is asymmetrical with the number of beats changing. Pauses are also used to separate phrases.

Tempo and registration are quite challenging for the performer. Ligeti’s tempo marking is vivacissimo, and, the hands are in a very narrow, uncomfortable position, except in the B, where there is much overlapping. The extended techniques also play out in this narrow position. For

example, the right hand starts in g-flat4 and plays a chromatic oscillation, while the left hand

35 György Ligeti, Études pour piano (New York: Schott,1986). 49 blocks c4, d4, and e4 in m. 1–4. The right hand passes the left hand’s held notes and moves down and up. Its lowest note c4. These narrow positions are quite difficult.

Example 5.3, György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 3, “Touches bloquées,” mm. 1–4.

No. 4 Fanfares

The fourth etude’s title, while not stipulating the difficulty, describes the intent. The open fifths and sixths with repeated melodic patterns over the left hand’s ostinato lends this piece a fanfare quality. The form is sonata rondo form,36 but with a continued ostinato which alternates between the hands is present throughout. This ostinato is an ascending scale finger—white notes

C-D-E-F, then F#-G#-A#-B and it is grouped 3+2+3, a rhythm derived from Turkish folk rhythm called Aksak.37 The dyadic melodic line matches this grouping (dotted quarter, quarter, dotted quarter). In m. 46 (B section), the melody changes to eighth-note rhythms; it is also more syncopated. At m. 63, the A section returns but with denser chords. A development-like passage begins in m. 88 in which aspects of A and B are combined. The recapitulation starts in m. 171.

36 Lawrence Quinnett, “Harmony and Counterpoint in the Ligeti Etudes, Book I: An Analysis and Performance Guide” (DMA dissertation, Florida State University, 2014), 34. 37 Ibid, 34. 50

In this music, the ostinato alternates between the hands quickly with no rests to help facilitate these transfers. It must be smooth and as Ligeti states, the ostinato is to be always in the background, so a light touch and softer dynamic is required. The rhythmic difference between the hands are also challenging for a performer. For example, the right hand’s phrasing is different from left hand’s and their accents are located at different timings.

No. 5 Arc-en-ciel

Etude 5’s title, “Arc-en-ciel,” is the French word for rainbow. This Andante con eleganza, is the first slow etude. The form is ABA’. The texture of the A is melody, heard in longer accented notes, against a sixteenth-note accompaniment. The B section’s rhythm is more varied. In m. 20, the texture of A reappears and the right-hand melody becomes more similar.

The melodic line is largely drawn from a descending chromatic scale and the chords used are primarily seventh chords.38 The piece is polymetric: the right hand is in 3/4, while the left is in

6/8 (he marks 2/dotted quarter note). Thus, each hand has its own phrasing. Ligeti also calls for swinging.

Ligeti often handles independent melodic lines between the hands in his etudes, and this etude’s difficulty follows in this regard. But as each hand has more than two voices and a complicated polyrhythm exists between the hands, this etude, though slow, is very difficult. For instance, in mm. 7–8, four voices are moving independently.

38 Ibid, 51. 51

Example 5.4, György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 5, “Arc-en-ciel,” mm. 7–8.

Voice 1

Voice 2 Voice 3

Voice 4

No. 6 Automne a Varsovie

This etude also has a descriptive title, “Autumn in Warsaw.” The through-composed form can be divided into three parts based on textural changes: 1–54, 55–98, 98–123. An ostinato is used throughout the etude as is the case in several other of his etudes, but here, the ostinato changes frequently. For instance, in the beginning, the ostinato has a particular rhythm for eight measures, then in m. 9, a variant of the rhythm which crosses the bar line emerges. The melodic pattern is also repeated until m. 24. The first melodic line has a four-note group, the second has one extra note, and the third is a longer grouping. These patterns are repeated three times over a melodic bass voice, similar to that of a Baroque “lament” bass with its descending note pattern.39

The main melodic voice is largely built out of descending chromatic phrases accompanied by fourths and fifths that seem to reference the falling of the leaves suggested by the title.

The challenges for the performer are in the quick movements and constant rotation necessary to maintain the patterns. A further challenge is in producing a clear melodic line

39 Mayron K. Tsong, “Analysis or Inspiration?: A study of György Ligeti’s Automne à Varsovie” (DMA Thesis, Rice University, 2002), 43. 52 among the voices that often overlap. The ostinato frequently disrupts the melodic line because it is not separated by differing registration. Further, at m. 13, when two melodic lines are present, each maintains a different phrasing. The performer needs much control in voicing these lines.

One example can be found in mm. 43–46.

Example 5.5, György Ligeti, Études pour Piano Premier Livre, No. 6, “Automne a

Varsovie,” mm. 43–46.

Here, the right-hand melody uses mostly quarter notes and sixteenth rests, while the second line has a dotted eighth-note pattern and part of the melodic line mixes with the ostinato in the left hand. A third melodic line further complicates the music beginning in m. 45. Voicing these individual lines is quite difficult and requires good balance.

Chapter 6

WILLIAM BOLCOM’S TWELVE NEW ETUDES FOR PIANO

Bolcom composed twenty-four etudes in two sets. The first set he composed in 1966 and the 12 New Etudes for Piano he composed between 1977 and 1986. He averaged one a year during this time. Originally, they were intended for the pianist, Paul Jacobs, but he died in 1983 before they were finished. John Musto premiered the first nine in February 1986 in New York, and Marc-

André Hamelin played them soon after in California. Bolcom said that these performances inspired him to finish the set which he did later that year. Hamelin gave the first complete performance in

1987 as well as made the first recording. These etudes won the Pulitzer Prize in Music in 1988.

The 12 New Etudes are divided into four books with each book including three etudes.

Half of the titles are in English and the other half are in French. In addition to the titles, Bolcom includes a specific sentence for detailing the technical difficulties for each etude, as well as providing detailed information explaining his notation, pedaling, ritardando and accelerando, etc.

While both sets of his etudes handle technical difficulties such as dynamics, pedaling, articulation and extended techniques as well as extremely difficult musical figures, the new set moves well past the earlier one in its variety of harmonic language and in terms of styles, which include pop styles such as jazz and ragtime. Also, each etude in the new set has a programmatic title while only two of the former set had them: no. 10, “Gestures,” and no. 12, “Apotheosis/In memoriam Béla Bartók.”

No.1 Fast, furious

In Bolcom’s own words, this etude explores “sweeping gestures of hands, forearms, the body” and “freedom of movement.” The form of this measureless etude is through composed, though a noticeable difference in textures occurs between beginning and ending (monophonic) passages as opposed to the middle (polyphonic). There is also a limited number of techniques serving as the basis of the musical material: fast monophonic lines in each hand and related arpeggiated figures, both of which often feature alternations between the hands; and tone clusters, which are often in an oscillation pattern or a glissando. Twelve-tone principles are used in this etude, but not strict serial techniques. Notes and figures are often repeated to establish patterns.

The difficulties in this piece are wide ranging. For the clusters, Bolcom indicates the part of the forearm or flat of hand that is used.

Example 6.1, William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 1, “Fast, Furious,” fourth system.

In this example, the right hand moves from normal note playing notes to forearm playing, flat- hand, and back to normal playing. During this moment of right-hand extended technique, the left hand maintains mostly thirty second notes, which must be kept steady so that the balance between the hands is stable. Other difficulties include the expansive range used on the keyboard,

55 with quick sudden changes between registers, the rapid speed, and the oscillations and glissandi in the left hand.

No. 2 Récitatif

Bolcom’s intention for this etude concerns “recitative style, rubato, finger-changes for smoothness’ sake and smooth passage of line between hands.” The form is ABA’, and again a different texture distinguishes these sections. While the As are recitative-like passages that are very free in their motion and have a short chord progression, the B has more of a polyphonic character, steadier rhythmic pulse (3/8), and a longer chord progression. There are numerous jazz elements in this piece including repeated passages of bluesy ninth chords in a chordal progression in the A section that immediately follow each moment of recitative.40 The longest of these is in m. 4.

Example 6.2, William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 2, “Récitatif,” m. 4.

The ninth chords here are further inflected with a jazz sound by way of the inclusion of chromatic appoggiaturas. One interesting facet of Bolcom’s notation, here, is that he uses a forward arrow to indicate accelerando and a back arrow to indicate ritardando, which allows for

40 Eunyoung Kang, “Late Twentieth-Century Piano Concert Etudes; A Style Study” (DMA document, University of Cincinnati, 2010), 44. 56 much more nuanced interpretations as these arrows can more specifically relate to the notes they are above or below.

The main difficulty in this etude is in the flexibility required of a performer to express the free recitative style of rubato as well as the quick textural changes, articulation and dynamics that in many ways are quite indicative of Bolcom’s style. One extended technique is also found in this etude. At the end of both the A and A’, he asks for a pizzicato for c-sharp6; the performer must pluck the string, causing contrasting sonorities between the pizzicato playing and normal playing.

No. 3 Mirrors

As one might expect from the title, “Mirrors,” the third etude is replete with symmetry and contrasting motion between the hands. The specified difficulties are “Leaps, distorted mirrors” and “lateral stretches between fingers.” The form is essentially through composed, though with a three part-structure, once again suggested by distinct textures. The opening and ending sections are almost pointillistic in their quality, while in the middle, the hands are moving at the same time in contrasting motion. The melodic character is quite disjunct and there are few repeated motives.

The contrasting motion used in this piece presents many challenges, because, while often the two hands are a copy of the same rhythmic figure, at other times there are different rhythms and intervals, creating what Bolcom calls the distorted mirror. For instance, in mm. 24–29, the left hand is in triplets against the right’s thirty-second notes; then, the right hand’s notes are triplets, but the left hand copies with a thirty second note. After this passage, their rhythmic values become the same again. Another important challenge concerns the large leaps in the

57 pointillistic sections. For instance, in m. 14, a two octave leap occurs with little preparation.

Other such quick moves are common in this etude.

No. 4 Scène d’opéra

In this etude, which is essentially a passacaglia, the stated difficulty lies in contrasts

“between a steady, rhythmic ostinato and varied irrational rhythms.” Bolcom writes a stately

Baroque-like bass pattern underneath increasingly complicated and difficult upper voices which are quite contrapuntal. The form is through composed, but a basic arch-like affect is noticeable in that the complexity builds and peaks by the third page, then becomes less so by the end of the piece. The piece ends as it began with the bass pattern alone. The ostinato has a Phrygian quality centered on f-sharp while the upper voices use twelve-tone music. As the music becomes more contrapuntal, a contrast in character separates the upper voices with the top voice much more florid. Metrically, this piece is different than the first three etudes, in that he maintains the 4/4 meter rigorously.

This metrically steady music with complex rhythms is challenging for the performer.

Polyrhythms are a constant except for in the solo ostinato lines at the beginning and ending. The complication progresses from two against three, three against four, and more complicated—up to five against ten. Further, the left hand must alternate quickly between the ostinato and a middle voice that is engaged in the polyrhythms and at times, the polyrhythms are in the same hand. One final challenge is that this piece utilizes the extra low notes found on the Bösendorfer Imperial

Grand. The last ostinato is to be played one octave lower and it needs g0, f-sharp0, e0.

No. 5 Butterflies, hummingbird

“The lateral tremolo. Mercurial changes in color, attack and rhythm” are the specified challenges Bolcom lists for this etude. The form is ABA’B’Coda. The sections are differentiated by tempos—the Bs are slightly slower—and figuration, with the Bs consisting of more tremolos. While melodic and motivic material is constantly changing, several of the gestures are repeated like the rising gesture in m. 1 or the circular one in m. 3. The B sections have more of a melody plus accompaniment texture as the left hand plays material in lyrical phrasing while the right hand plays a series of tremolos. The A’ Section begins in m. 22 with a similar character as A but with shorter note values. In the B’ (m. 30), the tremolos alternate between the hands. The coda is a fast passage of tremolos and other figures with each hand using different rhythms. While the phrasing in this etude is quite irregular, rests at the ends of phrases clearly demarcate one phrase from the next. This procedure occurs in both sections, though in the

Bs, the continued tremolos blend the material more smoothly.

In general, this etude describes the movement of butterfly and hummingbird. Especially, the main difficulty, tremolos, take part in the meaning of the piece as it relates to the title.

Different styles of tremolo relate to either butterflies or hummingbirds. For instance, in the A section the tremolo is short and both hands participate together, a reference to the butterfly’s small light wings, while in the B section, the continuous tremolo references the hummingbirds’ wings. Visually, in terms of a live performance, the performer’s gestures can enhance this affect as a fluttering motion can be seen as the knuckles or the meat of the palm are used.

The difficulties in this piece especially involve the extended techniques used for the tremolos. For instance, a tremolo of white-keys against black-keys, requires the entire thumb to play the white keys, while the palm is on the black keys (see m. 11). At other times, the knuckles

59 are used or even the meat of the palm.41 This etude also has unusual meters (38/64, 18/64, 20,64), and very sudden changes of dynamics.

No. 6 Nocturne

In this etude, “absolute contrast in dynamics and tone” is the stated pedagogical purpose.

It is a highly rhythmic piece in a strict tempo and meter, built out of a syncopated motive in which the left hand is followed closely by the right hand in a strict tempo and meter. Above the syncopated motive is a melodic line free from this motive, thus giving the piece a melody plus accompaniment texture. The melodic writing is not as angular and disjunct as in some of his other etudes, but more of a very slow-moving lyrical line. The phrasing is irregular and the form is through-composed. It is based on the D-mixolydian mode and has an f-sharp in the key signature.42 Jazz and pop elements are also present and there are numerous ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords.

This etude demands great control in properly realizing the difficulties. Because the right hand is involved both in the accompaniment and melody, there is a pointillistic quality, that coupled with the extreme dynamics and their quick changes is highly challenging. The melodic line has very loud dynamics (including fffz), and when it enters at m. 7, it is coupled with the seemingly contradictory, fffz ma cantabile.

41 William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes (Milwaukee: Edward B. Marks Music Company, 1988): 21. 42 Ran Dank, “Twelve New Etudes (1988): Theoretical and interpretative Analysis” (DMA dissertation, City University of New York, 2017): 133. 60

Example 6.3, William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 6, “Nocturne,” mm. 5–9.

Playing on the singing qualities of nineteenth-century nocturnes, the vocalist, here, is in a controlled yell.

No. 7 Premonitions

“‘Free-falls’ into piano keys; size of tone, without banging (inside-piano plucking)” is the description Bolcom uses for the difficulties in this etude. The form is based on the alternation of two different groups of material and textures: for the As, arpeggiated left-hand chord into a blocked right hand one, and for the Bs, blocked chords. There is also diminution of both note values and the number of notes in the clusters used in the As. The B sections play a careful and slow-plodding chord progression. Both sections maintain a tonal center of b-flat as this note appears at the top of the otherwise changing chords. Dense chords such as ninths, and chords with added sixths and augmented sevenths are numerous and reflect jazz influence. No development of the material is noticeable, rather just repetition of the patterns.

One of the main non-specified difficulties concerns the constant accelerandos. They are present in the diminution (mentioned above), but also in the left-hand arpeggios (A section).

Extended techniques are also used at the beginning and end. Three notes are depressed without sound to start the piece and are kept held with the sostenuto pedal through the entire work. In the

coda, the right hand has to pluck a b-flat1 string four times pizzicato.

No. 8 Rag infernal (Syncopes apocalypitiques)

As another of the etudes in this set which refers to a specific genre, this etude is for

“lateral hand-jumps and stretches, use of practically no pedal.” The form is ABA’. The A sections reflect the rag genre’s normative left-hand back and forth between bass notes and upper chords in quarter notes, and the right hand is full of syncopations. At the beginning of the B section, the hands reverse and the right hand has the steady chordal material. There are also numerous arpeggiated figures in a more monophonic texture, as well as some contrapuntal moments, and alternations between the hands. This section ends with forearm clusters. While not specifically in a particular key, a more tonal quality exists in this etude, imbued with jazz elements as well as the pentatonic scale. For example, in mm. 39–42, the top notes are a-g-f-e- flat-c-b. Motivic writing is also very important, and each section relies on motivic patterns. For example, Bolcom begins the right-hand melody (m. 6) with three descending eight notes, a pattern that will be used through m. 16.

Example 6.4, William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No.8 “Rag infernal,” mm. 6–8.

Coupled with the saturation of leaps throughout this piece is an extremely fast tempo.

The meter is alla breve and his metronome suggestion is half note = c. 126–160. Two other indications deal with tempo. He marks, “Fast; steady tempo; as fast as is practical,” and in a footnote, explains, “This piece should feel ruthlessly driven, but never allow tempo to

62 accelerate.” This etude, with these jumps and speed, is one of the most difficult in the set.

Extended techniques are used including forearm clusters, and fingers on black keys, palm on white.

No. 9 Invention

The ninth etude sees Bolcom’s full attention given to counterpoint; it is an extremely intricate three-voiced invention that aims to develop “controlled legato lines with minimal pedal, and “clear delineation of voices.” The main subject appears in all three voices (only once in the soprano at m. 7), but while the same or similar intervallic relationships are present, the rhythm is often different. For example, the first subject appears in the bass: a, e-flat, g, b-flat, e, f, c-sharp, f-sharp, and d. Then, the tenor plays it in inversion: a, e-flat, b, d, a-flat, g, b, f-sharp, and b-flat.

Though the notes and directions are different as well as the rhythm, it maintains the same intervallic relationships. These differing rhythms in turn affect the phrase structure causing some irregularity. Bolcom uses twelve tone material but not strictly; the subject is built out of nine notes, with several repetitions. In this contrapuntal texture, he presents the subject at several times in stretto. For instance, when the soprano begins in m. 7, the alto subject enters eight notes later in the same measure.

Compared to his other etudes, No. 9 is not technically difficult. It is slow and its rhythms are relatively simple. However, the “extremely slow tempo” can cause the performer to lose the individual lines, and the performer needs to maintain clarity in the melodic lines, bringing out a different color for each voice.

No. 10 Vers le silence

This etude expands upon difficulties introduced in the previous ones with, “Use of the pedals; wide leaps and dynamic contrasts” and “trills.” The through-composed structure is built of frequently changing contrasting materials, textures, and especially tempos. Moments of “as fast as possible” are interjected by Largos, “not too slow,” and “fast,” and other speeds. The differing musical materials and styles are tied to these tempos. For instance, the “as fast as possible” speeds consist of alternating chords generally in a basic contrasting motion; the largos, a contrapuntal scalar line; the “not too slows,” blocked chords; the “slows,” a more intricate accompanied line under chordal movement; and the “a little fasters,” arpeggios. All of these are varied in their reappearances, and as the piece unfolds, long-held notes and trills create an atmospheric quality. Different harmonic languages are used as well. While twelve-tone music accompanies the faster passages, the largos employ the whole-tone scale in addition to the chromatic, and the “not too slows” utilize open fourths and fifths.

Pedaling indications are especially detailed in this etude. At times, one pedal blends the sounds, but at others, such as the largo, he specifies ¼ pedal and flutter pedal which creates a clean and almost detached sound. For instance, in m. 2, the ¼ pedal is used at the beginning of the measure and then flutter pedal is used. The sostenuto pedal contributes to the holding of long notes, and Bocolm often uses more than two pedals at a time. From m. 10 on, all three pedals are used. A performer needs a ½ damper pedal for the continued trill, una coda for the soft dynamic

(ppp), and the sostenuto pedal for holding notes from the previous measure.

Example 6.5, William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 10 “Vers le silence,” m.

10.

No. 11 Hi-jinks

Bolcom’s states the purpose of this etude as “Dynamic contrast (in the piano-section least naturally apt.) Written entirely in the upper register of the piano—naturally quieter—and marked quasi una celesta, this etude is a highly rhythmic tour-de-force. The form is through composed and there are four motives: first, a sixteenth-note oscillation pattern introduced at the beginning after the first arpeggio; second, a motive of contrasting motion between the hands repeated twice; third, an alternating arpeggio passage; and lastly, a five note pattern built out of seconds, in which the left hand plays on notes two and four.

Example 6.6, William Bolcom, 12 New Etudes for Piano, No. 11 “Hi-jinks,” first and second system.

The textures of these motives vary from homophonic to polyphonic, to melody plus accompaniment with a wide variety of motions as well. Bolcom develops these motives through the work in a score with no meter or bar lines. Rhythmically, it has many jazz elements such as accents on “upbeats,” frequent syncopation, and dotted notes suggesting swing, but polyrhythms are common as well.

This music requires careful articulations ranging from legato to highly percussive sounds, and the performer must navigate between articulations quickly as well as be ready for sudden clusters in a soft legato (also, one of the only times in the bass register). Dynamics, the stated challenge, are also quickly changing with extreme softs immediately following extreme louds and vice versa.

No. 12 Hyme à l’amour

The last etude in this set focuses on “contrast of timbres, mostly by means of pedal;

“Orchestral” sonorities. The form is ABA’B’; double bar lines, differing textures, and tempos distinguish the sections. A has a right-hand ostinato with left hand chords and motives surrounding it, at one point in a lyrical single line alternating with the right hand. B begins with a hymn-like progression. The primes are similar to the originals but with variations such as the ostinato in octaves and a faster lyrical line for A, and denser harmonies and grace notes for B.

This etude is the only in the set with a key signature and in general a greater use of tonality is evident along with jazz harmonies and an abundance of ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords. There are jazz elements in the rhythm as well such as syncopations, especially in the A sections. The phrasing in the A sections outside of the ostinato is irregular (there are no bar lines). The B section’s phrasing is also irregular but in a different manner: it is in one measure phrasing, but he changes the number of beats every measure.

The challenges come from Bolcom’s notion of “orchestral” sonorities. In a genre dedicated to developing idiomatic techniques of a particular instrument, stressing extra- instrumental associations is an interesting take for an etude. The performer needs to try to capture these different sonorities. For example, in the A section, the chords played after the ostinato is marked with stacattisimo, which should evoke a bell sound. Brass sounds for later chords need to have an attack that conjures brass and in the B section wind ensemble for the hymn-like progression. In a way, these indications should be in the imagination of the performer.

Chapter 7 CONCLUSION

This document’s survey of piano etudes written in the second half of the twentieth century demonstrates the often unique and often similar approaches taken by composers who are focusing on a specific genre inherited from the nineteenth century. By limiting this study to etudes in which the specific difficulty was, in some way, indicated by the composer, many interesting points can be made concerning the nature of modern composers interacting with old forms, models and genres, while maintaining their personal compositional voices. In terms of traditional components of etude writing this is especially important.

Intervals as a compositional focus for etudes has long been an important facet of the genre. In the etudes of this study, Rautavaara’s are the most tied to this difficulty as all of his etudes are based on intervals. Throughout his set, arpeggios and chordal patterns are the main vehicle for these explorations of various intervals. Compared to Rautavaara, Rorem’s approach has more variety in the handling of the intervals. For instance, in his etude no. 4, a parallel to

Rautavaara’s no. 2, these different styles are evident. Rautavaara’s etude maintains throughout an alternation between the hands playing the sevenths separately (open sevenths), whereas

Rorem employs blocked sevenths, parallel sevenths, alternating hands, open sevenths and contrasting motions. His frequently changing variety contrasts with Rautavaara’s consistency.

While passages concentrating on specific intervals are important to Talma, Ligeti, and Bolcom, they are not a central difficulty to these composers but are used in addition to other technical problems.

Dynamics are another main concern of these etudes and extremes of louds and soft are found in all of these sets as well as quick and frequent changes; however, only Talma’s etude no.

1, Rorem’s nos. 1 and 2, and Bolcom’s nos. 10 and 11 specifically address this issue as a stated

68 technical issue. Other etudes in their sets—all of Rorem’s have extreme contrasts as do most of

Bolcom’s— as well as those by Rautavaara and Ligeti also engage in long passages of soft and loud and in abrupt contrasts. Several of the etudes in this study, especially including pieces by

Bolcom and Ligeti, go well beyond pp and ff, to such dynamics as ppp, fff, pppp, ffff, fffz, ffffz, ppppp, fffff, etc. Overall, these etudes are exceptional tools for developing dynamic playing, exploring expanded ranges, and contrasts.

These etudes are good for the development of textures as well, both simple and complex.

Each of the sets in this study explore polyphonic textures, melody plus accompaniment, homophony, and moments of strict imitation; but some of the etudes include other textures such as pointillism, polymetric passages, and long-held notes surrounding quicker moving voices.

Talma’s third etude and Bolcom’s tenth, “Vers le silence,” and Ligeti’s third, “Touche bloquées,” though all very different, require tremendous control of the long-held voices in contrast to the shorter values. Rorem’s etudes are often focused on quick changes between contrary motions and parallel, as well as thick chords verses thin single or double lines, but this approach defines many of Rautavaara’s as well. Bolcom’s are perhaps the most varied and

Ligeti’s the most perpetually polyphonic, but all of these sets provide textural challenges well beyond most of the etudes from earlier with the exception of Debussy.

Rhythm writing in these etudes is quite complex, but perhaps in different ways than expected. Bolcom’s rhythmic writing is by far the most complex in its variety, quick changes, and sheer number of differing note values. Rorem’s is the second most complex, except for

Talma’s last etude, which is a study in diminution. As a whole, however, while there are some passages of polyrhythms and other rhythmic problems, in many of these etudes, there is less rhythmic complications than in some of the etudes in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Indeed, most of Ligeti’s etudes (except for no. 2, which is also a kind of study in diminution), the overwhelming majority of Rautavaara’s, most of Talma’s, and a large part of Rorem’s, focus more on maintaining a perpetual motion, often with relatively simple values. Ligeti creates much difficulty in this regard through changing the groupings.

In terms of figures and figurations, these etudes expand upon those from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. While Rautavaara seems to be most concerned with arpeggios— often with partial chords—and blocked chords, and perhaps Ligeti with small scalar figures and arpeggios, Talma, Rorem, and Bolcom, and to some extent Ligeti, feature a complex variety of intricate filigree passages, scales, arpeggios, passages of blocked intervals in scales and arpeggios, repeated notes, hand crossings, hand alternations, etc. They also—especially

Bolcom—feature glissandos, clusters, tremolos, and inside piano techniques.

Looking at these works as a whole, an interesting spectrum is noticeable concerning the focus of artistry verses technical difficulties. The limitation of looking specifically at etudes in which the technical problem was stated left out several composers (including Cage and Glass), who seem more interested in their own stylistic pursuits than in the genre conventions of the etude. But even in the etudes explored in this study, some composers are more committed to artistic approaches and some to technical problems. Naturally, there are overlaps, but the following observations are found in this study.

In many ways, the etudes of Rautavaara and Talma are most in line with the traditions of the genre in their dedication to and focus on specific technical problems. Rautavaara’s etudes have, in general, the simplest forms, the most consistent styles, and the most attention given to common technical issues such as arpeggios and blocked chords in a perpetual, repetitive manner.

His harmonic language and textural writing fit with pedagogical concerns. Talma, as well, uses

70 simple forms (ABA’ except for No. 6), and her etudes mostly deal with technical difficulties such as articulations (legato and staccato), wide leaps, pedaling, dynamics, etc. She often uses the B section to pursue the same technique but in a different manner, and she manipulates twelve-tone writing to serve the pedagogical concerns.

On the other hand, Rorem and Ligeti, seem most interested in using etude to pursue their own artistic styles. While Rorem’s etudes require an advanced technical prowess, much of the difficulties come from his twelve-tone writing and the rigors of pitch-class symmetry. His etudes are the most interested in the set as individual movements in a larger connected work. Ligeti’s difficulties also come from complexity of writing very common throughout his other piano music: the overlapping of highly repetitive but individual phrases and complex groupings of notes. His etudes conjure up moods rather than technical and pedagogical considerations.

Bolcom’s Twelve New Etudes for Piano fits somewhere in the middle of this spectrum. His are the most varied in style and techniques, including extended techniques, textures, forms, and figures.

These etudes are an invaluable resource for the pianist and many of these etudes can be used as a “substitute” or in addition to nineteenth-century etudes in developing a pianist’s advanced skills. Especially, Rautavaara’s and Talma’s are suitable for comparisons to Chopin’s approach in their focus on specific techniques such as arpeggios. Talma’s etudes essentially apply older techniques to serial music. Rorem’s, Bolcom’s and Ligeti’s etudes expand the genre significantly in terms of style and technique. Bolcom’s etudes cover the most ground in terms of styles and techniques, but Rorem’s set is a remarkable intellectual study of pitch-class and serial writing and Ligeti’s bitonality and energetic rhythmic writing is helpful for many late twentieth- century styles.

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