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The National Science Foundation in the Development of United States Information Infrastructure

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The National Science Foundation in the Development of United States Information Infrastructure NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY Speaking of Science: The Role of the National Science Foundation in the Development of United States Information Infrastructure A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Field of Media, Technology and Society By Jason Gallo EVANSTON, ILLINOIS December 2008 3331106 3331106 2008 2 ABSTRACT Speaking of Science: The Role of the National Science Foundation in the Development of United States Information Infrastructure Jason Gallo This dissertation argues that the National Science Foundation’s role in, and influence on, the development of large scale scientific and technological systems, most notably improvements to U.S. information infrastructure, can best be understood through an examination of the NSF’s institutional history. Because of the Foundation’s weakened starting position at its founding in 1950, the cautious nature of its first director, Alan T. Waterman, and its broad mission "to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national defense" through support for basic science, it has been forced to develop a strategy that ensures its continued survival among larger, older, and more powerful agencies competing for congressional appropriations. This strategy has two components: a discursive approach that situates Foundation support for basic research to the frontier rhetoric of Frederick Jackson Turner and Vannevar Bush and promotes the societal, economic, political, and security benefits of basic research utilizing a linear model of innovation. The NSF’s operational strategy emphasizes the development of information and communications infrastructure, information management, virtual simulation, and at the most fundamental level, the generation of new scientific knowledge. This dissertation examines the influence of external and internal feedback upon the NSF. In response to 3 these stimuli, the NSF has repeatedly utilized the frontier imagery of Frederick Jackson Turner and Vannevar Bush to justify its operations. This rhetoric has shaped the NSF’s historic support for the virtual frontiers of science – satellites, information management and control systems, supercomputing, the NSFNET backbone, and the Network for Computational Nanotechnology. The NSF not only supports the opening of frontiers through building and supporting infrastructure, but also through grants to researchers and the training of scientific pioneers. By providing support at critical and overlapping stages and junctures of the frontier enterprise, the NSF simultaneously fulfills its mission and creates lasting infrastructural traces that establish sovereignty over space and enables the generation of fundamental knowledge that undergirds, at least rhetorically, the linear model of innovation that shapes post-war science and technology policy in the United States. 4 Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................6 LINEARITY................................................................................................................................................................................17 ROADMAP.................................................................................................................................................................................28 CHAPTER TWO: THE FEDERAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY COMPLEX ......................... 35 ORIGINS ....................................................................................................................................................................................36 GOVERNMENT SPENDING AND ACADEMIC/SCIENTIFIC AGENDA SETTING.................................................................43 MANY DAMN THINGS SIMULTANEOUSLY...........................................................................................................................50 THE NSF, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................52 ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION...................................................................................................................55 RISE OF JAPAN.........................................................................................................................................................................56 TECHNO‐GLOBALIZATION / TECHNO‐NATIONALISM......................................................................................................63 THE ROLE OF THE NSF..........................................................................................................................................................69 CHAPTER THREE: FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER AND THE FRONTIER THESIS ......................... 78 THE SCIENCE OF TURNER’S FRONTIER...............................................................................................................................94 FRONTIER EXPANSIONISM AND FOREIGN POLICY......................................................................................................... 101 TURNER ON TURNER........................................................................................................................................................... 105 CHAPTER FOUR: THE MYTH OF ORIGIN: SCIENCE – THE ENDLESS FRONTIER.............................116 FOR(E)WARD........................................................................................................................................................................ 116 SETTING THE SCENE............................................................................................................................................................ 124 A CITADEL FOR SCIENCE .................................................................................................................................................... 131 CONQUEST............................................................................................................................................................................. 154 CHAPTER FIVE: THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION ...................................................................158 NSF AND POLAR RESEARCH.............................................................................................................................................. 179 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY ............................................................................................................................................................ 185 SCIENCE POLICY AS POLITICAL WARFARE ..................................................................................................................... 187 BUILDING A POST‐SPUTNIK CONSTITUENCY.................................................................................................................. 193 APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH.............................................................................................................................. 197 CHAPTER SIX: NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION SUPPORT FOR COMPUTING AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 1950­1970 ............................................................................................202 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................... 202 OVERLOAD: THE MANAGEMENT OF SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION ................................................................................ 206 AN ENDURING THEME ....................................................................................................................................................... 234 CHAPTER SEVEN: NETWORKED COMPUTING – BUILDING THE INTERNET AGE........................237 LARGE SCALE COMPUTING PROJECTS.............................................................................................................................. 237 COMPUTING: FROM SUPERCOMPUTERS TO THE INTERNET ........................................................................................ 242 NSFNET ............................................................................................................................................................................... 244 THE NSF AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE INTERNET ..................................................................................................... 251 ACCIDENTAL SUCCESS? ...................................................................................................................................................... 263 CHAPTER EIGHT: THE NSF AND THE NANOTECHNOLOGY FRONTIER ..........................................266 THE NANO AGE?.................................................................................................................................................................. 266 NATIONAL NANOTECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE.................................................................................................................... 270 NANO‐BIO‐INFO‐COGNO CONVERGENCE ....................................................................................................................... 278 5 NANO RHETORIC ................................................................................................................................................................. 289 SCIENCE FICTION?..............................................................................................................................................................
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