Special Supplement on Conversions, Quantities, Calculations and Indulgences: a Primer

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B- Summer 2014

Special Supplement on Building Soil Carbon Conversions, Quantities, Calculations and Indulgences: A Primer by Jack Kittredge

Anyone attempting to make sense of calculations that the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was That is pretty close to 5 tonnes (metric tons) of car- surrounding carbon cycling and soil carbon must 280 parts per million. We are now at 393 ppm. Any- bon, so lets call it that. Since all that carbon was put first understand a little bit about quantities and con- thing beyond 350 ppm is considered unsustainable as there by the magic of photosynthesis – the plant us- version factors. Here are some basic facts you might it will heat the earth (greenhouse effect) beyond toler- ing sunlight to combine carbon dioxide (CO2) from find helpful. able levels. One part per million of CO2 in the atmo- the air with water (H2O) from the soil to make car- sphere is equal to 7.8 gigatons (GT or billion tonnes) bohydrates (usually with the form Cm(H2O)n where Metric Conversions of CO2 or 2.125 GT of solid carbon (for illustration, m could be different from n ) for the plant and giving this is about a cubic kilometer of graphite). back oxygen to the air – we know those 5 tonnes of First off, much of this literature uses the metric sys- carbon came from 3.67 times as much carbon diox- tem of measurement. In case you forgot your high Methane: This is a gas with the chemical formula ide. So the answer, dear class, is that the acre of top school lessons on the metric system, here are some of CH4. It is the main component of natural gas and soil with 1% organic matter has sequestered 18.35 useful conversions. a potent greenhouse gas, one unit trapping as much tonnes of carbon dioxide. reflected sunlight as 25 units of carbon dioxide. It is Length: one meter = 39.3701 inches; one inch (12 produced by anaerobic respiration from bacteria, ter- Indulgences in. to a foot, 5280 ft. to a mile) = 2.54 centimeters mites, and in the rumens of ruminant animals such as cattle. That’s no slouch of a number. The average US Area: one hectacre (10,000 square meters) = 2.4711 citizen’s share of emissions, with all our fossil acres; one acre (43560 sq. ft.) = .40469 hectares Nitrous Oxide: This is a gas with the chemical fuel addictions, according to the United Nations is

formula of N2O. It is known as “laughing gas” due less than that much carbon dioxide annually (17.5 Volume: one liter (1000 cubic centimeters) = 1.0567 to the euphoric effects of inhaling it. Nitrous oxide tonnes to be exact.) Of course the average Bangla- US quart (liquid); 1 US quart (liquid) = .94635 liters gives rise to NO (nitric oxide) on reaction with oxy- deshi emits 0.38 tonnes, and your typical Zambian gen atoms, and this NO in turn reacts with ozone. manages only 0.19. But if you are looking for a way Weight: one kilogram = 2.2046 lbs; one pound = Considered over a 100-year period, it has 298 times to assuage your guilt and justify your lifestyle to .45359 kilogram more impact (global warming potential) per unit mass posterity, building a percent more organic matter in than carbon dioxide. the top soil of an acre of your field or yard or com- An additional complication concerns the use of the munity garden every year is not a bad way to go weight that derives from the ancient Germanic term Note: When encountering calculations involving about keeping your head held high! for a large cask, or tun. In the US, one (short) ton = Methane and Nitrous Oxide, some writers will auto-

2000 pounds. The non-US “conventional” system, matically convert them into their CO2 greenhouse gas How does this calculation hold up for the task at however, uses the British Imperial (long) ton of equivalents (i.e. equate a methane molecule to 25 car- hand globally? Hold onto your hats! 2240 pounds. Lastly, the metric tonne is 1000 kg or bon dioxides, and a nitrous oxide one to 298 carbon 2204.6 lbs, very close to the Imperial or long ton. dioxides). Be ready for these molecules to show up as continued on page B-2

CO2 conversions, without clear explanation. Temperature: one degree Celsius = 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit; 1˚F = .556˚C, water freezes at 32˚F or Calculations Inside this Supplement 0˚C. We can now calculate how much carbon is contained Plants Will Save the World B- 2 Quantities in an acre of top soil when that top soil is 6 inches deep and has an organic matter of 1%. We can also Organics and Soil Carbon B- 3 Carbon and Carbon Dioxide: The carbon atom calculate how much carbon dioxide that carbon is se- has an atomic weight of 12. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is questering. Diversity is King B- 5 a molecule composed of a carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Since each oxygen atom has an atomic Taking an average soil weight of 1400 k/m3, the top Book Reviews B- 9 weight of 16, the total CO molecule has an atomic inch of a square meter of soil will have a weight of 2 Yearlong Farming for Carbon B-11 weight of 44. Thus one carbon dioxide molecule 1400 kilograms divided by 39.3701 (inches in a me- weighs 3.67 times as much as a carbon atom, and ter) or 35.56 kilograms, and the top six inches will No-Till Vegetable Production B-12 carbon weighs .273 times as much as CO2. have 6 times that much, or 213.36 kilograms. If the six inches of top soil in a square meter weighs 213.36 Mycorrhizal Fungi & Carbon B-14 People are approximately 18% carbon by weight. kg, by the magic of the metric system we see that the Wood is roughly 50% carbon, and soil organic mat- weight of a hectare of that top soil is 2,133,600 kg. Building Carbon with Beef B-17 ter is about 58% carbon. Typical soils, depending on But we want to know about an acre of it, so we divide Land Management & Carbon B-20 level of compaction, weigh between 1200 and 1600 by 2.4711 and find the answer is that 6 inches of top kilograms per cubic meter. soil weighs 863,421.1 kg per acre. Now only 1% of Ruminants and Methane B-21 that is soil organic matter (SOM), so we now have Before the industrial revolution and burning of sig- 8,634.211 kg of SOM. And only 58% of that is car- Soil Carbon FAQs B-22 nificant amounts of fossil fuels, scientists estimate bon, so we are down to 5,007.8 kg of carbon. Published by the Northeast Organic Farming Association, (NOFA), www.nofa.org, 411 Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005, 978-355-2853, [email protected] B- 2 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014

continued from page B-1

If we are at 393 ppm CO2 in the atmosphere now, and want to get back to the sustainable level of 350 ppm, we need to store 43 ppm somewhere. If each ppm is equal to 7.8 GT of CO2, we need to store a total of 7.8 GT times 43, or 335.4 GT of CO2. This may seem like a daunting task, even for organic farmers. But let’s do the numbers.

The land area of the globe equals 149.4 million square kilometers. If you take the 38% of that which the World Bank says is agricultural land, you have about 56.8 million km2. This, again by the magic of the metric system, is 5.7 billion hectares. One has to look up the conversion factor, of course, to find that this equals 14 billion acres.

If an increase in 1% of the organic matter of soil in an acre will sequester 18.35 tonnes of CO2, then 14 billion acres could sequester 256.9 billion tonnes.

This is more than three-quarters of the CO2 that we need to sequester to get back to 350 ppm, the level of sustainability – all for increasing soil organic matter by one percent!

None of this, of course, would be easy. But isn’t it nice to know that soil can do that? It even turns out that with proper practices much of that carbon can be stored for centuries as humus. And the best part photo courtesy Jill Clapperton of it is that doing all this will improve the fertility Cross-section of a plant root, showing liquid carbon flowing to soil via the hyphae of and water retention capacity of your fields, give you mycorrhizal fungi. This carbon will support a vast array of microbes that not only retain better crops and make you more productive as a carbon but also improve soil structure and soil tilth, enhance water-holding capacity, fix farmer. atmospheric nitrogen, solubilise phosphorus and provide minerals, trace elements and other growth stimulating substances to plants. Soil, Carbon, and How Plants Will Save The World

by Jack Kittredge which provide these services is one of the more fascinating fields of study just emerging for young TRADITIONAL HEALTH FIRST More and more agricultural scientists are beginning biologists! The only retired state police officer to recognize that there is a wondrous world just in the country selling beneath our feet. We know very little about it, so far. In this fashion sometimes as much as half the Blue Ice™ Fermented Cod Liver Oil! But what little we are learning is staggering. carbon a plant draws from the atmosphere will John E. Delmolino ultimately be exuded underground and enter the The rhizosphere (the narrow soil area immediately bodies of microbial organisms. While some of 19 Davis Street - Turners Falls - MA surrounding plant roots) is a densely populated that is ultimately oxidized and released back to 413-210-4445 zone where plant roots must compete with invading the atmosphere when those organisms die, some is root systems of neighboring plants for space, water, further processed into complex humic compounds, OFFERING: and mineral nutrients, and with other soil-borne capable of resisting oxidation and of enduring for Blue Ice Fermented Cod Liver Oil organisms, including bacteria and fungi. Root- centuries underground. non flavored, cinnamon, orange, and mint flavors to-root and root–to-microbe communications are Blue Ice Fermented Skate Liver Oil continuous occurrences in this biologically active It is this process of drawing in carbon dioxide as a X Factor Gold High Vitamin Butter Oil soil zone. How do roots manage to simultaneously gas, and pumping that carbon underground as liquid Blue Ice Royal Fermented CLO/ Butter Oil communicate with and influence neighboring plants carbon compounds, which has tied up carbon in the All in Liquid or Capsules and symbiotic and pathogenic organisms within this past and can continue to do so in the future. As you Blue Ice Infused Coconut Oil crowded rhizosphere? Increasing evidence suggests will see when you read this issue of The Natural Pure Indian Foods GHEE & CULTURED GHEE that roots constantly exude chemicals that initiate Farmer, it is the only process that has any chance of Prescript-Assist Probiotic / Prebiotic Capsules and manipulate biological and physical interactions counteracting the increasing CO2 our combustion of FREE SHIPPING between roots and soil organisms, and thus play an fossil fuels is adding to the atmosphere. active role in such communication and influence. to order or for information Green plants jumpstart the process using their To enable this process to deal with that much carbon call:“Oh My COD, It’s JOHN” chlorophyll and sunlight to magically create dioxide, however, we need to enlist the aid of carbohydrates out of carbon dioxide and water. worldwide agriculture. The things which disrupt that 855-Oh My COD (855-646-9263) They use some of these sugars as the building process are bare soil which is not photosynthesizing, [email protected] blocks for further transformation into proteins, tillage which shreds fungal and other life forms vital Like us on Facebook fats, antioxidants and phyto-chemicals of all sorts to preserving soil carbon, and synthetic fertilizers Cod liver oil has abundant supplies for their own growth and development. But a (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus) because of of vitamin A and D. Before 1850 all CLO was lot of the sugars, amino acids, proteins, organic their toxic impact on decomposer organisms. The acids, phenolics, and various other secondary ways to accelerate that carbon-fixing process are fermented. After 1850 CLO production was metabolites will be exuded by the plant’s roots into use of perennial crops and grasses, no till growing industrialized by heat processing, which destroys the surrounding soil as a way of ‘hiring help’ from methods, biodiverse cover crops, livestock grazing, most of the vitamins. Fermented or heat processed bacteria, fungi, and countless other organisms in the and the addition of stable carbonaceous materials oil allows us to digest it. In 2008 Green Pasture soil community. (such as biochar) to soils. Products in Nebraska made fermented cod liver oil available to the community. Fermented CLO Such services as accessing minerals and water, In this issue we present what we hope is useful (and fighting off attack by disease organisms, repelling hopeful) information about soil and carbon. Every is better tasting than the heat processed oil and predators, and inhibiting competition with other grower, whether raising annuals, perennials, or has all natural vitamin A and D, quinones, EPA / plants can often be done more efficiently by various grazing animals, can adopt these methods and not DHA fatty acids, omegas 3, 6, 7 & 9. The Roman non-photosynthesizing organisms which, in turn, only raise better and healthier products as a result, Soldiers and the Vikings relied on cod liver oil. need the carbohydrates and other root exudates of but also help nature take carbon from the air and Why don’t YOU? the plants for their own survival. The co-evolution return it to the soil. of plants with the many specialized soil organisms Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-3 Organics and Soil Carbon: Increasing Soil Carbon, Crop Productivity and Farm Profitability by Andre Leu that they feed show that they help with increasing the bioavailability of the minerals that are locked This paper explains how atmospheric carbon is in- into the soil. Soil tests show an increase in soil fer- troduced into the soil and how it is stored in stable tility after weed fallows and when plants are grown forms. It identifies the farming techniques that are as green manures. It is one of the reasons why responsible for the decline in soil carbon and gives ground cover fallows restore soil health. They return alternative practices that do not damage carbon. tonnes of carbon into the soil, feed the microorgan- Increasing soil carbon will ensure good production isms that make nutrients bioavailable and reduce outcomes and farm profitability. Soil carbon, partic- soil pathogens. ularly the stable forms such as humus and glomalin, increases farm profitability by increasing yields, soil The important thing is to ensure that the soil has fertility, soil moisture retention, aeration, nitrogen adequate levels of all the minerals and moisture fixation, mineral availability, disease suppression, necessary for growth and that the weed management soil tilth and general structure. It is the basis of practices allow the crop to be the dominant plants. healthy soil. Techniques are encouraged where weeds are cut Organic agriculture also helps to reduce greenhouse down, pulled or grazed so that their residues will re- gases by converting atmospheric carbon dioxide turn to the soil will feed the crop. Cutting and graz-

(CO2) into soil organic matter. Some forms of con- ing plants will result in significant percentages of ventional agriculture have caused a massive decline roots being shed off so that the weed or cover crop in soil organic matter, due to oxidizing organic plants can re-establish an equilibrium between their carbon by incorrect tillage, the overuse of nitrogen leaf and root areas. fertilizers and from topsoil loss through wind and water erosion. These cast off roots not only add carbon and feed 1. Use plants to grow soil carbon the soil microorganisms, they release nutrients to Why is carbon important to productive farming? the crop and significantly lower nutrient and water The most economical and effective way to increase competition. This addition of nutrients encourages Soil carbon is one of the most neglected yet most soil carbon is to grow it. Plants get between 95 and the crop roots to grow deeper in the soil, below the important factors in soil fertility, disease control, 98% of their minerals from the air and water. If weed roots resulting in larger crop root systems and water efficiency and farm productivity. Humus and we look at the chemical composition of an average better access to water and soil nutrients. its related acids are significantly important forms plant, Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen account for of carbon. Below is a summary of the benefits of over 95% of the minerals. The remaining 5% or less With these techniques, we are actually increasing humus come from the soil. These minerals are combined the efficiency of the farm surface area capturing using the energy of the sun via photosynthesis to sunlight and using photosynthesis to make the car- Humus improves nutrient availability: produce the carbon based compounds that plants bon based molecules that eventually result in the · Stores 90 to 95% of the nitrogen in the soil, 15 to need to grow and reproduce. fertile soils that feed our plants. 80% of phosphorus and 20 to 50% of sulphur in the soil The ‘Carbon Gift’ - how plants increase soil car- It is the nutrients that we lose off farm, either · Has many sites that hold minerals and consequent- bon through selling the crop, through soil leaching or ly dramatically increases the soil’s TEC (total erosion, that need to be replaced every year. Good exchange capacity or amount of plant available It is estimated that between 30-60% of the atmo- fertilization should always ensure that our soil has

nutrients that the soil can store) spheric carbon dioxide (CO2) absorbed by plants is the optimum level of all the necessary minerals. If · Stores cations, such as calcium, magnesium, potas- deposited into the soil as organic matter, either in we do not replace the minerals that we remove from sium and all trace elements the form of bud sheaths that protect the delicate root our soil when we sell our crop, we are mining our · Prevents nutrient leaching by holding them tips or as a range of other root excretions. soil and running it down. · Organic acids (humic, fulvic, ulmic and others) help make minerals available by dissolving locked These complex carbon compounds contain the com- One of the reasons why good organic farmers no- up minerals plete range of minerals used by plants and are one tice that weeds do not become a problem in their · Prevents mineral ions from being locked up of the ways that minerals are distributed throughout systems is because they ensure they have excellent · Encourages a range of microbes that make locked the topsoil. They feed billions of microbes – acti- soil nutrition and health by using weed management up minerals available to plants. nomycetes, bacteria and fungi that are beneficial techniques that build up the soil. The process be- · Helps to neutralize the pH to plants. Research shows that the greatest concen- comes one of effective weed management rather · Buffers the soil from strong changes in pH trations of microorganisms are found close to the than weed eradication. roots of plants. This important area is called the Humus improves soil structure: Rhizosphere. These organisms perform a wide range One of the problems with herbicides is that by kill- · Promotes good soil structure which creates soil of functions from helping to make soil minerals bio- ing the ground cover plants, they stop the food sup- spaces for air and water available to protecting plants from disease. ply that feeds these beneficials, thereby lowering the · Assists with good/strong ped (soil particle) forma- count of beneficial species. Consequently soil borne tion Research has shown that plant roots put many pathogens like Phytophthora and Fusarium can take · Encourages macro-organisms (ie earthworms and tonnes of complex carbon molecules and bioavail- over, as the various species that kept them under beetles etc) that form pores in the soil. able minerals per hectare into the soil every year control are significantly reduced. and are a very important part of the process of form- Humus directly assists plants: ing topsoils and good soil structure. 2. Use microorganisms to convert soil carbon into · The spaces allow microorganisms to turn the nitro- stable forms gen in the air into nitrate and ammonia This means that well managed plants can put more · Soil carbon dioxide contained in these air spaces bioavailable nutrients into the soil than they remove The stable forms of soil carbon such as humus and increases plant growth from it. Also the nutrients they put into the soil are glomalin are manufactured by microorganisms. · Helps plant and microbial growth through growth some of the most important to the crop, to beneficial They convert the carbon compounds that are readily

stimulating compounds organisms and to the structure and fertility of the oxidized into CO2 into stable polymers that can last · Helps root growth, by making it easy for roots to soil. thousands of years in the soil. travel through the soil Managing weeds to increase soil carbon Some of the current conventional farming tech- Humus improves soil water relationships: niques result in the soil carbon deposited by plant · The open structure increases rain absorption If we look at weeds from this perspective, we can roots being oxidized and converted back into carbon · Water loss from run off is decreased see that if we prevent the weeds from choking our dioxide. This is the reason why soil organic matter · Humus molecules soak up to 20 times their weight crop, especially from getting the important sunlight, (carbon) levels continue to decline in these farming in water they can be increasing the fertility and health of the systems. · It is stored in the soil for later use by the plants. soil and actually helping our crop, rather than hin- · Improved ped formation helps the soil stay well dering it. The other significant depository of carbon is soil drained organisms. Research shows that they form a con- If the weeds are managed properly, and their resi- siderable percentage of soil carbon. It is essential The processes to increase soil carbon can be di- dues are allowed to return to the soil, their nutrient to manage the soil to maintain high levels of soil vided into three steps removal from the soil is zero. In fact, as they are organisms. 1. Use plants to grow soil carbon adding between 30% to 60% of the organic com- 2. Use microorganisms to convert soil carbon into pounds they create through photosynthesis into the Also it is essential that farming techniques stimulate stable forms soil, they are increasing soil fertility. the species of soil microorganisms that create stable 3. Avoid farming techniques that destroy soil car- carbon, rather than stimulating the species that con-

bon Studies of weed fallows and the microorganisms sume carbon and convert it into CO2. B- 4 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014

consuming 30 tons of carbon. The quick addition of soil ‘tilth’. This is soil that is friable with a crumbly these nitrogen fertilizers causes the nitrogen feeding structure. Not a fine powder or large clumps. Both bacteria to rapidly multiply, consuming the soil car- of these are indicators of poor structure and soil bon to build their cell walls. health. These conditions will increase the oxidation

of organic matter turning it into CO2. This process results in the stable forms being con- sumed causing a decline in the soil carbon levels. Tillage should be done only when the soil has the The best analogy is money in a bank. The addition correct moisture. Too wet and it smears and com- of the large doses of nitrogen fertilizer is the equiva- presses. Too dry and it turns to dust and powder. lent of a large withdrawal. Both of these effects result in long term soil damage that will reduce yields, increase susceptibility to Freshly deposited carbon compounds tend to read- pests and diseases, increase water and wind erosion

ily oxidize into CO2 unless they are converted into and increase production costs. Creating stable carbon more stable forms. Stable forms of carbon take time to form. In many cases it requires years to rebuild Tillage should be done at the correct speeds so that The process of making composts uses microbes to the bank of stable carbon back to the previous lev- the soil cracks and separates around the peds leav- build humus and other stable carbons. The microor- els. ing them intact, rather than smashing or smearing ganisms that create compost continue working in the the peds by travelling too fast. Good ped structure soil after compost applications, converting the car- Ensuring that a carbon source is included with ni- ensures that the soil is less prone to erosion. bon gifted by plants roots into stable forms. Regular trogen fertilizers protects the soil carbon bank, as applications of compost and/or compost teas will in- the microbes will use the added carbon, rather than Deep tillage using rippers or chisel ploughs that oculate the soil with beneficial organisms that build degrading the stable soil carbon. Composts, animal result in minimal surface disturbance while opening humus and other long lasting carbon polymers. Over manures, green manures and legumes are good ex- up the subsoils to allow better aeration and water time these species will predominate over the species amples of carbon based nitrogen sources infiltration, are the preferred options. This will al- that chew up carbon into CO2. low plant roots to grow deeper into the soil ensuring Where possible plant available nitrogen should be better nutrient and water uptake and greater carbon Regular applications of composts and/or compost obtained through rhizobium bacteria in legumes and deposition. tea also increase the number and diversity of species free-living nitrogen fixing microorganisms. These living in the soil biomass. This ensures that a sig- microorganisms work at a stable rate fixing the ni- Minimal surface disturbance ensures that the soil is nificant proportion of soil carbon is stored in living trogen in the soil air into plant available forms. They less prone to erosion and oxidation thereby reducing species that will make minerals plant available and can utilize the steady stream of newly deposited or preventing carbon loss. protect the health of the plants. carbon from plant roots to create amino acids, rather than destroying humus and other stable carbon poly- Control weeds without soil damage Composts bring a significant number of other mers. benefits A large range of tillage methods can be used to con- Carbon eaters rather than carbon builders trol weeds in crops without damaging the soil and Research shows that good quality compost is one of The use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers changes the losing carbon. the most important ways to improve soil. It is very soil biota to favor microorganisms that consume important to understand that compost is a lot more carbon, rather than the species that build humus and Various spring tines, some types of harrows, star than a fertilizer. Compost contains humus, humic other stable forms of carbon. By stimulating high weeders, knives and brushes can be used to pull out acids and most importantly a large number of ben- levels of species that consume soil carbon, the car- young weeds with only minimal soil disturbance. eficial microorganisms that have a major role in the bon never gets to increase and usually continues to process of building healthy soils. slowly decline. Rotary hoes are very effective, but should be kept shallow at around 25mm to avoid destroying the soil Compost provides the following benefits: The use of composts with microorganisms that build structure. The fine 25mm layer of soil on the top stable carbons will see soil carbon levels increase if acts as a mulch to suppress weed seeds when they Humus the farm avoids practices that destroy soil carbon. germinate and conserve the deeper soil moisture and · Adds humus and organic matter to the soil carbon. This ensures that carbon isn’t lost through · Inoculates soil with humus building microorgan- Reduce herbicides, pesticides and fungicides oxidation in the bulk of the topsoil. isms. Research shows that the use of biocides (herbicides, · Improves soil structure to allow better infiltration pesticides and fungicides) causes a decline in ben- There are several cultivators with guidance sys- of air and water. eficial microorganisms. As early as 1962, Rachel tems that ensure precision accuracy for controlling · Humus stores 20 times it weight in water and sig- Carson quoted research about the detrimental effect weeds. These can be set up with a wide range of nificantly increases the capacity of soil to store of biocides on soil microorganisms in her ground- implements and can be purchased in sizes suitable water breaking book ‘Silent Spring’. Since then there have for small horticultural to large-scale crop farms. been regular studies confirming the damage agricul- Nutrients tural chemicals are causing to our soil biota. Organic farmers in the USA, Europe and Australia · Mineral Nutrients are using these to get excellent control over weeds · Organic based nutrients Recently the work of one of the world’s leading in their crops. · Contains a complete range of nutrients microbiologists, Dr. Elaine Ingham, has shown · Slow release that these chemicals cause a significant decline in Avoid erosion · Does not leach into aquatic environment the beneficial microorganisms that build humus, Erosion is one significant way that soil carbon is suppress diseases and make nutrients available to lost. The top few centimeters of soil is the area rich- Beneficial micro-organisms plants. She reports that many of the herbicides and est in carbon. When this thin layer of soil is lost due · Supplies a large range of beneficial fungi, bacteria fungicides have been shown to kill off beneficial to rain or wind, the carbon is lost as well. and other useful species soil fungi. These types of fungi have been shown to · Suppresses soil pathogens suppress diseases, increase nutrient uptake (particu- Avoid burning stubble · Fixes nitrogen larly phosphorus) and form glomalin. Practices such as burning stubble should be avoided. · Increases soil carbon Burning creates greenhouses gases as well as expos- · Release of locked up soil minerals Glomalin is a stable carbon polymer that forms long ing the soil to damage from erosion and oxidation. · Detoxifies poisons strings that work like reinforcing rods in the soil. · Feeds plants and soil life Research is showing that they form a significant role Encourage vegetation cover · Builds soil structure in building a good soil structure that is resistant to Vegetation cover is the best way to prevent soil erosion and compaction. The structure facilitates and carbon loss. As stated in the previous section 3. Avoid using farming techniques that destroy good aeration and water infiltration. ‘Managing weeds to increases soil carbon’, it is soil carbon not always necessary to eradicate weeds. Effective Avoiding the use of toxic chemicals is an important management tools such as grazing or mowing can The continuous application of carbon as composts, part of the process of developing healthy soils that achieve better long term results. manures, mulches and via plant growth will not in- are teeming with the beneficial species that will crease soil carbon levels if farming practices destroy build the stable forms of carbon. Bare soils should be avoided as much as possible soil carbon. The following are some of the practices Research shows that bare soils lose organic matter that result in a decline in carbon and alternatives Use correct tillage methods through oxidation, the killing of microorganisms that prevent this loss. Tillage is one of the oldest and most effective meth- and through wind and rain erosion. Cultivated soils ods to prepare planting beds and to control weeds. should be planted with a cover crop as quickly as Reduce nitrogen applications Unfortunately it is also one of the most abused possible. The cover crop will protect the soil from Synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are one of the major methods resulting in soil loss, damage to the soil damage and add carbon and other nutrients as it causes of the decline of soil carbon. This is because structure and carbon loss through oxidation when grows. The correct choice of species can increase it stimulates a range of bacteria that feed on nitrogen used incorrectly. soil nitrogen, conserve soil moisture through mulch- and carbon to form amino acids for their growth ing and suppress weeds by out-competing them. and reproduction. These bacteria have a Carbon It is important that tillage does not destroy soil to Nitrogen ratio of around 30 to 1. In other words structure by pulverizing or smearing the soil peds. every ton of nitrogen applied results in the bacteria Farmers should be aware of the concept of good Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-5 Diversity is King North Dakota Farm Combines Cover Crops for Improved Soil Health, Fertility and High Yields this information was compiled, edited and written by Chris Walters from interviews with Gabe Brown reprinted from Acres, USA, October, 2013

The farm we’re on today was purchased by my wife’s parents back in 1956. They farmed conventionally — tillage, heavy tillage, half summer fallow, half small grains. They primarily grew spring wheat, oats, barley and, once in a great while, flax. So it was primarily cool-season grasses, half summer fallow, half crops. They also had a small cow/ calf herd up until the late ’70s. In 1983 when I finished college, Shelly and I moved onto the place and entered the cow/calf business. Her folks were still operating the grain farming aspect of the operation and we did the cow/calf enterprise. Both my wife and I worked in town. During the late ’80s we started to divide up the pastures a little bit to do some rotational grazing as there were only three pastures on the operation when we arrived. That was our first foray, so to speak, into rotational grazing.

In 1991 we had the chance to buy the home place from them — they retired and moved to town. For the first two years I farmed conventionally with tillage. We’re in an environment where average precip- itation here on the outskirts of Bismarck is about 15 inches, but of that about 9 inches comes as rainfall and the remainder is from snow. I always thought that moisture was the limiting factor in crop produc- photo courtesy Gabe Brown tion on our farm. I had a friend in the northern part Closeup of a cover crop cocktail comprised of Sorghum/sudangrass, hybrid pearl millet, of the state who was a no-tiller, and he talked me cowpeas, soybeans, buckwheat, phacelia, hairy vetch, crimson clover, sunflowers, safflower, into trying no-till to conserve moisture. He told me, “Gabe, if you’re going to go into no-till, sell all your Winfred kale, Hunter turnips, brown top millet, persian clover. tillage equipment. Otherwise you’ll be tempted to oats, barley, and what happens but we lose 100 per- and hail that we were still able to inch that up. Obvi- go back.” So I actually did that. We sold all of our cent of our crop to hail again. ously at that time I didn’t realize what I was doing, tillage equipment before I bought a no-till drill in but today I know I had more roots in the ground. 1993. We bought a 15-foot John Deere 750 no-till Well that was really devastating. My wife and I both Approximately two-thirds of your organic matter drill, and we’ve been 100 percent no-till ever since. worked off-farm jobs to help pay the bills. With two increase will come from roots. Well, by growing all young children, things were tough. But after that these cover crops, adding this diversity into the crop The first year with that no-till drill I seeded some second hailstorm I started to plant more mixes just rotation, we were seeing an increase in organic mat- peas for the first time, and I began seeding some to provide forage for the cattle. One of the combina- ter, so that was a good thing. I had severely cut back acres down to alfalfa. I started to diversify the crop tions I tried was winter triticale and hairy vetch. At on my use of commercial or synthetic fertilizer, and rotation a little bit, but I didn’t have any idea where that time soil health was not even on my radar, I was today I know that benefits soil biology. Back then I it would lead me. What really changed for us was just trying to save the farm. But really what I was had no idea. I was just trying to survive, to feed the in 1995. We had 1,200 acres of spring wheat — I doing was building a foundation for advancing soil livestock, to produce something that would generate should mention that the farm we’re on was about health. cash flow. That was it. Back then I had no inclina- 2,000 acres of cropland with another 3,000-plus tions as far as advancing healthy soil. I didn’t realize acres of tame and native pasture, so it’s a little over In 1997 we started to diversify the rotation even at that time that my soils were in a degraded state. 5,000 acres altogether. The day before we were more but that year was a total drought — nobody going to start combining the 1,200 acres of spring around us combined an acre, including us. We had We ran 100 to 150 cow/calf pairs back in the mid- wheat we lost 100 percent of our crop to hail. That’s three years of crop failures in a row. I started plant- ‘90s. Just as a point of reference to where we are a pretty tough pill to swallow. Because it had only ing more of the warm-season species crops — Su- today, on basically the same land base we now run hailed once on this farm in the previous 25 years, dangrass and millet, and I added cowpeas because 350 to 400 cow/calf pairs. That’s a constant. We we didn’t even think of taking out crop insurance I couldn’t afford to buy nitrogen, but I knew that if keep our cow herd levels the same, and then we for hail because it just never happened here. I grew a legume with these species, it would fix ni- run anywhere from 300 to 600 yearlings on the trogen for those grass species. So we started to grow same land base. We finish some of them on grass, You know it’s pretty bad when the USDA sends some crops in combination. 1998 came along and so we’re actually keeping some of those animals people out from the national office to take pictures. we lost 80 percent of our crop to hail again. So I lost until they’re 28 months old. We have significantly But I was already done combining peas before I lost the majority of four crops in a row, and my wife and more livestock, plus we have a small flock of sheep, my spring wheat crop, and that made me realize the I will tell you that was absolutely the best thing that and we’re running pastured poultry. My son has an importance of having a diverse crop rotation. Af- could have happened to us because it changed the egg-laying business with pastured laying hens, and ter the hailstorm I decided that since we had those way I looked at production agriculture. we have a few turkeys. We’ve really diversified the nutrients in the soil, let’s put some crop on there to operation tremendously on that same land base. I grow forage for the livestock as, obviously that hail- I noticed that following the peas, the next crop was just received my latest soil tests last month, and our storm also took all of our pasture. That was really a little better. Following the diverse Sudangrass/ organic matter levels were from 5.3 to 6.1 percent my first try at what today we call cover crops. I went millet/cowpeas, the next crop was a little better. on those same fields that once were 1.7 to 1.9. So in and seeded some millet and some Sudangrass, Following the triticale/hairy vetch combination, the we’ve more than tripled our organic matter levels. just trying to grow forage. next cash crop there was a little better. We started to notice our organic matter percentages improving, When we purchased the operation I was very for- In 1996 we started planting corn, and we planted and I should note that we were fortunate that we tunate that the USDA’s Natural Resources Conser- more acres to peas. Obviously when you’re young were soil testing. My father-in-law had soil tested vation Service came out and did a soil infiltration and starting out and you lose the majority of your for years, and I soil tested so we had the baseline study. What they found is that we could only infil- crop to hail, you have a tough time making pay- data. When we purchased this operation our organic trate half an inch of water or moisture per hour. And ments. I couldn’t borrow as much money for inputs, matter levels were 1.7 to 1.9 percent. that was because of all the heavy tillage and the lack so I wondered, “Okay, how do I supply nitrogen of soil aggregation and pore spaces. The last test without having to purchase synthetic fertilizer?” Those levels are typical of land that has endured a they did at my place over a year ago indicated that So I seeded acres to alfalfa, more acres to peas and consistent regimen of little besides synthetic nitro- we can infiltrate over eight inches per hour. That’s planted more forage crops such as Sudangrass and gen for decades. And it’s more so indicative of the a 16-fold increase. I tell people that even though millet. I didn’t know at the time, but what I was tillage and of lack of diversity in the cropping sys- we’re in what some might consider a moisture- really doing was laying the groundwork for crop tem. Those two things especially cause the degrada- challenged environment at 15 inches, it doesn’t diversity by diversifying the crop rotation. I had all tion of soil organic matter. So our crop land was 1.7 matter how much rain you get, it’s how much can these other crops along with spelt and spring wheat, to 1.9 percent. I noticed after four years of drought you infiltrate into your soils and then how much B- 6 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 son this was the next step in soil health for us, but not only on pastures; we were going to do it on the cover crops.

You look at how these prairie soils were formed, with large herds of grazing animals, bison, elk, and deer, moving across the prairie, trampling litter down onto the soil surface. They left their dung and urine and then moved away, not to return for maybe a year. I wanted to mimic this on my cropland because Neil had proven it could be done. Al- lan Savory of course had proven it could be done on rangeland, but I didn’t see anybody doing it on cropland. I got to thinking about all these cover crops I’m growing, and what we lack in for improvement of soil health on cropland is the livestock component, so I came home and my son and I immediately started growing these cover crops, putting high stock densities, 600,000-700,000 pounds of beef, live weight, per acre on this cover crop and then ro- tating them. What we’re seeing is an absolute jump in the health and improvement of our soil resources.

We’ve been able to document this with Dr. Ray Ward at Ward Labs in Kearney, Nebraska, and Dr. Richard Haney, who is a soil scientist with the ARS station in Temple, Texas. Haney has developed a test that doesn’t only take into account the chemical and physical properties of the soil, it takes into account

photo courtesy Gabe Brown the biological processes happening in the soil. Photo of steers that Gabe was grass-finishing on a similar mix as illustrated on page B-5. Dr. Haney and Dr. Ward just formed an agreement Photo taken in September. and are now doing the test. I believe it costs $49.50. you can store. It’s the organic matter that improves We saw a real expansion of people interested in no- It’s called the Haney test, and it’s available com- the water-holding capacity of the soil. For every till. Then in 2003 I had the good fortune of meeting mercially through Ward Labs, which is really excit- one percent increase in organic matter, that results Dr. Kristine Nichols, who came to work as a soil mi- ing. The beauty of it is that it shows the one thing I in approximately 20,000 gallons more stored water crobiologist with the ARS station in Mandan, North think has been missing in production agriculture for per acre. So when my soils jump from less than 2 Dakota. Dr. Nichols did some of the original work many years. We know that after a legume crop you percent to 6 percent, think of how many thousands on glomalin with Dr. Sarah Wright out of Belts- get a nitrogen credit, but no test out there has really of gallons of water I’m able to store in my soil. And ville Maryland. Dr. Nichols came out to my place shown the amount of nutrients that we can expect that’s just from a moisture standpoint. in 2003. She walked in my fields and said “Gabe, from the biological activity in the soil. The Haney you’ve come a long way but your soils will never test does that now — it is giving a credit for the bio- After 1998 I had lost four crops in a row to hail and be sustainable unless you remove synthetic fertilizer logical activity. There are some specific protocols drought. We were able to hold on to the beef cow completely.” By then I had backed way, way off my you need to follow in taking the soil sample. I see herd, and I was very fortunate that the bank did not synthetic fertilizer usage, but I was still using some. this as a huge step in cutting back the use of all of foreclose on me. We were still able to make our in- these inputs and fossil fuels in production agricul- terest payments, so they stuck with us. I had begun So from 2003 until 2008 I did split trials in several ture. to see a real change in the soil. fields on our operation. I would put down some synthetic fertilizer, albeit at a much a lower rate Over the past several years we proved that by bring- It was about then, 1997 actually, when I was first than recommended, and then on the other half of ing cattle onto this cropland we’re able to take exposed to holistic management. I heard Don Camp- the field I’d put no synthetic fertilizer. For four organic phosphorus and other elements ordinarily bell from Alberta talk about holistic management, years in a row, the unfertilized yields were equal to not available to plants and make them available. and that got me thinking about making my operation or greater than the fertilized. The last year we used Because of this our proven corn yield now is 127 function as a whole. So often in agriculture today synthetic fertilizers on our own land was in 2008, bushels per acre. That may not seem high to some, we segregate the corn crop from the soybean crop yet my yields have significantly improved. Another but the county average in Burleigh is under 100, so and segregate that from the livestock enterprises — big learning curve moment happened in 2006 when I’m over 25 percent higher than that, yet I have zero everything is segregated. I got to thinking about the I spoke at the No-till on the Plains conference in fertilizer cost. I have no fungicides, and I have no changes I’d seen in my operation having to do with Salina, Kansas. Dr. Ademir Calegari from Brazil pesticides. We’re down to about one herbicide pass diversity; it really struck home that what I was try- also spoke at that conference. He talked about these every two to three years, depending on the crop ro- ing to do was imitate native rangeland. When you cover crop cocktails or polyculture cover crops in tation and which fields we’re using. I tell people I’m go out in true native rangeland, it’s very diverse. My Brazil where they mix many species together. I was striving to get to where I eliminate all my herbicide son teaches range management at the local college, growing two- and three-way mixes, but Ademir was uses totally, but I will not use tillage to do that. To and once he brought his students out to one of our talking about seven-way mixes and above. me, tillage is just too detrimental to the soil health. native pastures and in two hours they counted over 140 different species of grasses, forbs and legumes. I came home and immediately started to diversify I think we can build topsoil much faster than some That’s tremendous diversity. Don Campbell talked the cover crop mixes. That’s been a real learning scientists suppose, especially when we practice ho- about holistic management, about how everything curve in itself, finding out which species work best listic management — integrating livestock, cover works together and how you can’t change one thing with each other. Nowadays, rarely do I seed a cover crops and diverse crop rotations. Glomalin is the without affecting another. The hail and drought crop blend with less than 15 species in it. Most of glue that holds these soil aggregates together. We’re made me diversify my crop rotation by growing for- the time there are at least 20 different species in able to see on our operation that as we increase age crops — Sudangrass, millet, cowpeas — I was a blend. I’ve found that we’ve really been able to organic matter we’re building new topsoil. I was putting livestock back out on the cropland. For me increase organic matter and improve soil health. familiar with it but once Dr. Nichols came out here that was really the foundation of holistic manage- We get much greater production when we put these then of course my learning curve jumped. I tell ment. cover crops together. people I’m really not that intelligent of a person, I just had the good fortune of meeting a lot of dif- So from the late ’90s to right after the turn of the The next big learning moment in my journey hap- ferent key people at the right times to influence our century, I expanded the use of cover crops on my pened in 2006, up in Brandon, Manitoba at a graz- operation, and then it was just a matter of my family system, and by that time I called them “cover ing conference. A gentleman came up after my talk and me taking the information we received from all crops.” Whenever I harvested a pea crop, for in- and said I had to see what he’s doing. It was Neil these people and putting it to work. stance, I always immediately seeded something else. Dennis from Wawota, Saskatchewan. Neil is a mob I started to read a lot about soil biology and what grazer. Now at that time we had already ratcheted The one thing that probably influenced me more happens in the ground. We never used to see an up to what I considered high stock density, 200,000 than anything was Thomas Jefferson’s journals. Jef- earthworm on our land. Then the combination of no- or 300,000 pounds of liveweight animals on an acre. ferson, on his plantation, talked about using crops till, cover crops and the residue I left on the surface We moved our cattle once per day. But Neil said we such as hairy vetch, radish and turnips. Back then he to protect the soil had us seeing earthworms in all needed higher stock density, and we needed to move was doing all the things I’m doing now. I tell people our fields. I was fortunate, too, when our district soil them more often. That spring I went up to Neil’s I’m not ahead of the game; I’m really several hun- conservationist at the NRCS, Jay Fuhrer, took an because I had to see for myself because I just didn’t dred years behind. It’s just that agriculture went full interest in what I was doing and asked me to serve think there would be much difference between mov- circle. That probably influenced me more than any- on the soil conservation district board. As a board ing them once per day and moving them several thing because I looked at how production agricul- we really delved into soil health. It was then that times per day. After seeing what Neil was able to ture took place years ago before they had synthetic no-till took off in our county. I was one of the first achieve soil health-wise with these higher stock fertilizers. Four years of financial hardships forced no-tillers in the county. Today, Burleigh County is at densities of 600,000 to 700,000, even 1 million me to go back to those methods. Now I fully believe least 75 percent no-till. pounds of beef on an acre, I came home and told my that it will be the wave of the future for production Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-7 agriculture. Let me explain why: I spend a great deal of time in the winter traveling around the United States, Canada and other countries speaking about what we’re doing on our operation. I show them my cost of production to produce a bushel of corn. This past year in 2012, my total cost of production to plant the corn, harvest it, store it, haul it to market, land cost, equipment cost, everything, was $1.42 a bushel. I tell people corn can drop to $2 a bushel, and I’m still going to make money.

I spoke in Indiana this past winter and a banker came up to me after he saw that slide. He said, “Gabe, if corn drops below $5, half of my borrowers won’t be able to make their payments.” I thought, wow, look where we’ve gone in production agriculture. We’re so reliant on synthetic inputs. If we would do away with that and focus on soil health, we would lower the cost of production. I’ve proven it on my operation, and there are many others around the country. Look at what David Brant is doing in Ohio — consistently growing 220 bushel corn with no synthetic inputs, just cover crop usage.

So I know this can take place anywhere. It’s simply a matter of getting off that tractor and focusing on soil health. I tell people, “We have come, as producers, to accept a degraded resource” because all of our soils are degraded. My soils, even knocking near 6 percent organic matter, are still degraded soils photo courtesy Gabe Brown because I have native prairie soils that are at 7.3 per- Gabe holds some of his soil in his hands. Earthworm counts this spring averaged cent. I’m not nearly back to where we were before over 60 per square foot. the native prairies were tilled. We as producers have to focus on regenerating our soils. I get so tired of the first thing I do is ask them about their resource dramatic impacts on your soil for years to come. the new cliché, “sustainability.” Why do we want to concern. In the Colorado gentleman’s situation, he Having said that, though, there’s much, much more sustain a degraded resource? It makes absolutely no had no diversity. Because of that we’re going to get upside potential from planting a cover crop than sense to me. We need to be regenerative. We need to a very diverse mix — we added several other things there are negative aspects of it. I strongly encourage regenerate our soils and build them for future gen- to the mix. everyone to consider planting cover crops. Just be erations. careful and do some serious planning before you do. This year there are a lot of people in northern North We raise grass-fed beef and market that to consum- Dakota with an excess amount of moisture, so they The thing of it is every situation is unique, every ers. I mentioned my son’s egglaying operation, and have all this trouble with water. That’s their resource person’s soils are unique, every person’s resources we have a pastured poultry operation. Everything concern — excess moisture. Okay, you have to plant are unique, thus their crop rotations are different. coming out of those gets marketed direct. The grains something to use that moisture. Then you have to Some have livestock, some don’t. It almost is to the we’re producing right now, because I’m not organic, plant species that will improve the infiltration in point they have to be tailored individually to each are marketed by way of conventional means. We your soil. You need those deep taproots — things person. haven’t used glyphosate on our operation in five like sunflowers and radishes. We have to be able to years — and I refuse to use it — and we don’t use move that moisture throughout the soil profile. Yet it’s really not that difficult either. All we have any GMOs. I also refuse to use them. The majority to do is follow nature’s template. Nature’s template of the grains are going into the conventional system. When I speak back east there are a lot of people is a lot of diversity, and you have to integrate live- Now, I’m working on how to eliminate that last with heavy clay soil. Same type of thing there, they stock. And along with livestock I don’t only mean herbicide pass which I use every two or three years. can’t infiltrate that moisture, they need to build soil cows and sheep, I’m talking about insects also. If When I can eliminate that then we will be into the aggregates. We need to go into those soils with deep we would just step out of the way and let nature organic system. taproots, but we also have to go into those soils to take its course, there are so many symptoms that we increase organic matter. You’re going to do that with producers wouldn’t be facing today. For instance I probably average from 15 to 25 calls a day dur- things like Sudangrass, which has a very prolific look at fungicide use today in production agriculture ing the summer from producers around the country root system. Phacelia is a broadleaf crop used wide- — they’re using it like water. Most producers are asking questions about what cover crop they should ly in France, and it has a tremendous root system. spraying fungicides every year. Instead they should use. I always tell them I will not make recommen- Rye of course is good. Whatever your resource con- be asking, “What makes that plant susceptible to a dations on what to use on your operation, because cern is, that’s going to dictate the mix and species of fungus? Well, what makes it susceptible is probably honestly I believe people need to try for themselves. cover crops you use. a lack of micronutrients or a micronutrient tieup. When I go out and speak during the winter, I always Lots of times that’s directly related to the herbicides get asked, “Gabe, tell us some of your failures.” I Of course it varies region to region in the country. we use. If we would focus on soil biology and soil say, “No, I’m not going to tell you my failures be- Crops I can grow up here cannot be grown down health, that soil biology would make those micro- cause they might not fail on your operation.” My south and vice versa, so we have to tailor it to each nutrients available and you wouldn’t need a fungi- son and I have a saying on our operation — we want specific region of the country. Too many times cide. I haven’t used a fungicide on my operation in to fail at several things every year. I’m serious about people think of cover crops as a cure-all, kind of well over a decade. That doesn’t mean I don’t have that, because if we don’t try new things, how do we like making soup — you throw in whatever’s in the fungal diseases, but they never reach the point that know what’s going to work and what doesn’t? refrigerator. It’s not like that at all. they’re economically detrimental to me.

For instance, a young producer from northeast You really need to put some thought into it or it can Another concern I have is with the use of insecti- Colorado came up to me a couple of years ago, backfire. I’ll give you an example of that. I had a cides. If producers would build the habitat for the and he said he’d heard my talk about diversity and call a year ago from a producer in South Dakota predator insects to prey on those insects that are thought it made sense, “but how do I get my father and he said, “Gabe, you’re that cover crop guy. I’ve economically detrimental, they wouldn’t need to and grandfather to try something else?” I asked him got a problem here, and I want to know what you apply an insecticide. Instead we’re to the point in about his crop rotation. He said, “Well, since 1927 think.” He said he had a winter wheat crop on ir- production agriculture where we’re only seeing we’ve never planted a crop other than wheat.” I rigation, had combined it, baled the straw and then monocultures — we have very little crop diversity, thought, my goodness, now that’s dead soil. To an- seeded it to turnips and radishes before putting his thus there’s no home where these predator insects swer your question, what did I recommend to him? cattle there in the winter. I said, “Let me guess, you can live. That’s one of the side benefits to these cov- Well, all that land has had is cool season grasses for have no residue and your soils are blowing?” He er crops. When we design these cover crop mixes almost 90 years. He needs to diversify. There are said, “That’s exactly right.” I told him it only makes we’re always adding flowering species in there — four main crop types. There is warm and cool sea- sense. The nitrogen that was left from that wheat one to attract the pollinators, two to be a home for son, broad leaves and grasses in each type. He has a crop was absorbed by the turnips and radishes. these predator insects. My son and I always try re- cool season grass in wheat, so what we needed to do When they break down they’re going to release the ally hard to focus on solving problems, not treating there was get those other three species. Obviously nitrogen, and that’s going to accelerate the decom- symptoms. In production agriculture today all we’re in northeastern Colorado it’s very hot and dry. Let’s position of what little residue he had left. He’d just doing the majority of time is treating symptoms. If go in there with species that can handle the heat. We compounded the problem of erosion on his opera- we would get to the root cause of the problem and went in there with cowpeas, a warm season broad- tion. focus on solving that problem, these symptoms tend leaf, and added to it sunflowers, a warm season to go away. broadleaf, plus sudangrass and millet — both warm There are a lot of seed salesmen out there who are season grasses. We also added into the mix some extremely good, but some are just out there to make Monoculture is the original sin of modern agri- radish, which is a cool-season broadleaf, to get a money. You really have to be careful when you put culture. I’ve proven that time and time again. For deep taproot in there. When I work with producers, these cover crop blends together because it can have instance, I mentioned growing triticale with hairy B- 8 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 vetch. I had a field here a number of years where There’s been some good work done by guys who we ran out of hairy vetch seed. Part of the field was are actually now growing peas and canola together hairy vetch/triticale mix and the other part was just because they’re easily separated. A good friend of straight winter triticale. We took that off as forage mine, Owen Carnes up in Saskatchewan, is do- the next spring, as dry hay, there was a 10 percent ing this with great success. He’s growing peas and difference in crude protein. It was higher obviously canola using pretty much a full seeding rate on each where there was hairy vetch, the legume. It also and going in and combining it, then he’s able to run yielded over 35 percent more. I mean it’s a win-win it through a cleaner and separate it out easily. It’s situation. netting him substantially more dollars per acre than a monoculture. You look at the monocultures in production agriculture today, it doesn’t make any sense. Where in The thing of it is we’re getting much, much more nature do you find a monoculture? Only where man production per acre. I get really tired of the ques- put it. Now obviously there might be a little piece tion, how are we going to feed 9 billion people by here or there that’s a monoculture, but I’m talking the year 2050? It is absolutely no problem what- in general terms, you just will not find it. I honestly soever if we diversify. Just drive anywhere in this AGGRAND offers a safe and believe one of the biggest detriments to society to- country; you’re going to see monoculture field after day is the current farm program and RMA, the Risk monoculture field. How many acres upon thousands cost effective line of organic Management Agency. They’re not allowing us to do of acres do you see with no fences on it? On our op- liquid fertilizers. Our products intercropping, and we’re not allowed to grow cover eration we grow a cash crop, we grow a cover crop, crops with the cash crop. On our operation we try to grass-finished beef might graze it, pastured poultry are free of harmful chemicals never seed monocultures. We always want a diverse might graze it, and we have guys who are bringing making it the ideal choice for mix in every field. in bees to take advantage of those flowers on that cover crop so we’re producing honey. agriculture, homeowners, But yet in saying that, it’s going to kick you out of commercial growers, lawn crop insurance because crop insurance won’t al- There are a myriad of opportunities if we stack low it but I don’t care anymore. I don’t take out enterprises. Why should we settle? I can use any care and turf professionals. much crop insurance because to me I’m just betting example, but say for instance in the corn belt, why against myself. I think I’ve built up enough resil- should we settle for just 200 bushels of corn off ience in my soil that I don’t need to take out crop that acre? Why can’t there be livestock added on insurance. We can weather droughts even though we top of that? Why can’t there be a cover crop with don’t have any irrigation. bees on top of that? It’s foolish for us to even think that we’re not going to feed that many people. To Some people ask if harvesting those diverse fields me that’s just industrial agriculture fear-mongering, isn’t very labor-intensive? Sure it is, but that just saying we have to keep with this current production comes down to planning what combinations you model. use. For instance, one I’ve been using for a number of years in my corn, I will have a low-growing clo- The current production model is broken. It doesn’t ver in. That low-growing clover, whether it be a red work. It’s one of just treating symptoms — input clover or subterranean clover or something like that after input after input. I realize the past three or four will stay below the ears of the corn, so it’s not go- years have been very profitable, even under the cur- ing to interfere with harvest whatsoever. Last year rent industrial agricultural model, but we can have for example we grew an oat crop with three types of sustained profits where we have diversity. Then we 978-256-3695 - 978-866-9655 clover seeded along with it. When I straight cut the can start producing more nutrient-dense foods that [email protected] oats the clovers were not as tall and the oats yielded are going to take care of this health crisis that’s oc- 115 bushels per acre. I was left with a growing clo- curring in this country. NewEnglandOrganicFertilizer.com ver cover crop and a living root feeding soil biology. Acres, USA, is at www.acresusa.com Living potting soil for Organic Growers Signiﬁ cant discounts to growers who buy early. 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Grass, Soil,Book Hope: A Journey through Reviewsthe roots of plants. The fungi are the middlemen in Carbon Country the marketplace, brokering liquid carbon from plant by Courtney White roots for mineral nutrition from bacteria, protozoa, published by Chelsea Green Publishing nematodes, and others. June 2014, 225 pages, $15.45 review by Julie Rawson Chapter One ended with a case study of the JX Ranch in eastern New Mexico. Tom and Mimi This is such a delightful book. Courtney White Sidewell heal the carbon cycle “for a living”. They takes a very serious subject, climate change, bought a run down ranch and demonstrated how and addresses this massive topic in an always to “earn a profit by restoring the land to health and upbeat manner with a very light touch. He took stewarding it sustainably” according to White. Here a trip around the world to visit a number of are some tenets and practices that they used. They exemplary farmers, ranchers, wild life experts, divided the ranch into 16 pastures. They installed ecologists, business people and scientists who a water system in each section of pasture. They are demonstrating successful models for bringing then purchased cattle that can do well on dry land carbon back out of the atmosphere and into the soil pasture. to build stable humus. And that premise (that we can bring atmospheric CO2 levels down to climactically A major tenet of grazing using this mob-stocking safe levels) is the reason for the “Hope” in the title. approach, popularized by Allan Savory, is to give the land plenty of recovery time. Missouri rancher As an introduction to himself and his past he gives Greg Judy suggests that a pasture should be grazed a nice thumbnail sketch of how he changed from an in a 60-30-10 ratio. This includes eating 60% of environmental activist in the 90’s when it was the the vegetation, trampling 30% and leaving 10% general practice to fight to leave the environment standing. alone, to a supporter of sometimes aggressive methods to hasten environmental reparation through The Sidewells began clearing out the juniper and careful attention to practices that can help natural mesquite trees with bulldozers, allowing sunlight systems repair themselves. for the native grasses to come back. As grass returned to this rundown ranch – an interesting This is a book about good news – good news for result of animals’ hooves breaking up the capped how each one of us can be part of the solution to topsoil allowing seed to soil contact – the Sidewells bring carbon back into the soil – or as he puts it, lengthened the period of rest between grazings. “being on the map.” His premise going into the They were able to increase the overall livestock book included some givens. capacity by 25% in 6 years -- from 1 cow per 50 1. Carbon is key – it is the essential element of life. acres to 1 cow per 36 acres. Over a ten year period A highly efficient carbon cycle captures, stores, the Sidewells watched the native grasses reestablish releases, and recaptures biochemical energy. themselves, and observed an increase in both grass 2. We don’t have to invent anything – we already species and pounds of meat produced per acre on know how to graze livestock sustainably, grow the ranch. organic food, create a local food system, fix your bones that yes, the seasons keep on turning creeks, produce local renewable energy, improve This book is practically based for either the large and it will be green again…that is how I felt reading water cycles, grow grass on bare soil, coexist with or small grower, and there are plenty of highlighted Cows Save the Planet. This book presents the first wildlife, and build resilience into our land and our soil heroes from the Northeast, including Dorn real message of hope about our future in the face of lives. Cox from NH, Eric Toensmeier, Jonathon Bates, weather extremes and global warming: how people 3. It is mostly low-tech – sunlight, green plants, Courtney Hennessey and John Stoddard from from North Dakota to Australia, New England to animals, rocks, shovels, hiking shoes, windmills, Massachusetts, and Annie Novak and Severine von Zimbabwe are cooling their local climate naturally, compost and creeks. Tscharner Fleming from New York. regenerating their soil and water resources, and 4. We are all on the map – “whether you live in a sequestering carbon for the betterment of their own city, go to school, graze cattle, enjoy wildlife, grow I could go on for days sharing the great stories lives as well as global systems. It’s a pretty quick vegetables, bike, fish, count grasses, draw, make of pioneers and innovators that Courtney White read—succinct, inspiring, well designed and not music, restore creeks, or eat food.” Says White. highlights from around the world. But I encourage preachy. Readers receive a thorough introduction you to merely purchase this book because it is jam- to many of the pioneers of soil carbon farming and With inspiring titles like “Essence”, “Abundance”, packed with contact names, inspirational stories, a good explanation of how carbon and water cycles “Coexistence”, “Resilience”, “Affluence”, and adequate explanations of the how-to in all the are related to soil health, food security, climate “Emergence”, and “Convergence”, White introduces chapters for you to get ideas for how to make it stability, and rural livelihoods. us to the wide variety of environmentally friendly happen on your own place. I will hold onto this practices that promote carbon sequestration or book and refer to it regularly in both my roles as While the ambitious and lengthy subtitle is true to humus building. The chapter on Essence includes an Education Director of NOFA/Mass and as farmer at the important and wide-ranging content, the quirky analysis of the carbon cycle explained by Christine Many Hands Organic Farm. main title (“Cows Save the Planet”) aptly hints at Jones. Judith’s concise and entertaining style, which makes 1. Photosynthesis is the process by which sunlight I end with the quote by Wendell Berry that inspired this pithy subject matter very approachable. A lot of energy is transferred into biochemical energy in the Annie Novak to start the Eagle Street Rooftop Farm ground is covered, in depth (literally!), with choice form of simple carbon–based sugars. in Brooklyn: “In a country once forested, the young descriptiveness and skillful wording—readers 2. Resynthesis involves a complex sequence of woodland remembers the old, a dream dreaming of easily join her in a satisfying journey to learn and chemical reactions whereby glucose is synthesized an old holy book, an old set of instructions. And the understand. We get up-close, personal introductions into complex long-chain carbon compounds like soil under the grass is dreaming of a young forest. to the farmers, ranchers, their lands, and those that starches, proteins, organic acids, waxes, and oils. And under the pavement the soil is dreaming of help them to push the boundaries and document 3. Exudation is the system by which 30-40% of the grass.” their progress. carbon created by photosynthesis can be sent out through the plant roots to feed the microbes that There is very much cause for hope! Expert journalism makes this an excellent live in the root zone and through whose digestion introduction while also getting into many of the of minerals in the soil, roots can grow strong and Cows Save the Planet and other Improbable details. Judith has done the work of going on prolific. The amount of increase in organic carbon Ways of Restoring Soil to Heal the Earth: location and asking the hard questions as well as is governed by the volume of plant roots per unit of Unmaking the Deserts, Rethinking Climate doing her own “reading up” so that she can convey soil and their rate of growth. some of the underlying science and also the results 4. Humification is the creation of humus through Change, Bringing Back Biodiversity, and and on-the-ground evidence. Her reporting is in intensive digestion of organic matter (including Restoring Nutrients to our Food depth but hardly dry, such as when she refers to dead root matter) by the fungal portion of the soil by Judith D. Schwartz with a Forward by Gretel Australian soil scientist Christine Jones’ “article food web. Left to do their work, the fungi, higher on Ehrlich called, ‘Carbon That Counts’, passed around soil the soil food chain than bacteria, will create stable published by Chelsea Green, 2013, www. circles like a 1970s rock bootleg among music carbon-based substances that can stay in the soil for chelseagreen.com, www.judithdschwartz.com/ fans”. While Judy is adept at giving the bottom line hundreds of years. 17.95, paperback, 212 pp. including notes and to the layperson, for example, “the bumper sticker bibliography version: ‘oxidize less, photosynthesize more’”, she Jones speaks of the “carbon market” in the soil reviewed by Jane Hammer is able to give more advanced explanations clearly. that takes place between plant roots, colonies of For example, ”without plant cover, soil carbon is bacteria, and networks of mycorrhizal fungi which You know that first warm, sunny morning of the prone to bind with oxygen and go airborne” and “... establish symbiotic relationships between fungi and New England spring, where you can finally feel in in high carbon, high functioning soil with the liquid B- 10 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 carbon pathway intact, soil microbes, are able to fix Jones, the “liquid carbon pathway”, humus, are critical to understanding desertification and soil nitrogen and release phosphorus and other elements, mycorrhizal fungi, glomalin, and how the carbon regeneration in seasonally dry lands (which make up making them available in a plant-accessible form.” transfer takes place under ground. In this chapter most of the land area of the world). we begin to understand how we can be free from the Through every chapter we get down-to-earth stories widely held view that soil generation is something Another chapter introduces us to the scientists of how it’s done: capturing carbon and nurturing that can only occur over geologic time scales. “One and political activists who, as a “group of friends” biodiversity to make the soil a nutrient-generating, farmer…put it more succinctly, ‘You build soil together promote the New Water Paradigm: Michal fertile sponge which proofs farmer livelihoods where the roots go—down!’” This chapter ends Kravcik, Jan Pokorny, and Juraj Kohutiar in against drought, floods, pest and disease pressure, with a side bar about the impact of high nitrogen Slovakia. They have connected the dots among the temperature extremes, all the while enhancing fertilizers on soil microbial life and soil carbon and biosphere, hydrology, and climate. Not only are fertility and food quality. We get to know some of water retention. they doing things locally in Slovakia and the Czech the thoughts, personalities, and history of people Republic, but also are researching and engineering who are pioneering soil regeneration on tracts of Turns out, building soil, biologically, can happen in Africa, and have been actively promoting the role thousands of acres and on as little as a fraction of very rapidly, by inches, and percentage points of of water in the climate at Copenhagen and on the an acre at a time. Woven throughout and repeated carbon content, on the order of a few years to a world stage. helpfully is the common story of plant-microbe decade. Covered here is the introduction of the relationships, carbon streaming into the ground well keyline plow by P.A. Yeomans and subsequent work The chapter entitled “Beyond Eat Your Vegetables” below where we usually think of carbon content— by his son, Allan Yeomans. The book goes on to goes into how restoring the soil microbiological and staying there because of and for the benefit of document many cases of this. Colin Seis is building system and increasing soil carbon leads to higher healthy, deep rooted plants that are approaching soil on a 2,000 acre farm in New South Wales food quality, as well as higher fertility, disease and their photosynthetic potential. using pasture cropping which improved ecological pest resistance, and overall resilience. Many may function, resistance to drought, and greater diversity recognize Dan Kittredge who heads the Bionutrient In the introduction, she dives right in to clarify and after just 2 years, and developed a 200 percent Food Association, training farmers and educating answer, and does not waste our time reiterating the increase in soil carbon levels over ten years. consumers here in New England and across the gloom and doom realities of climate change. Courtney White of the Quivira Coalition runs a country about the intimate link between soil non-profit in Sante Fe training farmers and ranchers nutrition and food quality. The first chapter we meet Peter Donovan and and educating the rest of us about how it is possible Abe Collins, who teach land managers and others and necessary to rebuild grasslands. Farmers and Interweaving more individual stories, including how to think about the carbon cycle, that “water ranchers explain some of their techniques and often some of the people and places key to the ongoing follows carbon”, that plants and soil life actively astonishing results: Gene Goven of North Dakota success of the Grassland LLC experiment in the work and that we have a power as humans to employed his soil system to build 6 inches of topsoil west, Judith also delves into exposing the problems positively effect these, with proper management in one season. Abe Collins saw an increase from 8 with biotech, backwardness of chemical fertility, and monitoring. Peter teaches farmers and ranchers inches of topsoil on top of gray clay to 16 inches and mounting evidence of the huge mistake that how to monitor soil improvements through the Soil of topsoil in one year. Judy also reports about policy makers have made in supporting genetically Carbon Challenge with baseline plots all over the Jay Fuhrer and Gabe Brown, now famous, of the engineered crops. She doesn’t finish without country—to document, but most importantly to Burleigh County soil conservation service, a hotspot consulting with the New Economics Foundation constantly correct the steering of land management. for soil building on the ranch and larger farm scale. and the Schumacher Center, encouraging us to Here we start to get the gist pretty quickly, aided think here about what money is and to explore by short captions like Peter Donovan equating bare A whole chapter goes into the work of unmaking how carbon is the real currency. The idea is that if ground (where oxidation is the dominant process) as deserts in Africa, thanks to the work of Allan Savory we pay attention, we may be able to re-align with a “sunshine spill”, its energy getting re-radiated as and the Africa Center for Holistic Management. the real economy and harness the power of bio- heat instead of binding it into the soil biochemically. Here is explored the grazing paradox--higher ecological systems on a large scale to reverse global At the close of the chapter there are sidebars about stocking rates, managed properly to mimic warming and sustain ourselves. cows and methane and about biochar. large wild herds of ruminants, can lead to land regeneration on the scale of thousands of acres Although this is not in the book, this quote from Chapter 2, about nature’s version of carbon trading, in less than a decade. The factors of disturbance, the Quivira Coalition website is a good summary: takes us to Australia to meet soil scientist Christine decay, and brittleness are explained—these factors continued on page B-15 Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-11 Building Soil Carbon with Yearlong Green Farming by Dr Christine Jones, www.amazingcarbon.com

The capacity for appropriately managed soils to sequester atmospheric carbon is enormous. The world’s soils hold around three times as much carbon as the atmosphere and over four times as much carbon as the vegetation. Soil represents the largest carbon sink over which we have control.

When atmospheric carbon is sequestered in topsoil as organic carbon, it brings with it a wealth of environmental, productivity and quality of life benefits. An understanding of the ‘carbon cycle’ and the role of carbon in soils is essential to our understanding of life on earth.

Building soil carbon requires green plants and soil photo courtesy Christine Jones microbes. Root volume, rhizosphere surface area, exudation of carbon, microbial activity, humification and soil building are highly correlated with the perenniality and vigor of groundcover plants There are 4 steps to ‘turning air into soil’ i) Photosynthesis In the humification process, soil microbes resyn- Soil building requires green plants and soil cover ii) Resynthesis thesize and polymerize labile carbon (exuded from for as much of the year as possible. In grazing enter- iii) Exudation plant roots) into high molecular weight stable humic prises, rest-rotation grazing is absolutely essential. iv) Humification substances. Humus, a gel-like substance that forms For crop production, the presence of out-of-season an integral component of the soil matrix, is the best groundcover ensures stability, long term productivity Photosynthesis is a two-step endothermic reac- known of the stable organic fractions. Humification and soil building rather than soil destruction. tion (i.e. a cooling process) that takes place in the cannot proceed unless there is a continuous supply of chloroplasts of green leaves. Incoming light energy ‘fuel’ for soil microbes. If humification does not oc- Any farming practice that improves soil structure (sunlight) is captured and stored as biochemical cur, the carbon exuded from plant roots (or added to is building soil carbon. energy in the form of simple sugars such as glucose soil as plant residues or manure) simply oxidizes and (C H O ), using carbon dioxide (CO ) from the air recycles back to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Water, energy, life, nutrients and profit will increase 6 12 6 2 on-farm as soil organic carbon levels rise. The alter- and water (H2O) from the soil. Oxygen is released to the atmosphere. Humic substances have significance beyond the rela- native is evaporation of water, energy, life, nutrients tively long-term sequestration of atmospheric carbon. and profit if carbon is mismanaged and goes into the Photosynthesis requires 15 MJ (megajoules) of They are extremely important in pH buffering, inac- air. sunlight energy for every kilogram of glucose tivation of pesticides and other pollutants, improved produced. If the same 15 MJ of incoming light plant nutrition and increased soil-water-holding Yearlong Green Farming (YGF) is any practice energy makes contact with a bare surface, such as capacity. By chelating salts, humic substances can turning bare soil into soil covered with green plants. bare ground, it is reflected, absorbed or radiated also effectively ameliorate the symptoms of dryland YGF increases quality, quantity and diversity of - as heat, usually accompanied by moisture. The salinity. Increasing the rate of humification has highly groundcover in cropping, horticultural, forestry and respective area of the earth’s surface covered by significant effects on the health and productivity of grazing enterprises. either actively growing crops and pastures, or bare agricultural land. ground, has a significant effect on global climate. Many benefits of Pasture Cropping, for example, can Importance of soil fungi be attributed to having perennial grasses and cere- Resynthesis: Through a myriad of chemical reac- als together side by side in space and time. Ongoing tions, the sugars formed during photosynthesis are Most perennial grasses are excellent hosts for mycor- carbon additions from the perennial grass component resynthesized to a wide variety of carbon com- rhizal fungi, with up to 100 meters of microscopic evolve into highly stable forms of soil carbon while pounds, including carbohydrates, proteins, organic fungal hyphae per gram of soil under healthy grass- the short-term, high sugar forms of carbon exuded by acids, waxes and oils. Carbon atoms can link to- land. Glomalin, a glycoprotein (combination of the cereal crop roots stimulate microbial activity. gether to form long chains, branched chains and protein and carbohydrate) produced by arbuscular rings, which other elements, such as hydrogen and mycorrhizal fungi, can persist for several decades and As a bonus, regenerative farming practices such as oxygen, can join. may account for one third of the stable organic car- Pasture Cropping result in the production of food bon stored in agricultural soils. much higher in vitamin and mineral content and The energy captured during photosynthesis and Mycorrhizal fungi and glomalin production are inhib- lower in herbicide and pesticide residues than con- stored in carbon compounds serves as ‘fuel’ for life ited by bare soil, intensive tillage, the application of ventionally produced foods. on earth. Carbohydrates such as cellulose provide phosphorus fertilizer and the presence of plants from energy for grazing animals, the starch in grains pro- the Brassica family such as canola, which do not Rewarding farmers for Yearlong Green Farming prac- vides energy for livestock and people. The carbon form mycorrhizal associations. tices that build new topsoil and raise levels of organic stored in previous eras as ‘fossil fuels’ (hydrocar- carbon would have a significant impact on the vital- bons) such as coal, oil and gas provides energy for Maintaining soil structure ity and productivity of agricultural enterprises. YGF vehicles, machinery and industry. would also reduce evaporation and heat radiation ‘Aggregation’ is part of the humification and soil car- from bare soil surfaces, reduce the incidence of dry- Exudation: Around 30-40% of the carbon fixed by bon building process and is essential for maintaining land salinity and counteract soil acidity. plants during photosynthesis is exuded into soil to soil structure. Glues and gums from fungal hyphae form a microbial bridge (to feed the microbes that in the rhizosphere enable the formation of peds or Under regenerative regimes, soil carbon and soil life enhance the availability of essential plant nutri- lumps (which can be seen with the naked eye, often are restored, conferring multiple ecological and pro- ents). In this way, actively growing crops and pas- attached to plant roots). The presence of these ag- duction benefits in terms of nutrient cycling, soil wa- tures provide ‘fuel’ for the soil engine. gregates creates macropores (spaces between the ag- ter storage, soil structural integrity and disease sup- gregates) which markedly improve the infiltration of pression. Benefits extend well beyond the paddock Carbon compounds are essential to the creation of water. After rain less water sits on the soil surface and gate. Improved soil and water quality are the ‘key’ topsoil from the structureless, lifeless mineral soil waterlogging is reduced. As structure continues to to catchment health, while YGF represents the most produced by the weathering of rocks. improve, smaller and smaller aggregates are formed, potent mechanism currently available for mitigating along with soil mesopores and micropores, dramati- climate change. Organic carbon additions are governed by the vol- cally improving soil function, aeration, levels of bio- ume of plant roots per unit of soil and their rate of logical activity and resilience. It’s about turning carbon loss into carbon gain. growth. The more active green leaves there are, the more roots there are, the more carbon is added. It’s Soil structure is not permanent. Aggregates made Getting started in lifeless, compacted soils where the as simple as that. The breakdown of fibrous roots from microbial substances are continually breaking soil engine has shut down is the hard part. The longer pruned into soil through rest-rotation grazing is down and rebuilding. An ongoing supply of energy in we delay, the more difficult it will be to re-sequester also an important source of carbon in soils. the form of carbon from actively growing plant roots soil carbon and rebalance the greenhouse equation. will maintain soil structure. If soils are left without Humification: Adding organic carbon to soil is one green groundcover for long periods they become Dr. Christine Jones is a groundcover and soils thing, keeping it there is another. Organic carbon compacted and can blow or wash away. ecologist and is currently the Scientific Advisor on moves between various ‘pools’ in the soil, some Plant Nutrition for the Australian division of Best of which are short lived while others may persist Under bare fallow cropping systems or set-stocked Environmental Technologies. She will be speaking for thousands of years. Carbon additions need to annual pastures, the stimulatory exudates produced at NOFA/Mass events in Boston on Sep. 1, 2014 and be combined with land management practices that by short-lived plants are negated by bare earth at oth- in Amherst, MA on Sep. 2, 2014. For more info go to foster the conversion of relatively transient forms er times of the year. The result is a decline in levels www.nofamass.org or contact Julie Rawson of organic carbon to more stable complexes within of soil carbon, soil structure and soil function. at [email protected], or at 978-355-2853. the soil. B- 12 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 No-Till Vegetables at Tobacco Road Farm by Bryan O’Hara Lebanon, CT

Over the last twenty plus years of intensive vegetable growing at Tobacco Road Farm, we have constantly sought ways to improve the health and vitality of our crops and soils. Much of the land grows vegetable crops year round so the intensity of production demands very careful soil care. To this end, soil amendments, fertilizers, inoculants, and compost have been carefully selected and applied over the years in no small degree.

Years of tillage, however, had left the field with a soil structure that was lacking. To reduce tillage damage to soil, techniques and tools were introduced: chisel plowing with shallow roto-tilling, permanent wheel tracks, use of sweeps and points for primary tillage, increased use of cover crops, for examples. Even under this minimum tillage difficulties still presented themselves: poor soil structure with low fungal activity, low calcium levels and high nitrogen and potassium in tissue analysis, weeds proliferation -- especially galinsoga, excessive soil drying during summer dry periods, along with insect and disease pressure. photo by Jonah Mossberg Measures to improve these conditions came through New arugula germinating with lack of competing weeds. extensive soil and tissue analysis along with traditional Biodynamic approaches. The real push to To begin, the first step is to chop the existing cover roots are entirely resistant to such quick solarization no-till, however, came from the recommendations crop if the vegetation is large enough to require and are manually removed. of Korean Natural Farming (KNF). Korean Natu- this. This is achieved through mowing with a rotary ral Farming is most commonly known for the use mower front-mounted on a BCS two-wheel tractor. The plastic is removed as soon as possible to avoid and practices around IMOs, of Indigenous Micro- Essentially a heavy duty lawn mower, this machine soil damage. It is often left over high tunnel or low organisms. The practitioners of KNF, however, also has a bagging capacity which allows for the gather- tunnel covers, though large sheets of 4 mil. con- recommend that no-till techniques be utilized. ing of weed seed heads if this is required. A regular struction plastic are also used. These sheets are ro- lawn mower can also be carefully used. This mower tated in order to cover large areas. During the cooler Some no-till practices have been used on the farm in grinds the vegetation into small pieces for easy di- months these roots are hoed with very sharp hoes the past such as seeding winter squash into a proper- gestion into the soil and aids in the overall mulch just below the soil line. Simply mulching over the ly mown rye cover crop, or transplanting into heav- layering effort to reduce weed seed germination. roots with the weed-free compost and/or chopped ily mulched soils, but it was clear that a much more hay is also practiced. Occasionally young growth versatile system would be needed for the intensive A sickle bar mower can also be mounted to the is flamed after rain or irrigation and vinegar sprays production of vegetables under complete no-till. front of the BCS for mowing full vegetation or for have also been trialed. conditions where slower decomposition of residue Over the last few years a system was developed on may be required. Though we have quite a few larger Once the previous vegetation has been destroyed the farm which has proven to be quite successful. tractors, the lighter weight of the BCS, along with the next step is to apply weed-free compost, if re- Ways to kill preceding crops and reduce their resi- superior maneuverability have made it the machine quired. This compost goes a long way towards the dues, achieve weed-free seed beds, control weeds, of choice for this job. Other methods used to chop burying of weed seeds and feeding the soil biology. apply fertility, increase biological activity and di- residue include hand tools such as the machete, The compost is prepared with high carbon materi- versity, seed appropriately, and allow for better in- scythe, or sickle. These tools need to be kept very als, making it fungal friendly, and contains large terseeding of crop and cover crops were developed. sharp to be effective and are obviously much slower amounts of silica as well as other added minerals. The fields where this system was put into place were than the mowing machines, but occasionally have Biodynamic preparations are utilized quite fertile, had few perennial weeds, and plenty of an appropriate use. annual weeds. The various methods are still being The basic ingredients are: cattle manure, weed-free fine tuned, but with a high level of success it does The next step after chopping the pre-existing veg- farm residues, vegetable scraps from the local food seem appropriate to share what has been done. etation is to kill its roots. From approximately May co-op, hay, leaves, sawdust, woodchips, basalt dust, through September this is achieved through solar- clay subsoil, and minerals like gypsum, hydrated ization with clear sheets of plastic in the hot sun. lime, sea salt, sulfur, zinc sulfate and a very small The plastic is laid upon the newly mown residue and amount of boron, molybdenum, and cobalt. The secured with sandbags. Two days of sunny, roughly piles are turned a couple of times, then applied to 80˚F+ conditions are usually sufficient. The solar- the surface of the beds with wheelbarrows, a dump ization quickly kills annuals, however perennial cart mounted on a Farmall Cub, or for wider beds

photo by Jonah Mossberg Field pea cover crop mowed and solarized photo by Jonah Mossberg leaving a clean start for the next crop. Interseeded crops are common. Here is pea and radish. Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-13 from a late first cutting, which helps avoid some of hydrated throughout the seasons, as well as better the seed heads and is a more carbonaceous material. drainage, water retention, and in-soaking. Straw is also occasionally used but needs to be free of grain and both of these materials need to be free Soil air is also enhanced through the ability of the of herbicide residue. Leaf is even better as a mate- soil to breathe through the crumb structure, while rial as it contains virtually no weed seed, is more excess oxygenation from tillage is avoided. The soil carbonaceous, and is most appropriate for feeding structure is not pulverized through tillage, and ero- the soil. It is much harder to handle in bulk, how- sion is decreased through mulching and constant ever, and must be dry for the grinder to chop. Wet, vegetative cover. Theoretically there is better nutri- unground leaves have a tendency to mat, which is ent retention and management. not conducive to germination. Partially decomposed leaves have been successful on some crops. Those There have been significant decreases in insects materials should be applied in proper amounts to and diseases, including: complete lack of brassica help cover seed -- less for small seeds, more for flea beetle, absence of root maggot in rutabaga and crops like potato. The mulch does cool the soil turnip, no cabbage losses to black rot, and much which is of benefit during the summer but may slow less leek leaf disease, among many others. Though growth in the cooler months. more effort is required to prepare the beds and make the appropriate compost, overall there is savings Immediately after seeding or planting, the crop is because of much less weed control, irrigation, and irrigated. This gives the crop a jump on any pos- tillage requirements, as well as way less tractor sible weeds and helps preserve the compost and time. So the iron is largely idle. All of this has led to inoculant. It is possible to irrigate before mulching higher yields of higher quality. The crops are even -- significantly more water is needed to saturate and sweeter and more flavorful, there are very few culls, penetrate a dry mulch. But often this is the only ir- storage quality is enhanced, and the vibrancy of the rigation necessary for a crop because of the benefit crops is noted and appreciated by the customers. of no-till on soil water retention. If the crop requires additional fertilizing, liquid nutrient can be applied Note: Bryan will be presenting on the subject in through irrigation. Specific composts are also used much greater detail at the 2014 NOFA Summer Con-

photo by Jonah Mossberg as sidedressing, and foliars are sometimes applied. ference. Ring drag made on the farm, held higher or This system mostly buries weed seed, and with the lower to adjust action. layering techniques this control improves every straight from a pickup truck bed or with a manure year. Some weeds, however, still slip through and spreader which straddles the beds. Since the mate- must be dealt with. Since the soil is mulched and rial is applied to the surface of the bed, larger vol- crops are broadcast, hoeing is usually not an option. umes of carbon in various forms are possible and The tool of choice, then, is a serrated weed knife beneficial for our conditions. Compost application purchased from Johnny’s Selected Seeds, though definitely gives better seed germination, though it is an aggressive steak knife can also work. They are not necessary at every seeding. used to cut annual weeds just below the soil line. For perennial weeds the roots must be removed, so Following compost application, inoculant is ap- they are either hand pulled or a trowel or similar plied to the bed surface. This is in the form of an tool is used for removal. If the weed has gone to IMO, which is cultured from forest microbes from seed it is removed from the field. The greatest diffi- the farm’s surroundings. The techniques are from culty for this system seems to lie in the potential for Korean Natural Farming, manuals for which are perennial weeds to build up, so attention is paid to available from Acres, USA. This inoculant looks removing them. Perennial weeds are generally not like a compost and aids greatly in enhancing fungal as fast growing as annual weeds, so offer less direct and microbial activity. Other inoculants like EM (ef- competition to a crop. Their strength, however, lies fective micro-organisms) may also be useful. Some- in their tenacity! times inoculant is not applied at all. The compost and inoculant are very sensitive to drying so should Canada thistle, quack grass, and yellow dock are the be carefully applied, seeded, and covered with most prominent weeds presently. In one area quack mulch immediately. grass has built to a level that seems to require tillage. As perennial weeds are often intolerant of in- Seed is often broadcast over the bed surface. This tense tillage, the tillage equipment stands ready for needs to be done very carefully to get an even action if required. spread. This allows for maximum coverage of the bed with vegetation, which increases overall pho- Overall the system has greatly improved the biologi- tosynthesis and thus helps feed the soil life and cal activity and diversity of soil organisms. Higher increase yield as well as inhibiting weed growth. worm populations are obvious, as well as a much Crops and cover crops can also be interseeded at improved crumb structure to the soil. Fungal activity any time since the soil surface is generally weed is obvious with lots of mycelium present, along with free. This allows for crop mix combinations which mushrooms. Vastly improved soil water character- photo by Jonah Mossberg can enhance soil life as well as yield. Transplants istics include the great benefit of proper wicking Mushrooms in our lettuce. Fungal activity! are also set into the bed, though often they are set from lower soil levels, which helps keep the soil life after the mulching step described below.

The seed applied to the bed surface germinates better if it is worked into the soil surface. This is ac- complished with the use of a drag, which is a group of chain rings attached to a bar. The rings are grain drill covering rings, purchased from Agri-supply company, and were not expensive. The drag is pulled one way over the length of the bed and then back the other way and is very quick and effective. A rake can also be used but it is much more difficult to achieve similar results with one. Another tool that is sometimes used for larger seed is a garden weasel, which resembles a hand pulled rolling cultivator. The garden weasel works the seed further into the soil before dragging. Also, a roller is sometimes employed, which further enhances seed to soil contact though often rolling occurs after the next step, mulching.

Once the seed is worked into the soil, mulch is applied to cover the seed -- which aids seed germination, further reduces weed germination, and protects the compost and inoculant as well as provides food for the soil life. The mulch is chopped hay and/or leaves. These materials are run through a bale chop- per to make a fine material that spreads easily and does not inhibit germination. The hay is preferably photo by Jonah Mossberg Hay bale shredder with chopped hay. B- 14 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 Mycorrhizal Fungi - Powerhouse of the Soil by Dr. Christine Jones, www.amazingcarbon.com which solubilize otherwise unavailable plant nutrients. The soil foodweb of microflora and microfauna constitutes an underground engine of fundamental Mycorrhizae and soil carbon significance to plant productivity. Mycorrhizal fungi play a key role in the functioning of this foodweb, Glomalin, a long-lived glycoprotein (protein con- drawing down plant sugars derived from photosyn- taining plant sugar) is a highly stable form of soil thesis and providing much needed energy for the carbon that provides a protective coating for the soil ecosystem. Mycorrhizal fungi also improve ag- hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi. Networks of fungal gregate stability, enhance soil structure, build stable hyphae also provide an important first step for the soil carbon, improve plant water use efficiency and polymerization of plant sugars, ultimately leading increase the efficiency of utilization of important to the formation of humus, a high molecular weight nutrients like phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen. gel-like substance that holds four to twenty times its own weight in water. Humic substances significantly Agricultural research tends to focus on convention- improve soil structure, porosity, cation exchange ally managed crop and pasture lands where loss of capacity and plant growth. diverse perennial groundcover and/or intensive use of agrochemicals, have dramatically reduced the Both glomalin and humus are of significance to the number and diversity of soil flora and fauna, includ- current debate on soil carbon transience, as these ing beneficial microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi. stable soil carbon fractions cannot be lost from soil As a result, the potential contribution of soil biology during droughts or fires. to agricultural productivity has been greatly under- estimated. Marie Spohn from the Universität Oldenburg has identified mycorrhizae (and the glomalin they What are mycorrhizae and how do they work? produce) as the primary soil carbon stabilization mechanism in sandy soils. Previously, soil scientists Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are ‘obligate fungal have considered carbon sequestration potential to be symbionts’, meaning they must form an associa- constrained by the soil’s clay content. The new find- Photo courtesy Aberdeen Mycorrhiza Research Group tion with living plants. They acquire their energy in ings are good news for Western Australia farmers, Mycorrhizal hyphae (white) colonizing the liquid form, as dissolved sugars, siphoned directly opening the way for much greater levels of carbon roots (yellow) of a pine seedling. from actively growing roots. Mycorrhizal fungi increase in agricultural soils than previously thought cannot obtain energy in any other way. They have possible. Mycorrhizal fungi can supply moisture to plants mechanisms enabling them to survive while host in dry environments by exploring micropores not plants are dormant but cannot survive if host plants Land management impacts accessible to plant roots. They can also improve hy- are removed. draulic conductivity by bridging macropores in dry Increasing the amount of stable carbon stored in soils of low water-holding capacity (such as sands). Mycorrhizal fungi produce thin, hair-like threads of agricultural soils via mycorrhizal fungi will require cytoplasm (hyphae) with a hyphal tip at each end. a redesign of many current land management tech- Further, mycorrhizal fungi can increase drought re- One tip enters a plant root and the other tip explores niques. Factors negatively impacting on mycorrhi- sistance by increasing the number and depth of plant the soil matrix. Although the hyphae are small in zae include lack of continuous groundcover, single roots. diameter -- usually less than 10 µm (micrometers species crops and pastures (monocultures) and ap- or microns – a millionth of a meter) -- the mycelial plication of herbicides, pesticides or fungicides. Perennial grasses and mycorrhizae network can extend across many hectares. Mycorrhizal fungi are also inhibited by the appli- Higher densities of mycorrhizal hyphae are found in Mycorrhizal fungi have a fan-shaped architecture, cation of large quantities of inorganic nitrogen or healthy perennial grasslands than in any other plant with long runner hyphae branching into networks water-soluble phosphorus and by the presence of community. It has been estimated that the hyphae in of narrower and narrower absorbing hyphae. There non-mycorrhizal crops (such as canola). Tillage has the top 10 cm of four square meters (4m2 ) of peren- can be over 100 hyphal tips at the end of each run- a less detrimental effect than previously assumed. nial grassland, if joined end to end, would stretch all ner. These networks extend from the root system Recent studies have shown that the use of chemicals the way around the equator of the earth. into the bulk soil, well beyond the zone occupied is more harmful than moderate soil disturbance. by the roots and root hairs. The absorptive area of Biology friendly farming practices based on living Cash crop enterprises could benefit enormously mycorrhizal hyphae is approximately 10 times more plant cover throughout the year (e.g. cover cropping from widely spaced rows or clumps of long-lived efficient that that of root hairs and about 100 times or pasture cropping) and the use of biofertilizers, perennial grasses and/or mycorrhizal fodder shrubs. more efficient than that of roots. enhance mycorrhizal abundance and diversity and As yet we do not know the required critical mass to are more beneficial for soil health than chemical improve soil ecosystem function, but it might only An amazing symbiotic relationship farming systems based on intermittently bare soils need to be 5-10% perennial cover. In diverse plant and minimal soil disturbance. communities, individual plants are connected by Plants colonized by mycorrhizal fungi can grow 10- mycelial networks called guilds, enabling exchange 20% faster than non-colonized plants, even though Due to their low abundance in annual-based or of nutrients and water. This may help explain why they are ‘giving away’ up to 40-50% of their pho- conventionally managed agricultural landscapes, mixed plant communities often perform better than tosynthate to support mycorrhizal networks (photo- the important role of mycorrhizal fungi in nutrient monocultures. synthate is the soluble carbon the plant fixed from acquisition, plant-water dynamics and soil building

CO2 and sunlight). One of the reasons for this appar- processes has been largely overlooked. In addition to the resilience conferred by mycor- ent paradox is that plants colonized by mycorrhizae rhizal guilds, the benefit of permanent mycelial exhibit higher leaf chlorophyll contents and higher The types of fungi that tend to survive in conven- networks in terms of aggregate stability, porosity, rates of photosynthesis than non-colonized plants. tionally managed soils are non-mycorrhizal, that improved soil water holding capacity, reduced ero- This enables them to fix greater quantities of carbon is, they use decaying organic matter such as crop sivity and enhanced nutrient availability in soils are for transfer to fungal hyphae in the soil. stubbles, dead leaves or dead roots as their energy immense. source rather than being directly connected to living In exchange for soluble carbon from their host, my- plants. These non-mycorrhizal fungi have relatively Soil benefits in many ways from the presence of corrhizal fungi supply nutrients such as phosphorus, small hyphal networks. living plants year-round, due to reduced erosion, zinc, calcium, boron, copper and organic nitrogen. buffered temperatures, enhanced infiltration and It’s an amazing symbiotic relationship. Mycorrhizal Mycorrhizae and water markedly improved habitat for soil biota. Signifi- hyphae have a tubular vacuole system that allows cantly, it is the photosynthetic capacity of living bidirectional flow. That is, sugars from the host It is well known that mycorrhizal fungi access and plants (rather than the amount of dead plant material plant and nutrients from the soil can move rapidly transport nutrients in exchange for the carbon from added to soil) that is the main driver for soil carbon and simultaneously in opposite directions. the host plant. What is less well known is that in accumulation. seasonally dry, variable, or unpredictable environ- All groups of mycorrhizal fungi require a living ments (that is, in many regions of the world), my- Management techniques that improve the vigor of host, but there’s more to it than just plants and fun- corrhizal fungi play an extremely important role in groundcover, foster mycorrhizal colonization, in- gi. A wide range of associative microflora are also plant-water dynamics. The hyphal tips are hydro- crease glomalin production and enhance the humifi- involved. For example, colonization of plant roots philic (both the end in the plant and the end in the cation process, will contribute to long-term carbon by mycorrhizae is enhanced by the presence of cer- soil) enabling both water and nutrients to diffuse storage, improved soil function and markedly in- tain ‘helper’ bacteria. There are also active colonies from one end to the other along a moisture gradient. creased resilience to climatic variability. of bacteria on the hyphal tips, producing enzymes Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-15 Book Reviews, continued from page B-10 The most recent research Ohlson writes about is “Today, the only possibility of large-scale removal from New Mexico State University molecular of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere is through biologist David C. Johnson. He found that compost plant photosynthesis and other land-based carbon made without turning was lower in salts and better sequestration activities. Strategies include enriching for growing his test crop of chilies in a greenhouse. soil carbon, farming with perennials, employing He thinks it is likely the fungi that make the climate-friendly livestock practices, conserving difference. They are harmed when compost is natural habitat, restoring degraded watersheds and turned. rangelands, and producing local food. Over the past decade, many of these strategies have been He took the work outside, built up soil biology using demonstrated to be both practical and profitable.” cover crops, and planted directly into the debris. After two years, he found a 67 percent increase in This book is a gift of hope that shows the path by organic matter and a 30 percent increase in water which we thrive into the future and a call to action. holding capacity. It so satisfyingly explains how we can do something about climate change, and it’s all about the soil. He “showed that you can grow more crops faster, better, and with less water on soils where we’ve The Soil Will Save Us: How Scientists, improved the population of microbes, both fungi Farmers and Foodies Are Healing the Soil to and bacteria. The carbon sequestration is the icing Save the Planet on the cake.” by Kristin Ohlson published by Rodale Books Johnson said “Once that population of soil copyright 2014, 242 pages, $24.00 microorganisms is established, there are greater reviewed by Bill Duesing efficiencies in both growing a crop and growing soil carbon.” I’ve been studying about, working with and excited by soil for over 40 years, yet Kristin Ohlson’s book, The reality is that if we create the right conditions, The Soil Will Save Us: How Scientists, Farmers, nature will move inevitably toward greater and Foodies Are Healing the Soil to Save the Planet biodiversity, will store more carbon and create produced a number of exciting a-ha moments. greater structural complexity, all leading to greater metabolic stability or health. Published just this year, it is a very interesting book about an extremely important topic. Understanding Although our current knowledge of a few details her message and putting it to work in our farming, of soil life and function (a mere glimpse into gardening and grazing should provide many unknowable and ever changing complexity) is only important benefits for us and the planet. a few decades old, the idea of treating the soil well and working with nature is not. Ohlson writes about scientists who see the potential for, and agriculturalists who are, putting more of the In the winter of 1972, I was drawn to NOFA, very carbon that plants take out of the air into the soil for soon after it started, in part because of two books Farmers of Forty Centuries: long term storage with the support of the billions about agriculture. In Or, Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and of organisms that occupy the soil food web. This he published The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Japan, is a strategy to both mitigate and adapt to climate published in 1911, soil scientist F.H. King, Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on change as well as to encourage plant and animal describes his visit to those countries. He brought their Habitats in 1881, right before his death. health. back a message about composting all organic wastes, using cover crops and growing food locally Thomas Barrett was born in 1884. He was a real Learning to store more carbon in the soil not only for a permanent agriculture. Darwin fan, quoting the great scientist as saying, keeps carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, it feeds “It may be doubted whether there are many other Pleasant Valley the soil food web and allows the soil to absorb and In , published in the 1940s, Louis animals which have played so important a part hold onto more water. Bromfield inspired me with his descriptions of in the history of the world as have these lowly returning pastures, forests and springs to health and organized creatures.” And Barrett was a real The farmers and scientists Ohlson visits and functionality by working with nature. earthworm fan, too. His book is divided into 2 parts interviews encourage a different approach to – The Earthworm and Its Environment, and The One of my oldest NOFA conference memories is agriculture, one that will resonate with many Earthworm Under Control. of Samuel Kaymen, who founded NOFA and also organic folks. In short, disturb the soil as little as Stonyfield Farm, talking about the importance possible and keep it covered with a diversity of I found the first section of the book, The Earthworm of soil and recommending the book Soil and growing plants. and Its Environment, the most attractive and Civilization by Edward Hyams. That may have been educational. Chapter one is on humus. “Humus is at the first conference in 1975. Ohlson describes her travels to Zimbabwe and the end product of plant and animal life and must Australia, Ohio and North Dakota, New Mexico, be created for current use from day to day and Hyams and Samuel emphasized that no civilization Oregon and Vermont to talk to folks who have season to season,” according to Barrett. He speaks outlasts its soil. Ohlson’s book provides an inspiring learned how to manage land in a way that both poetically of the single-celled yeast plant all the primer on how soil can help solve the biggest stores carbon and builds soil health and resilience. way to the giant sequoia eventually finding their challenges our civilization faces. way to the common burial place – the compost heap Her engaging style makes for an easy but of nature. Barrett notes that the creation of humus Despite experiencing a few bumps early on as our informative read. Ohlson weaves political and from dead animal and vegetable matter usually takes understandings clashed a bit, I highly recommend historical perspectives in with the stories of what from weeks to years with the notable exception this book. It inspired me to expand my growing has led the farmers and researchers to their interest that earthworms excrete humus. “Earthworms are and eating of perennial crops and to write this blog in and success with moving carbon into the soil. the shock-troops of nature for the quick production at http://ctnofa1982.blogspot.com/2014/05/going- of humus while she is waiting upon her slower underground-by-bill-duesing-ct.html#more She writes about cover crop cocktails, mob grazing processes,” says he. and the length of fungal hyphae in a cubic food of soil, She paints a compelling picture of the way Harnessing the Earthworm Aristotle called earthworms the “intestines of the forward. by Thomas J. Barrett earth”. W L Powers, a Soil Scientist from Oregon published by Shields Publications, Eagle River, WI State labeled them “colloid mills”. They produce Ohlson writes about Louis Bromfield and the copyright 1942; 161 pp. the intimate chemical and mechanical homogenized inspiring books he wrote about his restoration of available on Amazon for $15.20 mixture of fine organic and inorganic matter which eroded Ohio farms after the Dust Bowl and about reviewed by Julie Rawson forms their castings. In the alimentary canal the Timothy Egan’s recent book about that period, The ingested materials undergo chemical changes, Worst Hard Time. J. I. Rodale and Elaine Ingham I am on an earthworm self-education binge right deodorization and neutralization, such that the are included. Toward the end she writes about Eric now, and when I start on such a binge I often find it resultant castings (manure) are a practically neutral T. Fleisher, a land care professional who uses these helpful to go back into history a bit. For example, humus, rich in water soluble plant food, and practices and understanding to care for places such I am halfway through both of Weston A. Price’s immediately available for plant nutrition. as New York’s Battery Park and Harvard Yard with Nutrition and Physical Degeneration and William organic land care. Albrecht’s Foundation Concepts as I write this. According to Barrett, the earthworm is one of the Reading these authors who wrote from 70 – 100 strongest animals in nature for its size. Its body is The book ends with descriptions of two exciting years ago gives me an important perspective formed by a series of from 200 to 400 muscular developments. One is the trend for carbon farmers regarding our present day concerns about topics like rings. “Thus everything that opposes itself to and environmental organizations to be mutually climate change and carbon sequestration. I didn’t the blind attention of the earthworm becomes supportive and work together. The same practices know until recently that Charles Darwin was a something to be devoured,” says Barrett. Here is which store carbon and increase soil health and major force in our understanding of the earthworm how it works. The earthworm pushes itself through functionality also protect water supplies and and its role in agriculture and humus management. the soil, ingesting as it moves. All ingested material encourage biodiversity. He spent 39 years studying the earthworm before passes into the crop and then into the gizzard as B- 16 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 a semi-liquid plastic mass. The grindstones of The original French language version of this book vs. profitability. There is a ranking assigned for the gizzard, along with digestive juices similar to was published in the fall of 2012 and was titled Le highest sales and also revenue per bed. This set up is those found in human beings, act on the contents. Jardinier-Maraîcher. a good way to look at the best efficient use of your A remarkable feature of the earthworm’s anatomy field for the maximum profit. is the calciferous glands, located in the walls of As a fellow market gardener on a small piece of the esophagus. They are unique to the earthworm. land, I pay attention when a farmer says they can I was intrigued by Fortier’s technique of relying The liquid calcium that they secrete exerts its bring in $60,000 to $100,000 income per acre on soil-covering tarps to smother crop debris when neutralizing action on the acids of the material annually with a profit margin of 40% in diverse preparing beds. This is a complement to his minimal that passes through the worm’s alimentary canal. vegetable crops on 1 1/2 acres of land, without a tillage system, which takes care of remaining crop Continuing with the digestive process, the material full size tractor. Jean-Martin Fortier encourages debris and small weeds, leaving a clean bed and takes on valuable added elements from the intestines aspiring farmers to explore the idea of a profitable also reducing weed pressure for the next crop. and urinary excretions. The end product is manure micro-farm and takes one on a step by step journey This technique he calls occultation. I can see many or castings. on how to achieve it. I enjoyed not only reading advantages here, as often times beds that have been about Fortier and his wife Maude-Hélène’s success prepped can not all be planted at the same time and Barrett enumerates the many values that worms at making a good living but was heartened that their weeds start to grow before you get to them. provide to agriculture. Briefly, he mentions that success was compatible with making a good life for they go deep into the subsoil and bring the minerals their family. Lastly, Fortier has written some crop notes in that are present there into the surface layers, and Appendix 1 that identify the plant spacing he they greatly increase the air capacity of the soil and While it is easy to start small when one has little utilizes for the intensive planting on his farm. its water holding capacity. When their numbers money to start a farm, Fortier believes that staying Fortier refers to Elliot Coleman as a great influencer are significant, they normalize pH, and increase small is also an important part of being a successful on his early farming. If I were going to compare calcium carbonate and nitrogen in the soil. The small-scale organic grower. He outlines start up Coleman’s The New Organic Grower to this book colloid humus content increases and the microbial costs for a small market gardener and the specific I would say that Fortier has simplified the process life increases, and the nutrients in the soil are more equipment and investment needed for a small size from start up to harvest to profit for the new market highly water soluble and plant available. Finally, farm. gardener. as a by-product of their castings production, resistance to pests and disease is enhanced in soils At Les Jardins de la Grelinette, Fortier focused Seedtime that are actively inhabited by earthworms. Barrett on a biologically intensive approach to farming by Scott Chaskey reminds us that the number of earthworms in a which comes from both the French intensive published by Rodale Press given environment is limited only by the amount of vegetable growers and Rudolf Steiner’s biodynamic $23.99, hardcover, 222 pages available food. principles. The soil was built with a large quantity of reviewed by Larry Siegel organic matter at the beginning to create a rich and One of the most memorable parts of the book, active soil. Compost and granulated poultry manure Seeds have developed a certain cachet; I can num- for me, was the telling of a story by a friend of were added regularly and there was limited turning ber a half-dozen books I have read on the subject in his about the friend’s grandfather’s farm in Ohio of the soil to keep the structure of the soil intact. A recent years. This is long overdue; the seed repre- between the years of 1830 to 1890. This 160 acre broad fork rather than a tiller is used to aerate the sents, after all, the vital link between yesterday and farm boasted several paddocks that rotated between soil in the permanent beds at a deeper level. Plants today and tomorrow (though the mad scientists are grain production, and pasture for mixed livestock. are planted close together to form a canopy for probably at work to eliminate this link). To the mix The barnyard, which opened into the paddocks, reduction of weeds. All of these techniques create we can now add Seedtime by Scott Chaskey. The held oat and wheat straw stacks on raised covered higher yields per square foot. The author refers to inner jacket of the book refers to Chaskey as a poet, platforms, for the livestock to eat during the winter John Jeavon’s intensive gardening techniques as farmer, and educator. There are moments poetic and and use as bedding. In the center of the barnyard a model, however actually attaining the level of there are moments agricultural, but, in writing this was a compost pit that was fifty feet wide, 100 feet fertility that will feed 100 CSA customers per acre book, Chaskey has primarily assumed the role of long and 2 feet deep. There were cables running could take some time. Most market gardeners and educator. The words, and thoughts, of many indi- between the barn and the pit attached to 12-15’ tall farmers are feeding 20-40 CSA customers on each viduals have been distilled and presented. (The list posts. Dump buckets from the barn were shuttled acre. of sources runs eight pages and it would surprise out to be dumped into the pit every day. From a me not at all to learn that Chaskey has read most of spring nearby a flume was constructed to be used While most farmers look at mechanization to them.) for adding water to the compost pit as needed. increase production so they may grow their Chickens and ducks worked the pile throughout. At business, Fortier believes that avoiding it and Subtitled On the History, Husbandry, Politics, and intervals, the farmer would add red clay in layers to machinery related costs is the better option. He also Promise of Seeds, it is just that, the various facets the pile. When spring arrived, the compost (minus stresses that successful market gardeners must limit interwoven to create a whole. The reader will gain a starter of worms and compost for the next batch) their dependence on outside labor, the bulk of the a historical perspective, an understanding of the was hauled away to the fields, and the compost and labor must be done by the owner-operators in order current state of affairs, and a sense as to how current worms were ploughed into the field. The grandson’s to keep operating costs low. His goal for operating conditions might be addressed and altered. The job at this time was to shoot as many crows as he costs is 50% of total sales revenue. reader is also introduced to a number of individu- possibly could, because they came in the hundreds als and organizations dedicated to that task. The to devour as many worms as possible before they Another strategy that the author utilizes is direct overriding question, for me, is whether this cadre were ploughed into the soil! This farmer was selling. By recovering the profit that is often made of folks can pull it off. I hope Chaskey’s book finds renowned far and wide for his high quality crops, by a distributor, the small-scale market gardener can its way to a readership beyond the NOFA audience, seed, livestock and ever more fertile soil. earn more income. CSA, farmers markets and farm because, in my opinion, it is only in numbers that stands should be considered as the key marketing profound changes can occur. That they need to oc- The second half of the book talks about vermi- outlets in order to succeed over the long term. cur is unmistakable. But, the likes of Monsanto will composting in more controlled settings like boxes not bow out gracefully. in basements and/or shady outdoor locations (the Lastly and certainly not least, Fortier encourages author was from California). I found this section of market gardeners to focus on adding value to the As a footnote, the cover photo by Maria Bowling the book not as intriguing, as a lot of the materials crops in order to command better pricing. While sparkles. If one could, in fact, tell a book by its used in the process are not readily available now focus on quality is key he also sells roots with cover, this cover is telling one to read on. for possible replication. And, being a somewhat leaves demonstrating freshness, avoids storage lazy farmer, my main interest in increasing worm vegetables which take a long time in the garden and populations on our farm is through appropriately cannot be marketed fresh, focuses on fresh greens worm-attractive practices in the field. and hoop house tomatoes and chooses varieties that are unique to keep customers interested. This book is short at 160 pages, and is an easy read. Some of the history in it is quite interesting, and This is an ideal book for new and beginning Barrett’s ultimate enthusiasm for earthworms and farmers as Fortier takes you on a productive path of their value is quite infectious. I leave you with the finding the right land, setting up the garden design, following quote: “We have written a book in an en- appropriate equipment for a market gardener, deavor to create a mental picture of the most impor- organic fertilizer, seed starting, weed management, tant animal in the world – the earthworm. When the insects and pests, season extension, harvest and question is asked, Can I build topsoil? The answer storage and crop planning. is ‘yes’. And when the first question is followed by a second question, ‘How can I do it?” the answer is There are a few tips that I took away from the ‘Feed the earthworms.’” book as a small-scale farmer in my 4th season. A greenhouse may be one of the best investments The Market Gardener, A Successful you make early on your farm, as you cannot Grower’s Handbook for Small-Scale Organic overestimate the value of greens production. Fortier Farming, recommends one large for greens production and several small greenhouses for seedling and tomatoes by Jean-Martin Fortier, in the start up costs for market gardening. published by New Society Publishers, 2014, $24.95 from author at TheMarketGardener.com, Another tool Fortier uses is an annual sales table of $17.29 from Amazon.com all production, which is laid out by % garden space reviewed by Laura Davis Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-17 Trying to Build Carbon with Beef at Steady Lane Farm by Jack Kittredge Like many NOFA members, Janet Clark and her husband got into farming in their mature years.

Having grown up on an Illinois farm with a hard driving father, Janet’s husband never wanted to go back to that life again. But he helped her with her dream. Thirteen years ago they bought a 70-acre dairy in Ashfield, Massachusetts to raise beef. For ten years they came out from the Boston area on weekends to build fences, fix buildings (new roofs, a bigger well a new electrical system) and move stock. Three years ago they made the big move out themselves. He runs a small business from a home office, and she runs the farm.

The farm is in a beautiful spot, right off and visible from scenic state highway Route 112, with a view overlooking the Berkshires. But it has not been idyl- lic.

“I’m getting arthritic,” Janet admits. “We haven’t been at peak performance. I have a grass-fed beef operation that has integrity, but it breaks even. It supports the farm and the repair of these old buildings, but I’m just beginning to attend to the soil, which is my major driver.”

Clark has put together a strong base of beef genetics, including Hereford, Angus, Belted Galloway, photo by Jack Kittredge Murray Grey (an Australian breed) and a few Gelb- Janet Clark and her herding dog Emma in the barn at Steady Lane Farm. Peering over vieh (a Bavarian breed) in a herd of about 50 cattle. the hay pile behind Janet is Fred the bull. At the time of my visit (April) she had 15 breeder cows and one bull, with the rest yearlings and two- calf herd remain being aggressive feeders through- for the feeders going to harvest. Both will make the year olds, plus calves just being born. out the summer.” farm more financially viable. But the fields at the north end of the farm are wet. Janet divides them into two herds: one cow/calf The animals graze on pasture until a hard frost herd of mothers and nursing calves, with the bull comes at the end of October or early November. “The farmers here before us seeded them with reed added in July for a few months to breed the cows Then they get hay for 5 to 6 months until the middle canarygrass,” she explains. “That forms a dense mat back, and the other of growing feeders who will be or end of April, when they are able to live on pasture of roots and enables you to get equipment onto the harvested at 550 to 600 pounds. The feeder herd again. They get minerals free choice from a min- field earlier. It is a good forage, too, if you harvest contains heifers, so the bull never gets in with them. eral block, along with extra selenium spread on the it quite green and wrap it for haylage. But then you After weaning in December the calves are moved ground around the block. are using a lot of plastic and after being used for into the feeder herd and the cows are put on a lean haylage plastic is so dirty that even the people who diet of first cut hay. The feeders are kept on a higher Of the farm’s 70 acres, about 60 are open -- half in make plastic lumber and buy things like marine protein second cut hay in order to gain weight faster. hayfields and half in pasture – with a stream mean- wrap won’t touch it. So you have to landfill it. I dering through. The area has a permanent perimeter don’t want to do that! “The cows are on pasture during the winter,” she fence, and is subdivided into 17 paddocks with tem- says, “but they have two open barn areas with hay porary electrical fencing on plastic posts. The actual “But we can’t make round bales of it,” she contin- where they can come in at will. If there is no wind it paddock size at any point depends on the size of the ues, “because early in the year we have so much can be zero degrees and they will still be out in the herd and the lushness of the grass. sunshine. They just eat more! This time of year we have new-born calves on the ground and the cow/ Clark has a sketch of her paddocks which she over- lays on a map of the farm prepared by the state department of fish and wildlife defining critical habitats.

“These yellow areas are our hay fields,” she explains. “But with the amount of rain we have in the spring we sometimes haven’t been able to take the first cut when it is best for the field. So we often graze them at that time of year. We like the grass to be knee high before it is grazed. A lot is trampled, not eaten. But that is good for the soil life. We move an electric fence line forward every day, giving the cattle access to new grass. They really line up – it’s beautiful to see. I can’t do mob grazing as inten- sively as I would like, but I’m just now getting more people involved so I can move them more often.

“The biggest paddock,” she continues, “might be 5 to 8 acres, which would be too big in June but in August might be the right size when the cows are hungry and making lots of milk. When the animals are in any paddock bordering the stream they are limited to how much of it they can reach. The stream is classified as a drainage area in our pasture, photo by Jack Kittredge and as long as cows have had access to it histori- This paddock sketch shows how Janet sub- photo by Jack Kittredge cally, they can continue to graze it now. Sometimes divides the acreage for herd movement. The The Steady Lane Farm boundary is out- we let them water there, but often we put in a tub paddocks outlined in yellow are primarily lined in pink. The major roadway running and don’t give them access to the stream.” for hay but are sometimes grazed. The house from top to bottom is Route 112. The blue and yard are outlined in purple and the well One of Janet’s biggest goals for the farm is to im- stream area is vastly exaggerated compared is the circle at the intersection of paddocks to the actual boundaries of the waterway. prove the quality of the forage. That will result in more livestock on the same land, and faster gain A, B, C, G, and H. B- 18 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014

I can sell at a little higher price to the discriminat- ing buyer because there is a little bit more fat in the meat. These guys here might weigh 550 now. They will put on a lot of good weight this spring, but they are getting old and I may lose their backbone. If their teeth begin to emerge the inspector will look at that and say: ‘Sorry, this animal is over 30 months and you are not allowed to harvest the spine or the brain because of Mad Cow Disease.’ It doesn’t really matter how old they are. If the teeth have emerged they take the spine and skull out and my quality butcher doesn’t get to get that meat which is close to the bone.”

Janet is focused on doing a better job as a farmer. “This is a beautiful landscape, a wonderful community, a great place to live,” she asserts. “But this work really has to be able to pay a salary some- how!”

She thinks, however, that she knows what she has to do: “Our forage quality is not what it should be, we need to track the performance of individual cows better, and I need to attend to the market aggres- sively.”

Clark has been talking with a young couple about taking over the cattle operation. They have consider-

photo by Jack Kittredge able experience with beef and she believes they will A burro lives with Janet’s cow/calf herd to provide coyote protection. focus more on the things she should be doing. They are talking about introducing some Devon genetics rain we don’t get enough time to let them dry. If you “When I’m moving the cows,” she explains, “I need into the herd, for instance. She is still negotiating wait until it is mature, however, it is like bamboo – Emma to be with me and quiet, so when I call to with them exactly what the lease arrangement will it is not edible. So we often end up grazing it in the them they come. But it is fine for her to move them be, but Janet says the idea is that in 5 or 10 years spring.” out of my way when needed, and manage their they will be successful enough to buy the farm and movements generally. Emma is good at nudging half of the two-unit farm house. If she could get more biodiversity in the grasses in cattle, rather than driving them.” that field she feels it would be more productive, with She is also considering diversification into value different plants coming into periods of maximum There are coyotes around, of course, and for a week added product like beef jerky or smoked meat, rais- growth at different parts of the season. But she says or two after birth the calves are vulnerable to them. ing turkeys, and grazing other’s animals at the farm she needs to learn more about soils and grasses to So Janet keeps a burro with the cow/calf herd for during the summer for a fee. know what would work best in wet and sometimes protection. After a few weeks, however, the calves anaerobic conditions. seem to know enough to stay with the herd for One other product that Janet feels would help both safety. as an additional item to sell and as an amendment To help her move the cows, which she does every 2 to build soil (and thus forage) quality is a high end or 3 days if possible, Clark has her loyal dog Emma. Clark usually harvests two 2-year-olds per month, compost made from cow manure. She is working shipping them to Adams Farm in Athol for slaugh- with Holly Wescott who, before moving to Ashfield, ter. She sells to River Valley Market and Debra’s had made a career working with commercial com- Natual Gourmet in West Concord, as well as on the posters in the state of Washington. farm through her self-service shop. Ground beef, roasts, stew beef, and specialty cuts are all $7. Sir- Right now the manure and bedding are piled into loin is $10. Rib eye and Tenderloin are $15. Soup windrows and aged before being applied to the bones and organ meats go for $5. fields. But the women envision a far more sophisti- cated system involving careful testing, mixing with “The market for grass-fed beef is wide open,” she biochar, inoculating with fungi, placing into bins in says. “My price point is high, compared to my com- a heated hoop house and composting with red wig- petitors, but I can sell what I offer. Grass-fed beef gler worms. The resulting product, rich in worm doesn’t finish as quickly as grain-fed, however, at 2 castings and locally-produced biochar, should ap- years. It finishes at 2 and a half years! peal to high end gardeners and landscapers, as well as helping the fields and forage at Steady Lane Farm “People who do this a lot,” she continues, “aim at a after being limed and trampled into the soil. hanging weight of 600 pounds. If I can hang at 600

photo by Jack Kittredge Emma checks on some of the feeder cattle grazing in April. Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-19

Janet is particularly excited about using biochar, which she can get from a local sawmill that has purchased equipment to both generate power and make biochar.

“It is a very stable form of carbon,” she points out, “that still has the structure of the wood. It is very hard but has all these tubes in it that become the repositories for these organisms and some of the minerals which can otherwise be washed out of the soil. It persists in the ground for many years – for millennia. It doesn’t volatilize at the surface. The organisms in the soil, of course, can die. But the idea is to keep a thriving environment for them so there is always teeming life there. And the biochar holds moisture! So it has many benefits for the soil.

“It also helps by aerating the compost,” she continues, “keeping air available because of the spaces in the char. You can detect that aeration by the temperature and the smell of the pile. It doesn’t take a lot of biochar to make these effects – maybe 2% to 5%, by volume.

“Some farmers here are buying biochar from Can- ada,” she concludes. “Some people make their own by burning wood and then shutting down the air to it. There are many different mechanisms for making it. There is a reversed bonfire technique with the tinder on the top and the big logs on the bottom. As photo by Jack Kittredge the tinder catches fire it works down and begins to Compost expert Holly Wescott examines the mix of manure and straw piled in the bunker. shut out the oxygen and by the time the coals turn tion of that carbon. She feels that her operation can are doing. That is what we are trying to create here. red you douse it with water. That is an open pile. be an example of this approach to building soil. Something that works for any farmer to say: “I want The old way is to dig a pit and burn in that. You can to be sure that my soil is capturing and storing car- go online to YouTube and see how to build these She hasn’t really determined how she is going to bon.” That is what carbon smart farming is. chambers within chambers that limit the air to the measure and document the carbon increases over fire and make a cleaner burn so there are few gases time. given off. That is the kind of design that the one the Subscribe to: sawmill has purchased is built around.” “Will it be qualitative,” she asks, “or more quantita- tive? There are whole protocols to do that. And that Clark is also very excited by the work of Allan Sa- will be a part of what we are doing here. A group vory, demonstrating that cattle can play a major role is coming out from Boston in May to try to help by check: send $15 for U.S. address, in building soil carbon because they graze, dung, us do that. They are more policy oriented, but I’m trample, and then move off an area and don’t return telling them it has to work for farmers. Unless you or $25 for foreign address to: for awhile. That time off enables photosynthesis to have practices that are at the surface very logical for 411 Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005 or build up carbon in those soils so they will hold wa- a farmer it isn’t going to happen. That means that by credit card: http://tiny.cc/j20fxw ter, cycle nutrients, and enable long-term humifica- you have to have tools that show exactly what you • NEW FROM ACRES U.S.A. • The Farm as Beyond the LEARN NEW WAYS Ecosystem Chicken TO GROW BETTER… JERRY BRUNETTI KELLY KLOBER Natural product formulator and The newfound interest in heritage ORGANICALLY! farm consultant Jerry Brunetti wraps breeds of chicken has created together a lifetime of learning and his a unique opportunity for small Acres U.S.A. is North America’s oldest and uncanny observations in this fascinat- farmers to reintroduce consum- largest magazine serving ecological growers. ing volume on the interconnected ers to other types of poultry. Covering all facets of organic and sustainable dynamics in place on a farm. Learn to From geese to quail to peahens to agriculture, Acres U.S.A. makes the connection turkeys, Klober discusses the pros look at — and manage — your farm between the soil, plants and human and very differently through gaining a deeper understanding of the and cons of each and how to best animal health. Subscribe today to learn about complementary roles of all facets of your farm. With his unique fit an alternative poultry venture into your farming opera- perspective the author takes readers on a journey through a tion. This book is a must-read for the small farmer interested innovative, proven growing methods and real farming ecosystem describing it with principles, stories, facts and in an alternative to the ever-present white egg-laying chicken life success stories. science . . . and dotted throughout with real-world advice. or any lover of poultry. MASTER MOB GRAZING • FARM-DRIVEN SUBDIVISIONS

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In this paired site comparison, parent material, slope, aspect, rainfall and farming enterprise are the same. Levels of soil carbon in both paddocks were originally the same.

On the Left Hand Side (LHS) is a 0-50 cm soil profile from a paddock in which groundcover has been actively managed (cropped and grazed) to enhance photosynthetic capacity.

On the Right Hand Side (RHS) is a 0-50 cm soil profile from a conventionally managed neighboring paddock (10 meters through the fence) that has been continuously grazed and has a long history of phosphate application.

The carbon levels in the 0-10 cm increment are very similar. This surface carbon results from the decomposition of organic matter (leaves, roots, manure etc), forming short-chain unstable ‘labile’ carbon.

The carbon below 30 cm in the LHS profile has been sequestered via the liquid carbon pathway and rapidly incorporated into the humic (non-labile) soil fraction. Non-labile carbon is highly stable.

On the LHS, 50 centimeters of well-structured, fertile, carbon-rich topsoil have formed as a result of the activation of the ‘sequestration pathway’ through cropping and grazing management practices designed to maximize photosynthetic capacity. Super- phosphate has not been applied to the LHS paddock for over thirty years. In the last 10 years the LHS soil has sequestered 168.5 t/ha of CO2. The sequestration rate in the last two years (2008-2010) has been 33 tonnes of CO2 per hectare per year.

Due to increased levels of soil carbon and the ac- companying increases in soil fertility, the LHS paddock now carries twice the number of livestock as the RHS paddock.

Levels of both total and available plant nutrients, minerals and trace elements have dramatically improved in the LHS soil, due to solubilization of the mineral fraction by microbes energized by increased levels of liquid carbon. In this positive feedback loop, sequestration enhances mineralization, which in turn enhances humification. photo by Christine Jones A major cause of soil dysfunction, as illustrated promised landscape function, losses of biodiversity, As a result, the rate of polymerization has also in- in the RHS soil profile, is the removal of peren- markedly reduced mineral levels in plants and ani- creased, resulting in 78% of the newly sequestered nial groundcover for cropping and/or a reduction mals and an increase in the incidence of metabolic carbon being non-labile. The stable, long-chain, in the photosynthetic capacity of groundcover due diseases. This will no longer do. high-molecular weight humic substances formed to continuous grazing. In the post-war era, a range via the plant-microbe sequestration pathway cannot of chemical fertilizers have been applied to soils in Australia is not the only country in which subsoils - ‘disappear in a drought’. Indeed, the humus now an attempt to mask reduced soil function, but this and hence landscape function - have deteriorated as present in the LHS profile was formed against the approach has merely accelerated the process of soil a result of inappropriate land management and fer- backdrop of 13 years of below-average rainfall in carbon loss, particularly at depth. The net effect of tilizer practices. In New Zealand, a country blessed eastern Australia. inappropriate management practices has been com- with vast tracts of inherently fertile topsoil, carbon losses are occurring at depth under heavily fertilized  pastures, due to the inhibition of the sequestration pathway. To date, alternative management practices  have been either dismissed or ignored by establish-  ment science in that country.   It is important to note that the rapid improvements  to soil fertility and soil function recorded in the LHS  soil profile are dependant on the enhanced photosynthetic capacity that accompanies regenerative forms of cropping and grazing management.  East Hill Tree Farm Nursery Design  Specializing in: Hardy Offering: Edible landscape  fruit trees, nut trees, berry design, consultation, and  plants, and unusual fruits. planting for Central Vermont.  www.easthilltreefarm.com [email protected]  (802) 272-5880 • 3496 East Hill Road • Plainfield, VT 05667 Bless up the Earth. Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-21 Ruminants and Methane by Dr. Christine Jones, www.amazingcarbon.com

Wetlands, rivers, oceans, lakes, plants, decaying vegetation (especially in moist environments such as rainforests) - and a wide variety of creatures great and small - from termites to whales, have been producing methane for millions of years. The rumen, for example, evolved as an efficient way of digesting plant material around 90 million years ago.

Ruminants including buffalo, goats, wild sheep, caption: Variations in annual changes in atmospheric methane concentrations from 1983 to 2009. camels, giraffes, reindeer, caribou, antelopes Measurements are in parts per billion per year. and bison existed in greater numbers prior to the Industrial Revolution than are present today. There The increase in global methane levels from 1930 would have been an overwhelming accumulation to 1970 was due to emissions from the production, of methane in the atmosphere had not sources transmission and distribution of natural gas. There and sinks been able to cancel each other over past was a tenfold increase in the use of natural gas millennia. through the 1960s and 1970s. The source of many of the natural gas emissions, such as leakages Although most methane is inactivated by the from the Trans-Siberian pipeline, have since been hydroxyl (OH) free radical in the atmosphere, rectified. Measurements over the last 25 years show another source of inactivation is oxidization in concentrations of atmospheric methane are merely biologically active soils. Aerobic soils are net sinks exhibiting natural variation, with no significant for methane, due to the presence of methanotrophic trends in any direction bacteria, which utilize methane as their sole energy source. Methanotrophs have the opposite function There is therefore no scientific basis for selectively to methanogens, which bind free hydrogen atoms targeting ruminants for a ‘methane tax’, or worse, to carbon to reduce acidosis in the rumen. Recent interfering with this natural process. Farming research has found that biologically active soils can in ways that enhance, rather than inhibit, soil MORZE oxidize the methane emitted by cattle carried at low biological activity, would improve the capacity of TREE FARM stocking rates. The highest methane oxidation rate agricultural soil to act as a methane sink, helping recorded in soil to date has been 13.7mg/m2/day balance the greenhouse equation. The issue with Vermont Organic Farm & Forest Land which, over one hectare, equates to the absorption today’s industrialized approach to agriculture is that methanotrophic bacteria are chemically sensitive. FOR SALE OR LEASE of the methane produced by approximately one 1-802-266-3512 livestock unit (LSU). Their activities are reduced by nitrogenous fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, acidification and In Australia, it has been widely promoted that excessive soil disturbance. livestock are a significant contributor to atmospheric methane and that global methane levels are rising. There is no evidence, however, to suggest that methane emissions from ruminant sources are increasing. Indeed, it would seem there has been no clear trend to changes in global methane levels, from any source, over recent decades. B- 22 The Natural Farmer Summer, 2014 Soil Carbon: Some Frequently Asked Questions by Dr. Christine Jones grasslands were traditionally the areas first selected driver of soil health. It was in the early 1900s that for cropping. However, the removal of the actively most of the significant research on humus occurred. Q: Is it fair to say that carbon is the key ingredient photosynthesizing year-round groundcover caused A lot of the information was discarded, however, that makes the difference between barren, unhealthy immense damage - not only to subsoils - but also to with the dawning of the ‘chemical age’ in the 1940s. soil and fertile, healthy soil? topsoil through wind and water erosion. Fortunately, The destruction to soils (and the deterioration in this damage can be repaired by restoring the flow of food quality) caused by synthetic fertilizers was A: Yes. The glues and gums that hold soil particles liquid carbon via year-round living cover - such as recognized even as early as 1948. together in the form of aggregates (small lumps) obtained with the use of multi-species cover crops. I don’t know when scientists first are made from carbon. Aggregation is what gives Best results are seen when cover crops contain discovered the relationship between soil carbon soil its tilth - making it well-structured, porous and at least 20 different varieties of plants and are and climate change. Professor Rattan Lal was friable. Porosity, in turn, improves the infiltration strategically grazed. certainly one of the pioneers in this field (Lal, R., and storage of water. Carbon derived from plants Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F., Cole, C.V., 1998. The also provides the energy for the soil biota essential Q: Do you know when scientists first became Potential of U.S. Croplands to Sequester Carbon and to nutrient availability. Plants give to the soil, rather aware of carbon loss from soil, and of the possible Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect. Ann Arbor Press, than take from it, as many people believe. The relationship to climate? Ann Arbor, MI, 128 pp.). I was the first scientist to greatest threat to soil health is bare ground. When hold a conference specifically on the subject of the soil lies in bare fallow for long periods (eg. between A: In ancient times (as far back as the Roman relationship between soil carbon and climate change crops) - or if it is over-grazed and has bare patches - Empire, and possibly before), the word ‘humus’ was in the Southern (and possibly also the Northern) it will deteriorate. Around 80-90% of plant nutrient used to refer to what we would call ‘soil carbon’ Hemisphere. acquisition is microbially mediated. If there’s no today. Although the actual composition of humus energy for the microbes (in the form of carbon) was not known, it was well recognized as the main Q: Do you endorse Allan Savory’s methods? What there will be very little nutrient - particularly vital determinant of soil fertility (soil ‘fatness’ was the are other effective methods for restoring carbon to trace elements - for plants. These deficiencies are general term used for soil health back then). The soil? passed along the food chain to animals and people. first explanations of what humus might actually be composed of began appearing in the scientific A: Any method that increases photosynthetic Q: When did humans begin to release carbon into literature in the 1600s and 1700s. One hundred capacity and photosynthetic rate will restore carbon the air through disruption of the soil? Can you years previous, Flemish physician Jan van Helmont to soil - provided the flow of carbon is not inhibited explain the process of how this happens? (1579-1644) discovered that the growth of plants by chemicals such as synthetic nitrogen, water did not reduce the weight of the soil. He was soluble phosphorus - and of course pesticides and A: As soon as living plant cover is removed, puzzled as to the source of the plant material. If not fungicides. Holistic Planned Grazing is an effective soil begins to deteriorate. Plant litter (mulch) from the soil, how did plants grow? way to increase photosynthetic capacity provided can maintain the condition of the upper layers Another two hundred years passed before the land manager can accurately determine plant of soil (topsoil) but cannot maintain the deeper scientists discovered the miracle of photosynthesis recovery and adjust stock movements to match layers (subsoil). There must be active root growth (carbon fixing by living plants). Plants are carrying capacity. In farmed lands where livestock in subsoil in order for it to remain alive and autotrophic, that is, they build themselves from light may not be an option, multi-species cover cropping functioning effectively. Grasslands build more and CO2. We now understand that this carbon-fixing is effective - again, provided the inputs of synthetic soil - and deeper soil - than forests. Due to these process - and the translocation of a portion of this chemicals are reduced. deep, carbon-rich soils - and low numbers of trees - fixed carbon to soil microbes in liquid form - is the Summer, 2014 The Natural Farmer B-23

Q: What has happened so far in Australia, in terms Q: Do you see this movement to focus on soil - but not what’s needed to remove CO2 from the of individuals and groups taking action, as well as growing? What has surprised you the most in your atmosphere and lock it away for long periods. government activity? Is Australia a pioneer in this work on this issue? Humus, on the other hand, is a high realm? What is happening in other countries? molecular weight carbon polymer, formed by A: From what I’ve seen in my travels around the soil microbes within soil aggregates, from sugars A: Any attempt to verify soil as a carbon sink has world, the impetus for soil building is coming channeled to soil via the hyphae of mycorrhizal been blocked by the chemically-funded scientific from farmers, ranchers and their advisors, rather fungi living in association with actively growing organizations in Australia. There are countless than from government. Change is being driven by green plants. The formation of humus is an anabolic documents from departments of agriculture and the fact that many farmers are no longer making a (building up) process. Humus is an organo-mineral universities which ‘prove’ that it is not possible profit. Once soil carbon stocks have been depleted, complex requiring carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, to increase the level of carbon in agricultural no amount of synthetic fertilizer can maintain yield. sulphur and several catalysts, including iron and soils. Despite the volume of expert opinion to the There is also an increasing desire on the part of aluminum. The carbon derives directly from contrary, however, I could take you to many farms many farmers to reconnect with their land. This vital photosynthesis, the nitrogen is fixed by a group where soil carbon has been significantly increased. connection has been lost in the industrial farming of free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria called model. I don’t believe there’s a farmer on the planet ‘associative diazotrophs’, while the phosphorus Q: Can the earth’s soil sequester just the carbon who wants to use more chemicals or destroy soil is solubilized by bacteria from either calcium it previously lost, or can it also actually absorb or make people sick. But sadly, that’s what many phosphate, iron phosphate or aluminum phosphate additional carbon from fossil fuel emissions? If the are being driven to do. It concerns me that there is (depending on soil mineralogy and pH). latter, how does that work? Is the soil’s capacity to neither support nor direction from government to The chemical reactions involved in absorb carbon limitless? help turn this situation around. There are so many making humus occur inside soil aggregates. The good reasons for improving soils. Applying simple transformations require microbial activity and the A: The soil’s capacity to sequester carbon techniques to increase the level of soil carbon will microbes require energy - which is produced by is determined by plant root depth and plant make farming infinitely more enjoyable as well as the green plants. That’s why humus cannot form photosynthetic rate. We know a lot more about those more productive - and vastly improve the quality to any significant extent when there are no green things now than we did in the past. Photosynthesis of our food. If governments provided financial plants. Once formed, humus is an inseparable accounts for only a tiny fraction of the light energy incentive for soil restoration, they would not need to part of the soil matrix and can be very long-lived that comes to earth each day. If we could figure invest anywhere near as much in hospitals. (as in hundreds of years). Hence it fulfils the out how to increase photosynthetic potential and requirements for safely removing excess CO2 from channel more of that energy to soil (as liquid Q: Is stable soil carbon the same thing as soil the atmosphere and storing it in soil. Humus is carbon), we could turn every farm into a net carbon organic matter (SOM)? If not, could you elaborate? called non-labile or resistant carbon. You cannot see sink rather than a net carbon source. That would Is stable soil carbon inorganic? Does SOM contain humus - you can only see what it does. be great for farmers and unbelievably good for the carbon? Can both help mitigate climate change? The main blockage to humus formation in planet!! Can SOM eventually turn into stable soil carbon? chemical ag is the use of synthetic fertilizers (N and Soil building takes place downwards into P) which inhibit carbon flow to soil. Even though the soil profile. That is, as soil health is restored, A: SOM is derived from plant material, animal green plants are often present at high densities in the soil becomes deeper and deeper. We are finding remains, compost, manure etc. - i.e. stuff you can cash crops, they are not forming relationships with plant roots at incredible depths on carbon-friendly see. It is made from carbon and other materials mycorrhizal fungi and associative diazotrophs and farms, so I certainly believe we can put all the and eventually decomposes to become CO2. This hence not building soil. This is a huge waste of carbon back that has been lost. Whether we can is a catabolic (breaking down) process. During photosynthetic capacity! Simple changes to fertilizer sequester sufficient carbon to mitigate the ongoing decomposition, the presence of SOM in soil has management alone could improve soil carbon emissions of fossil fuel remains to be seen. Biology- beneficial effects for the soil food-web, the buffering content (and farmers’ bottom lines). Farmers are friendly farm practices require far less fossil fuel of soil temperatures and in reducing evaporation. being encouraged to use products they do not need - and also result in fewer emissions - hence the However, SOM is very short-lived (days to months). by companies interested only in profit. changed land management of itself will reduce the This is what we call ‘labile carbon’. Great stuff problem to some extent.

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NOFA Education Fund NOFA any GMO plants to be harvested, destroyed, or removed within 12 months. The initiative was opposed by Monsanto and Syngenta, which spent over $800,000 trying to defeat it. The local Farm Bu- reau and Cattlemen’s Association also opposed the measure. Dr. Ray Seidler, a retired The carbon cycle is the movement of the element carbon (C), EPA micro-biologist, is a supporter sometimes in altered chemical forms, through different reservoirs of the measure. He describes the or carbon sinks on the planet. Over a relatively short timescale of Southern Oregon valley, which is less than thousands of years, the carbon cycle is a biological and rated among the Top 5 of seed pro- physical process whereby carbon moves among the vegetation, ducing regions in the world, as an soil, and animals on land; the atmosphere; and the organisms incubator for growing cool-weath- and water in the oceans. Over a longer time span of millions er seeds such as sugar beets. They of years, the carbon cycle is a geological process, during which then go as seeds to other regions carbon also moves to and from the deeper parts of Earth’s surface in Oregon (such as the Willamette as sediments. This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the Valley) to propagate more seeds. movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in Later these seeds end up planted billions of tons of carbon per year. Yellow numbers are natural in the Midwest to grow the actual fluxes, red are human contributions in billions of tons of carbon per year. White numbers indicate stored carbon. (continued on page A-1)

TM This newspaper contains news and features about food and farming in the Northeastern US Obsessively organic. Purely delicious. as well as a Special Supplement on *Organic farmers don’t use toxic, persistent pesticides. Building Soil Carbon