are of fundamental importance.

he One Supreme Being in the and The Vedas1 are said to represent the perennial philosophical Tmanifestation of Sanātana (original name of what An Introduction to the is now popularly called ), which literally means “eternal truth.”2 According to orthodox doctrine, the Vedas are believed to Concept of Unity in Hindu be divinely inspired, not of human authorship (apaurus.eya) and are the depositors of the Truth eternally existing as Vāk (Word). They Tradition: A Christian were oral traditions meticulously passed down through the ages and only written down some thousand years after their composition. Perspective The Veda comprises four traditions – Rig Veda, Sāma Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda – with each of the four traditions further Cherylanne Menezes ivided into categories of texts. Rig Veda is considered the oldest Sophia University Institute and was most likely composed between 1500–1200 BCE. It is a collection of divine hymns on the attributes of the Supreme Being with several names, and speaks about creation, humankind and its Abstract: The idea of the Divine or Supreme Being as the Absolute One devotion to Divinity and social alliances.3 in ancient has formed the basis of religious-philosophical thought for centuries. This article intends to offer an introductory back- 1. “Veda” signifies knowledge, interior vision, wisdom, that is “seen” or revealed to ground to the concept of unity in . While the views the sages and seers (r.s.is). It is divided in two categories: Sruti, meaning the “heard r expressed here stem from a Christian perspective, some included foot- word” (i.e. what has been revealed) and Sm.ti, meaning “what was remembered” (i.e. tradition). Texts are in , which continues to be the language used for scriptural notes are the fruit of a stimulating dialogue with Dr. Lalita Namjoshi, study and religious functions. The Vedic Period (or Age) is said to be approximately between 1750–500 BCE. former Assistant Director of K. J. Somaiya Bharatiya Sanskriti Peetham 2. J.C. Chatterji, The Wisdom of the Vedas (Wheaton: The Theosophical Publishing and scholar of Philosophy. Her valuable observations in a House, 1922), 3. 3. G. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism (New Delhi: Foundation Books, 2004), 36– review of this article, shared in a spirit of collegiality and friendship, 37.

Claritas: Journal of Dialogue and Culture, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 46–58 © 2020

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 46 Vedic literature dates from the arrival of Indo-Aryan nomads4 Omniscient, or Omnipresent being the most widespread.7 In during the decline of the once flourishing Indus Valley civiliza- Rig Veda I:164, a Vedic seer declares his inability to respond to tion. The nomads settled in northern India among already exist- metaphysical questions posed by a person seeking the truth by ing polytheist inhabitants. These itinerant people grew up under saying: “I am ignorant; out of my ignorance I ask the seers for the skies and did not build temples of worship. Their hymns con- enlightenment.”8 tain exceptional religiosity and speak of their joyful experience with The two questions are about Ekam Sat,9 (the One Being), the a Supreme Being5 guiding and shepherding them on their long first and fundamental key of ancient Vedic thought, and successive journey, a Being who was happy with their humble offerings and Vedantic thought: benevolently listened to their requests for mercy and protection. 1.“What is this incorporeal, Invisible unborn One (kim ekam)?” They perceived His invisible presence within His own natural vis- “How can then the One, Unborn, Incorporeal, Invisible in nature ible signs: the sun (Sūya) was the source of light and life, the fire give birth to worlds [=many], which are, born, corporeal, visible?” () gave forth purifying warmth and light as they raised their (Rig Veda 1:164:4-6). offerings to the Highest while gathered in fraternal harmony to 2.“What is it? Where is the hidden dwelling of this Lovely Bird sing praise. In this primordial Vedic religiosity we recognize the (vāmasya veh. )?” (Rig Veda 1:164:7) 6 first seeds of , the loving devotion to the Supreme Being, The questions are related to the paradoxical origin of themany the one assisting them in this new inter-ethnic settlement and from the One and the transcendence of the One, which is alle- friendship. gorically called the secret dwelling of the Lovely Bird. The Vedic Veda tradition enunciates the Divine in various ways, with the master answers: “On the contrary: it is from the One that the many broadly underlying ideas of One Being, Supreme, Omnipotent, get their meaning, like the many syllables of a song have meaning

4. As per recent studies and research, the Aryan theory (i.e. whether the origins of 7. S. Kumar, “God, Man and Nature in Vedic Vision,” in God, Man and Nature in the Vedic civilization are attributed to the Aryan immigration or to the pre-Aryan period) Hindu and Christian Traditions (Rome, Italy) Symposium Proceedings, 24 (Mumbai: is still an unresolved problem. St. Paul Press, 2008). 5. L. Namjoshi notes: “In the Vedas, various manifestations of the Ultimate Sat are 8. Rig Veda 1:164:6. This and all subsequent Rig Veda English translations taken from worshipped as gods and not as the God with capital G. The concept of shepherding R.T.H. Griffith, The Rig-Veda, http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/. is also Christian in spirit and not exactly a Vedic or Upanis.adic concept, according 9. “Ekam sat” (the One being) and “Param- Ātman” (the Supreme Being) are words to my understanding.” This, and other quotations, from Namjoshi are drawn from that translate the concept of the One Being, immaterial, transcendent, self-existent. unpublished correspondence with the author. It is the First Principle from which the non-self-subsistent being receives being and 6. Originates from the word Bhaj (devotee). Bhakti is one of the paths, one of therefore is necessarily dependent. See L. Curà, “La realtà dell’Uno nella tradizione devotion in order to realize the Divine. It means unlimited trust in the loving, merciful greca Platonica e neoplatonica e nella tradizione indiana Vedānta,” (Doctoral thesis, God through an interior experience and in a united community. Pontifical Urbaniana University, Faculty of Philosophy, Rome, 2008), 38, footnote 44.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 47 only to him who knows the whole song.” (Rig Veda I:164:39).10 high to higher, and to highest levels of existence through an inner Then, the master continues: “They call Him , Mitra, transformation of self. He or she strives to reach the ultimate goal Varun. a, Agni. Yet, He is the one most beautiful, most high Bird, of cosmic peace through the perfect unity of his or her inner nature the One Being whom the inspired sages call by many names.” with the external world.13 (Rig Veda I:164:46). Another aspect regards the cosmic interdependence between Thus, the One Being (ekam sat) is not an anonymous being but God, Humanity, and Nature. The secret lies in the principle a Supreme Person called by many names, one to whom Vedic of Yajña. Etymologically, the term signifies a spirit of cosmic people spoke, worshiped, and entered into dialogue.11 The essence harmony through sacrifice of one’s own limited interest for the of Veda is reflected in its unitive vision, in the idea of “One in world on both a micro- and macrocosmic level. The divine offers Many” and “Many in One” with relation to the gods (devas) and itself through its creation of the world; nature offers itself by the One Supreme Being. In verse 37 of Rig Veda 1:164, we see the protecting and sustaining life, and the human person is called to Supreme Spirit’s (Param-Ātman) relationship with the individual cultivate his or her inner sense in order to protect and strengthen Ātman (soul, self, spirit).12 The same, inexperienced seeker of truth the external environment. Veda proclaims Yajña to be the “navel says, “What thing I am I know not clearly: mysterious, fettered of the universe” (Rig Veda 1:164:35), the central thread – with the in my mind I wander. When the first-born of R. ta (Holy Law) divine on one end, and natural forces on the other – binding souls approached me, then of this Vāk (speech/word) I first obtain a of men and women together.14 bhāgam (portion).” When the Supreme Truth is revealed, the In the tenth book of Rig Veda 10:191: 2-4, we find an exhortation inexperienced seeker moves from darkness to joy as he discovers to unity of “hearts and minds.” It is a call to earnest accord among that his identity is a participation in him? all, like that of the gods.15 According to Vedic philosophy, the human person is the progeny of the divine (Rig Veda 10:13:01). Each has the potential to awaken Assemble, speak together: let your minds be all of one and enlighten his or her consciousness (Rig Veda 10:53:6) from accord. Be unanimous in all, like gods sitting down together. May your thoughts be united, one your decision,

10.L. Curà, “La realtà dell’Uno,” 39. so as to reach a common joyful agreement. 11.L. Curà, “La realtà dell’Uno,” 39. 12.The Atman is what substantiates these mental and spiritual states, so that theyare 13.S. Kumar, God, Man and Nature in Vedic vision, 24. then felt and experienced as the individual ego or “I.” In The Wisdom of the Vedas, J.C. 14.S. Kumar, God, Man and Nature in Vedic vision, 26–27. Chatterji writes: “In the Vedic language, the One Being searched within oneself is 15.Gods in the Hindu tradition are immortal beings and are transcended by the the Atman. In translating Atman, often the word Self is used but it is not what is Supreme Being. They are immortal precisely because they are united to the Supreme understood as “mind or mental state or even soul and individual spirit,” 39. Being, the only Source of immortality.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 48 In the Rig Veda 1:164:50, it is said that “the gods are on the right markedly. Increased emphasis was placed on ritualistic and sac- path of r.ta (the cosmic order, truth)” and they, too, “offer gifts” or rificial rites, a caste system, and even magical formulas. All of “adore” the One who is above them. For this reason, in the hymn this served to sideline important, theo-philosophical truths con- (Rig Veda 10:191:2–4) the gods are the model proposed to parties in tained in the hymns. This eventually resulted in a forceful counter dialogue: “Be unanimous in all, like gods sitting down together.”16 response during the later Upanis.adic period both in secular, (non- priestly) traditional Vedic circles as well as from ascetic, non-Vedic Upanis.ads thinkers in Jainism and Buddhism. Thus, by the ninth century 17 Upanis.ad, also called Vedanta, means “the end of the Veda” BCE, India was seeing renewed interest in the texts that reflected (Veda-anta) and came into existence after 600 BCE. It is con- a return to original Indian theological, philosophical and anthro- sidered the final draft of the Vedas because it both safeguards pological interpretations and meanings of the Vedic hymns. The its ultimate finality and speaks to culminating insights of Vedic authors of the Upanis.ads were instrumental in returning to the 18 thought. The Upanis.ads are among the most important works of theo-philosophical truths on the transcendent divine unity and the 19 Hinduism, compiled by different authors across centuries. immortal Ātman (spirit, soul) of the human being, enshrined in the While Vedic texts reflected an era of complex amalgamation of Veda. The Upanis.ad writings have inspired mystics, philosophers, ancient Indian peoples, later interpretation of texts would diverge poets and writers, as well as kings of Indian society throughout the ages. Although there are hundreds of Upanis.ads, only ten to 16.See L. Curà, “La realtà dell’Uno,” 26–27. thirteen are considered ancient and authentic. 17.Upa-ni-sad signifies upa-(near, close to) ni-(down), sad-(to sit), therefore “to be . The Upanis.ads are written using verse or prose, aphorisms, or seated at the foot of the master [in order to listen to him].” Ther B.hadāran. yaka Upanis.ad 2:2:20 affirms that the term Upanis.ad signifies the “secret name of the in the form of a dialogue between master and disciple. Through Supreme Ātman.” Therefore not a master in the usual sense of the word butofthe a pedagogical method, unresolved cosmological and anthropolog- transcendent one, the Truth itself. See L. Curà, La realta’ dell’Uno, 74. ical questions are contemplated at a transcendent level and ori- 18.J.C. Chatterji, The Wisdom of the Vedas, 6. ented towards a deeper knowledge of the ineffable Supreme Being 19.It is important to note the on-going debates provoked by some currents of 20 (who according to the Indian Caste system were traditionally considered “untouch- referred as (Absolute or Ultimate Truth and root of all able”) and Neo-Buddhists (a wide-spread, socio- political, religious and philosophical existence, living and non-living). Through Brahman, everything is reform movement spearheaded by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar) on whether there are interpo- sustained, and everything returns to Brahman in the end. As the lations by the (the priestly caste) in some texts of the Vedas and Upanis.ads. They hold the conviction that traditional philosophy is typically Brahmanic andlacks 20.The root of the word isbr.h- ”to swell, expand, grow, enlarge” and is a neutral adequate alternative reflections. For further reading, see R. Catalano, “Induismo fra noun. Brahman signifies ”the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world”, which Arianizzazione, Sanskritizzazione e Debrahmanizzazione,” in Nuova Umanità, XXXI ”cannot be exactly defined.” It has been described in Sanskrit as Sat-cit-ānanda (being- (2009/3), no. 183, 437–471. consciousness-bliss), and as the highest reality.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 49 Taittirīya Upanis.ad III.121 says: “That from which all these things ward.23 In this movement of interiority lies the original meaning of and beings are born, That in which, being born, they live, That, Ātman; in humankind there is the highest degree of Divine imma- unto which, in the end, they enter, know That; That is Brahman.” nence. Thus, the Upanis.ads underline the fundamental theme Brahman is omnipresent and is the ultimate unity of the manifold which speaks of the immortal Ātman of man (Rig Veda I:164) that universe as asserted in the Maitrayani Upanis.ad (VI.17): “He who tends toward a personal rapport with Param-Ātman, or Brahmn. dwells in the fire, He who dwells here in the heart, He who dwells The Upanis.ad’s intention is to stimulate human aspirations there in the sun, He is One.” Brahman is defined using Vedic towards knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme Truth, and to iden- transcendent possessives as in the Kena Upanis.ad (I, 2): “Thanks tify oneself with him (i.e. deification). The Mun. d. aka Upanis.ad to what (kena) the ear hears, mind thinks, the word speaks, the III, 2, 9 says: “He who indeed knows that great Brahman becomes eye sees . . . ? Thanks to the Ear of ear, the ear hears; thanks to the very Brahman.”24 This signifies that one becomes conscious the Mind of mind, the mind thinks; thanks to Word of words, the of being Brahman and experiences integration of self with the word speaks.” entire universe, just as divine transcendence corresponds to divine 25 The Chāndogya Upanis.ad (6.2.2) speaks of Brahman as “One, immanence. In the Upanis.ads, attainment of this deification without a second” (ekam eva advitīyam). It is not a tautologi- (ānanda) is invoked through divine grace, as exemplified by the cal expression regarding the oneness of this Reality, but rather famous words of the Br.hadāran. yaka Upanis.ad I, 3, 28: “Lead me an assertion of oneness and a negation of all duality.22 Accord- from the untruth to truth, from darkness to light, from death to 26 ing to the Upanis.ads, there exists only one access to knowledge immortality.” of Brahman, and it’s through the inner Ātman of humans. This Although the disciple addresses this invocation to his teacher, is because both Ātman and Brahman are of the same immaterial- it reflects the invocation to the Teacher of teachers, the One immortal nature. Otherwise, it would be impossible to know who guides every teacher. According to L. Curà, this deifica- Brahman. This underlines the primacy of the interior life atthe tion, obtained with God’s grace, reflects the optimistic Vedic tra- core of Hindu tradition. Immortality was a divine prerogative dition, still free from a negative view of matter as it is manifested and to attain Oneness with the divine, humankind needed to turn in the earliest Upanis.ad texts, and where a clear distinction also inwards, to enter within him or herself instead of focusing out- exists between the human Ātman and the transcendent Param- Ātman. Later texts, Curà says, reflect the strong influence of the 21.English translations of the Upanis.ads are taken from The Upanishads, translated by Max Müller (Kindle edition, 1897), http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/upan/ 23.J.C. Chatterji, The Wisdom of the Vedas, 13-14. 22.S.A. Upadhyaya, “God, Man and Nature in the Upanishad” in God, Man and 24.“Sa yah. ha vai tat paramam˙ veda Brahma eva bhavati.” Nature in the Hindu and Christian traditions (Rome, Italy) symposium proceedings, 29 25.S.A. Upadhyaya, God, Man and Nature in the Upanishad, 31. (Mumbai: St. Paul Press, 2008). 26.“Asato mā sadgamaya tamaso mā jyotir gamaya mr.tyormā amr.tam gamaya.”

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 50 Śraman. a27ascetic traditions.28 This shift caused radical bifurca- ity in Advaita31 (non-dual), not as the One (ekam) in the Veda tions in metaphysical, theological and anthropological interpreta- and Upanis.adic texts. While the One (ekam) did not necessarily tions of the Upanis.ads, despite the fact that the texts themselves exclude the many, in Advaita, instead, duality of reality is com- did not demonstrate these same differences. pletely excluded.32 For Shankara, Brahman is not a deity in the process of evolu- Advaita and Vi￿is.t.￿dvaita Philosophies tion, but rather It is ever present; not a construction of thought but something genuinely given in knowledge and obtained through Advaita (Absolute One without Second) in Shankara meditation by direct perception (anubhava) of being, “when one’s Upanisadic seers hinted at the Absolute One without Second . intellectual nature is purified by the light of knowledge.”33 Brah- present in Vedic hymns and affirmed the absolute unity of Reality. man is Nirgun. a (without qualities), without a distinctive mark,34 However, it was Adi Shankara29 (c. 788-820 CE) who developed relations, or personality, because this would imply distinction from it into a classical system of philosophy and an abiding model for 30 other existence. Instead, Brahman is the whole of existence and is Hindu religion. For Shankara, Brahman is seen as the only real- second to none. Brahman is limitless in nature and can only be an impersonal being. Our vision of appearance of this world is 27.The Śraman. a tradition is a non-Vedic Indian religious movement parallel to but due to ignorance which superimposes the Real on the unreal and separate from historical Vedic religion. Buddhism and Jainism also have their roots vice versa. An understanding of the world as distinct from Brah- in the Śraman. a tradition. Śrama means ascetic effort to break free from the prison man will disappear when truth is intuited. In attempts to express of matter, which is considered the root of physical and moral evil. This culture this, the Upanis.ads use apophatic language like, “not this, not that” aimed at acquiring complete outer and inner freedom from pleasures in order to reach total emancipation from earthly life. It believed in karmic reincarnation, which was (neti, neti), in order to show its ineffability: Brahman is “neither considered alien to the Vedic culture. 28.Regarding karmic reincarnation, Dr. Namjoshi notes that such a concept was likely 31.L. Namjoshi notes regarding a (non)-dvaita(Duality/Dual): “Dvaita indicates a not so foreign as previously thought, given that the cycle of birth and death dependent state of being two, it is an abstract noun.” on those performed by a person, is an integral part of Vedic vision. 32.T. Kulangara, Absolutism and Theism, A Philosophical Study of. S. Radhakrishnan’s 29.Sankara’s main works are his commentaries on the principal Upanis.ads, the Bha- attempt to reconcile Sankaras’s Absolutism and ’s Theism (St. Joseph’s Press, gavadgītā and the Vedānta Sūtra, which became the central texts of . Trivandrum, India, 1996), 95-96. and L. Namjoshi notes: “We have ample references 30.Shankara, derives the word “brahman” from the root “brihati,” which means “to from the Upanis.ads that the one without a second completely rules out duality and exceed” (atisayana), meaning eternity and purity. There is a basic difference from gives a temporary reality with regard to the Ultimate reality. Shankara explained this former interpretations which emphasize a dynamic and positive aspect of the Absolute, difference in the status of reality through his doctrine of Absolute Monism.” while Shankara denotes the immutable and negative aspect. The significance of 33.Mun. d. aka Upanis.ad 3:1:8, Brahmasūtra 458 in T.Kulangara, Absolutism and Theism, Brahman has evolved in the Vedic literature from the primitive power of prayer and 97. ritual, to the absolute principle behind all existence. 34.Kat.hopanis.ad 2:1:11 in T. Kulangara, Absolutism and Theism, 98.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 51 existent nor non-existent” (Bhagavadgītā, XIII,12); “It moves and (Ātman), as can be interpreted in Br.hadāranyaka Upanis.ad I, 4, 10, It moves not: It is far and It is near” (¯Iśopanis.ad,5). Although there “I am Brahman.”38 So self-liberation consisted in an act of inner is a predominantly negative, descriptive path in Shankara’s philos- self-consciousness and elimination of the ignorance (a-vidyā) that ophy, it is not meant to imply the Absolute is not positive. Rather, obscured the One Real identity. it points to categories beyond those of thought, penetrable by spir- At the time of Shankara and prior to Shankara’s Advaita school itual intuition, for “whenever we deny something as unreal, we do of thought, it is important to note that the predominant, deeply 35 so with reference to something real.” rooted religion in diverse areas of India was Buddhism. Thus, con- According to Shankara, humanity’s ultimate destiny is realiza- tinuous debates developed between Shankara’s school of thought tion of one’s true self, which is not a new knowledge, but a real- and various currents within Buddhism. Shankara’s Advaita prop- ization that Brahman is one’s Ātman. Therefore, self-realization is agation and debates in fact strongly confronted the very root of a non-dual experience. The analogy of the “iron ball in the fire” the reincarnation concept promulgated by Buddhism. Through the illustrates this view. When an iron ball is placed in the fire, it understanding of one’s true inner self as identical to Brahman, a acquires the qualities of the fire, such as, heat, light, and the ability cycle of rebirth and multiplicity was no longer needed, and was seen to burn. The whole ball is permeated by fire but is also an existent only as mere illusion. Besides, Advaita was also the only possibil- reality above and beyond this. Similarly, Brahman permeates the ity for Shankara to defend the Absolute transcendence of Brahman existence (sat), intelligence (cit), and bliss (ānanda) of the entire n universe, in addition to being an existent reality beyond this, as the as Nirgu . a (without qualities) against the strong agnostic views of unmanifest Brahman.36 In the state of Brahmānubhava (realization Buddhism. Other interpreters of the Scriptures however, consid- of Brahman), one not only loses one’s individuality, but he or she ered Shankara’s concept of Advaita as contrary to clearly theistic also experiences the multiplicity of the world in the unity of self.37 texts in the Vedic hymns and in the Upanis.ads founded on the 39 For Shankara, therefore, there is no transcendent God from whom knowledge and union with God and on his grace. A strong oppo- to gain favor because Brahman is the very identity of man/woman nent of no less value and importance among them was Ramanuja.

35.Ibid, 101. 36.See Shankara, A¯tmabhodha (Knowledge of the Self ), trans. A. Parthasarathy, 3rd 38.“aham brahmāsmi” ed., Vedaanta Life Institute, Bombay 1960, no. 62, 121-122, cited in Self-Realization: 39.L. Namjoshi notes : “With the exception of Śvetāśvatara Upanis.ad, no other An Analysis in Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, Washington DC, web- Upanis.ad speaks about God and his grace.” He further notes: “The major difference site consulted: http://www.crvp.org/book/series03/iiib-4/chapter_one.htm (visited on with regard to Buddhism is the Vedantic concept of an eternal, imperishable Principle 22/06/14). as Brahman, unlike the Buddhist belief in the momentariness of everything including 37.Ibid. the self, without the existence of the eternal.”

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 52 43 Vi￿is.t.￿dvaita in Ramanuja legacy of the Alvar mystics was made known. Bhakti was not a one-sided intellectualist view. Rather, through the love of God, After four centuries, Shankara’s widely propagated Advaita, that reality of a relationship with God so embedded in Vedic hymns taken to be the truth of Vedanta, was contested by Ramanuja and in the Upanis.ads was regained.44 The primary goal was one of (1017-1137 CE). Ramanuja was a follower of Bhakti spirituality loving union with God and not liberation from this world. This was – the path of love and devotion to God. Ramanuja believed his where the uniqueness of the Viśis.t.ādvaita Vedanta of Ramanuja metaphysical substratum to be in conformity to true Vedanta diverged from Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta.45 Ramanuja does not thought, in which knowledge of Brahman was a real knowledge of distinguish between formless Brahman and Brahman having form. the God Most High (Purus.ottama), who could be understood by In fact, he totally rejects the concept of Nirgun. a Brahman. He humankind, although distinct and transcendent to the human per- identifies Brahman and God. His is a philosophy of a personal son. Ramanuja became the foremost theologian and philosopher God characterized by certain attributes. Lord (the person- of the Viśis.t.ādvaita40 (Qualified Advaita) as the understanding of ification of Brahman) is the Supreme soul and is denoted by the the Absolute Brahman as Advaita (non-dualistic) but considered word Brahman in the scriptures.46 to be a personal God.41 Besides being rooted in a scriptural and Using analogies, Ramanuja demonstrates that the Upanis.ads philosophical foundation, Viśis.t.ādvaita garnered popular appeal affirm the distinct reality of beings as truly dependent on Brahman as well. and indissolubly united to Him: Br.hadāran. yaka Upanis.ad II, 1, In his teachings Ramanuja was moved by love for God, deemed 20: “As a spider moves along the thread (it produces), and as from as “Subject of the most positive attributes,” thus ensuring a the- istic conception of the Ultimate Reality according to Bhakti doc- 43.Alvar, or Azhvar, are South Indian mystics who wandered from temple to temple singing ecstatic hymns in adoration of the god Vishnu in the 7th to 10th centuries . The 42 trine. Unlike in Shankara’s time marked by strong debates with name Alvar signifies “one who is immersed in meditation of God.” Their bhakti was Buddhism, Ramanuja found no reason to argue against agnostic intensely passionate; they compared the soul to a woman who yearns for her lord’s love. Buddhism, he devoted his efforts instead, to ensuring that the great The hymns of the Azhvars were collected in the 10th century by Nathamuni, aleader of the Shrivaishnava sect, who introduced regular singing of the hymns in Vaishnava temples in South India. See http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/18115/Az hvar / (acc. on 23/06/14) 40.“Viśis.t.ādvaita was the name given to this orthodox upanisadic doctrine by others, 44.L. Namjoshi notes: “Bhakti has little importance for the Upanis.ads. It was in the so as not to downgrade it although adding the adjective Viśis.t.a (qualified) to it.” (L. Purān. as that Bhakti was highly propagated.” Curà, “La realta’ dell’Uno,” 205). 45.L. Curà, “La realta’ dell’Uno,“ 206. 41.L. Namjoshi notes : “In spite of the difference, Ramanuja seems to accept a non- 46.M. Katarnikar, “God, Man and Nature in Ramanuja” in God, Man and Nature in dual Advaita of God and the individual, in their pure nature.” the Hindu and Christian traditions (Rome, Italy) Symposium Proceedings, 59 (Mumbai: 42.L. Curà, “La realta’ dell’Uno,” 203. St. Paul Press, 2008).

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 53 a fire tiny sparks fly in all directions, so from this Self (Ātman) abides as itself within jīva, which constitutes the former’s body.50 emanate all organs, all worlds, all gods and all beings.” Thus, for Ramanuja, liberation (moks.a) is not identity with Brah- The individual souls (jīva) therefore are sparks of that infinite man but communion with God. Souls shed all their differences and Fire; they are not the Fire, but derived from it. Ramanuja argues there are no longer distinctions, such as gods, men and women, that the plurality of beings is “freely created by the freedom and animals and plants. Souls are transformed and obtain similarity of kindness of God.” 47 In the relationship between the jīva and God form with the Lord. The culminating point of unity is the bliss of there is a clear immanence of Brahman in the world, especially communion.51 in the human person. In fact the Upanis.ads refer to the Param- We have highlighted some thoughts of Shankara and Ramanuja Ātman or Brahman as “Antaryāmi,” or Inner Guide.48 Although regarding unity and the Absolute One, although we cannot reduce there are clear differences in the concept of “grace” in Christian tra- all of Vedanta thought to these two schools of thoughts as there dition, in the later Bhagavadgītā 10:10-11 text (one of great impor- are also others.52 While the Vedas, Upanis.ads, Brahmasūtra, Bhag- tance to Vedanta) there is a similarity of ideas regarding the soul vadagītā continued as the sources of Hindu philosophy, there has that is searching, and God who guides man towards himself: “To been an evolution of thought and currents of renewal over the cen- those devotees so dedicated unto Me, I bestow the spiritual intel- turies. One particularly important period is the early phase of the ligence to unite their individual consciousness with the Ultimate 19th century, which saw a “revival” of Vedanta philosophy and the Consciousness; by which they can come unto me. Out of compas- development of the terms, Neo-Vedanta and Neo-Hinduism. sion for them, I situated within their hearts, certainly destroy the darkness born of ignorance with the radiant light of knowledge.”49 Comments on Neo-Vedanta According to Ramanuja the individual soul (jīva) and God are India, in the second half of the 18th century, after centuries of not one but there is a relationship of inseparability and non- splendor under different empires and dynasties, contact with the division. If the essential nature of jīva is Brahman, then it is already Brahman and there is no point in saying the soul becomes Brahman 50.See T. Kulangara, Absolutism and Theism, 173. Liberated souls, says Kulangara, are in a relationship of fellowship and equality with Brahman. This implies a consciousness upon departure from the body. If on the other hand the soul is not of distinction but not of division, because the soul has Brahman as its inner self. In Brahman previous to its departure from the body, then it is incon- the footnote, Kulangara clarifies: Brahmasutra, 4:4:4 reads: “avibhagena drstatvat.” ceivable that it becomes Brahman, because that would destroy the For Shankara avibhaga (non-separation) means identity (svarupa aikya). Brahmasutra, soul’s very nature. Hence, the only possibility is that Brahman 554. For Ramanuja it is a “visista aikya” in which the soul realizes itself as an inseparable mode of God. 51.T. Kulangara, Absolutism and Theism, 174-75. 47.L. Curà, “La realtà dell’Uno,” 219. 52.For example, the Dvaita-mata or “dualistic school” of (1238–1307 48.L. Curà, “La realtà dell’Uno,” 237. CE). 49.Translation taken from http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 54 Islamic tradition and Sufi mysticism during the Mughal era, the Vedic religions, calling them even with a name – Hinduism.55 revitalization of religious practice through the widespread Bhakti In this interaction, also sensed a strong criticism towards movement founded on sincere devotion to the divine and love for their religious tradition and philosophy by most Westerners. These humankind, found itself in a state of severe decline and in dire need factors along with the new ideas received from the Western culture of reform. The social life, always more influenced by religion and stirred up various Hindu elites. There were various reactions, those tradition once again returned to the typical practices, rituals, ablu- who appreciated the West and Christianity, others who wanted to tions prior to the period of the Bhakti movement, the caste system return to the pure traditional orthodoxy, others who combined the too became a very relevant aspect. It was a period of a general cri- best of the two cultures.56 However, these protagonists strove to sis on all fronts be it economic, administrative, cultural, social or give a new face to Hinduism. Rooted in their tradition, they sought religious.53 There was a need for reform and various attempts were to reinterpret the ancient religious sources of Vedanta in a new being made from within the Hindu tradition to return to a religion light, finding in the texts themselves an authoritative confirmation that is more alive. It is in this setting that we can speak of the birth of the ideas and modern values. New reform movements began of Neo-Hinduism, a period of reform and renewal or of a “revival” to take shape bringing about inexhaustible vitality in all aspects of of Hinduism. The arrival of the British Raj in India towards the Indian life and thought.57 Of course, as mentioned earlier, it is a end of the 18th century and the vital contact with the Western complex context and it has been a process. All the same, Hinduism world, their philosophy and with Christianity and missionaries, as it is today, is surely a product of this process and of these reform offered the needed impulse for a reawakening. Of course, this so- movements. It is from them that the various forms of Hinduism we called Hindu renaissance is a much more complex phenomenon than it appears and which still needs study and research as there 55.More than a set of doctrines, Sanatana dharma is a way of life that involves are also other factors to be taken into consideration like the rela- aspects of everyday existence in which religious and societal life are inseparable. The tionship with Buddhism and Jainism, Sanskritization, Orientalism term “Hinduism” as a religious phenomenon today is often studied and considered as etc.54 The British colonialism, provoked a new interpretation of the resulting from a long process of construction, invention or imagination in the West and has created markedly felt challenges. For further reference, see: G. Oddie, Imagined Hinduism. British Protestant Missionary Construction of Hinduism, 1793-1900 (New 53.See B.N. Dasgupta, The Life and Times of Rajah Rammohun Roy (Delhi: Ambika Delhi: Sage, 2006) and B. K. Pennington, Was Hinduism Invented? Britons, Indians Publications, 1980) and Subrata Dasgupta, The Bengal Renaissance. Identity and Cre- and the Colonial Construction of Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). ativity from Rammohan Roy to Rabindranath Tagore (Permanent Black, Delhi and 56.See A. Sharma (ed.), Neo-Hindu Views of Christianity (E.J. Brill, Leiden, New Ranikhet, 2007). York, Copenhagen, Cologne, 1988) and Sontheimer, Dietz and Kulke, Hinduism 54.See D. Kopf, British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance (Berkeley: University of Reconsidered (Manohar Publishers, New Delhi, 2005). California Press, 1969) and J.N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in India (New 57.D. Acharuparambil, Spiritualità e Mistica Indù, introduzione all’Induismo (Città Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1998). Nuova, Rome, Italy, 1982) 243- 244.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 55 see today have evolved and have formed modern and contemporary only on a spiritual plane by ascetics slowly became transformed India.58 into a practical way of life. Vedanta, which was veiled in mys- Key proponents of Neo-Vedanta included Raja Ram Mohan tery and secrecy, became accessible to all, became expressed with Roy (1772-1833), who may not be looked upon as a Vedanta updated clarity, incisiveness, cohesiveness, and unity of thought.60 philosopher by all Hindus but admired greatly for his religious This brought about movements that inculcated a new and unprece- reforms, Sri. Paramahamsa (1834-1886), Swami dented social consciousness that included a continuous striving for Vivekananda (1863-1902), Sri. Aurobindo (1872-1950), M.K. greater human dignity, education, etc., as in the cases of Raja Ram Gandhi (1869-1948), and Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (1888-1975). Mohan Roy and M.K. Gandhi. Their efforts led to what has been called “re-establishment and These reforms also brought about a new spiritual renewal that re-statement, reconstruction and revaluation, reorientation, and contributed to promoting and preserving the sense of the Divine reinterpretation of Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta using modern argu- within one’s own interiority, within nature, and as the essence of all ments, language suited to modern man, adjustments to meet mod- others. For example, Sri. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, renowned ern challenges, and finding synthesis with the other schools of spiritual guide and mystic, did not want to enter into theological thought.”59 discussions, nor did he want to reform all society. His only desire While Neo-Vedanta is founded on Upanis.adic teachings regard- was to communicate to others the fruit of his spiritual experience so ing Brahman, its interpretations show a consistent effort to rec- that others, too, could fulfill their divine powers. For him, religion oncile the major schools of Advaita and Viśis.t.ādvaita Vedanta without a divine experience was worth nothing.61 Even his disciple Indian philosophical doctrine in order to find concrete and prac- and another great mystic, , emphasized the tical applications. Among the important contributions brought divine aspect of the soul that Vedanta preaches and its practical about by exponents of Neo-Vedanta philosophy have been the abil- fulfillment through work, worship, psychic control, philosophy, ity to challenge traditional interpretations and reconstruct anti- or by all of these paths. He incorporated the concept of selfless quated traditional religious practices in order to better conform to service to the suffering millions with that of the living realization of the demands of today’s world. While remaining rooted in the wis- God both within the world and beyond it as well.62 Additionally, dom of the Vedas, the Upanis.ads and the Bhagavadgītā, renewed interpretations of Advaita Vedanta that were historically practiced 60.L. Namjoshi, ”God, Man and Nature according to the Neo-Vedanta” in God, Man and Nature in the Hindu and Christian Traditions (Rome, Italy) Symposium 58.R. Catalano, “Il movimento di Rinascita indù del XIX secolo”, Nuova Umanità Proceedings, 86 (Mumbai: St. Paul Press, 2008). XXXIV, no. 202- 203 (2012): 609–631. 61.D. Acharuparambil, Spiritualità e Mistica Indù, Introduzione all’Induismo (Rome: 59.A.V.R Reddy, The Political Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda (Delhi: Sterling Pub- Città Nuova, 1982), 247. lishers, 1984), 18–19. 62.L. Namjoshi, God, Man and Nature according to the Neo-Vedanta, 83-84.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 56 Swami Vivekananda is also known for bringing Vedanta spiritual grasp of most of its western critics, who try to identify it teachings to the West,63 presenting it not as a specific Indian with some of its external and accidental forms, without philosophical framework, but in its universal dimension. understanding its essential spirituality which has assumed In explaining Sanskrit texts for an English language audience, divergent external forms to suit changing circumstances.65 reformers enabled wider circulation of Indian thought also at the academic level, as was the case with Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, who Thus, these exponents of Neo-Vedanta spearheaded an evolution of was a scholar, philosopher, and a statesman, as well as an academic. contemporary Indian thought, opening it up to a world dimension, He was a pioneer in bringing Indian thought to the attention of and demonstrating the ongoing need to revisit sacred textual inter- Western universities in an unprecedented manner.64 As a states- pretations within current societal contexts in order to make them man, he worked to promote world unity and possessed the capabil- viable for the spiritual and social situations of today’s world. This ity of thought that enabled him to enter into intellectual dialogue also allowed possibilities for dialogue learning, and understanding with Western philosophy. In his work, “History of Philosophy,” with other cultures and traditions. he wrote: Conclusion India now is not merely reviving but reflecting upon and In this brief introduction to the understanding of unity in the re-interpreting its past, its religion, its philosophy, its context of Hindu philosophy, we have seen that Divine unity is social and ethical forms; some of which it is discarding, primarily an object of mystical intuition. Access to Brahman, some it is explaining away, and the rest it is reshaping. It is the Supreme Truth, is only through the individual Ātman, since thus showing its great potentialities for progress, which is the highest degree of Divine immanence is contained within the ultimately due to the plastic nature of its spiritual culture human person. This underlines the primacy of interiority inthe capable of change and adaptation . . . it has eluded the Vedic religion. In Shankara’s Advaita (non-dualistic) philosophy, human desire to know Brahman is reached by identification with 63.Swami Vivekananda is known for speech given at the 1893 Parliament of Reli- gions in Chicago. See: https://www.artic.edu/swami-vivekananda-and-his-1893-spe Brahman. To know Brahman is to become Brahman. This is ech (acc. 09.17.20). because it is something truly given through knowledge and grasped 64.C.E.M. Joad, Counter Attack from the East, A Philosophy of Radhakrishnan (London: through meditation and understanding of being (i.e. “when one’s George Allen and Unwin, 1938). Here, the author describes the immense popularity intellectual nature is purified by the light of knowledge”). of Radhakrishnan’s lectures in England and how his lecture halls were crowded to overflowing. His vigorous self-analysis lent itself to younger generations of Indian scholars who wished both to remain anchored in tradition and at the same time move 65.S. Radhakrishnan et al, History of Philosophy, Eastern & Western (London: Allen forward with the times. and Unwin eds., 1952), 526.

CLARITAS | Journal of Dialogue & Culture | Vol. 9, No. 1 (2020) 57 Ramanuja’s Viśis.t.ādvaita, in contrast to Shankara, is closer to Christian tradition in that it sees unity, in distinction, between God and the human person. Knowledge of Brahman is true knowledge of the God Most High and can be understood by human beings, although God remains distinct and transcendent to them. Absolute Brahman as Advaita (non-dual) but Viśis.t.a (qualified) is seen and understood as a personal God, a God with whom loving union is the goal of one’s life, rather than liberation from the surrounding world. During the Neo-Vedanta period, spurred by various historical factors including the impact with British colonialism and the contact with Christianity, there were different attempts to reconcile the different schools of thought and a “revival” of Hindu tradition. The Hindu understanding of unity is one of a cosmic experience of Sat-chit-ānanda (Being-Consciousness-Bliss) through personal asceticism. Various points regarding unity in Hindu philosophy have been touched upon briefly in this article to provide a glimpse into the complexity of this reality in Hindu tradition, with further, in-depth discussion needed.

Cherylanne Menezes is an advisor to the National Youth Commission of the Conference of Catholic Bishops of India and was an invited auditor at the October 2018 Vatican Synod on Youth. She holds a master’s degree in Foundations and Perspectives for a Culture of Unity from Sophia University Institute with a specialization in Trinitarian ontology. She teaches courses in Christian mysticism at the University of Mumbai and is a member of the Interfaith Dialogue Committee of the Focolare Movement in India.

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