X-901-76-164
GEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF NIMBUS RADIATION DATA IN THE MIDDLE EAST
(NASI-TM-X-71207) GEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS N77-10616 OF NIMBUS RADIATION DATA IN MIDDLE EAST (NASA) 106 p HC A06/MF 101 CSCL 08G Unclas G3/43 09624
LEWIS J. ALLISON
OCTOBER 1976
GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER I GREENBELT, MARYLAND For information concerning availability of this document contact. Technical Information &Administrative Support Division Code 250 Goddard Space Night Center Greenbelt, Maryland 20771 (Telephone 301-982-4488)
"This paper presents the views of-the author(s), and does not necessarily reflect the views of the Goddard Space Flight Center, or NASA." X-901-76-164
GEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF NIMBUS
RADIATION DATA IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Lewis J. Allison Meteorology Program Office
October 1976
GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER Greenbelt, Maryland GEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF NIMBUS
RADIATION DATA IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Lewis J. Allison
Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland 20771
ABSTRACT
Large plateaus of Eocene limestone and exposed limestone escarp ments, in Egypt and Saudi Arabia respectively, were indicated by cool brightness temperatures TB < 2400 to 2650 K by the Nimbus
5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) over a
2-year period. Nubian sandstone, desert eolian sand and igneous metamorphic rocks of the Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene and
Cretaceous period were differentiated from these limestone areas by warm TB values (> 2650 to 300'K). These brightness tempera ture differences are a result of seasonal in-situ ground tempera tures and differential emissivity of limestone (0. 7) and sand, sandstone and granite (0. 9) whose dielectric constants are (6 to
8.9) and (2.9 and 4.2 to 5.3) respectively at 19.35 GHz. Cool
TB values in the form of a "V", were found oriented N/S over broad areas of the Nile Valley southward to Lake Nasser and
iii NW/SE from the Kharga Oasis to the Baharia Oasis in the Western
Desert of central Egypt. Surface moisture from sub-surface leakage from the Aswan Dam and the Western Desert oases could be a secondary cause for this TB value drop. Similar cool TB values were shown over limestone-dolomitic hills of the Interior
Homocline and the Hadramawt Plateau of Saudi Arabia. Nimbus
5 and 6 ESMER T B values selectively identified intermediate dense
rock types (limestone versus sandstone/granite) in the Lake
Nasser region whose thermal inertia ranged from 0. 035 to
0.06 cal cm - 2 0C sec-Y. Space albedo was determined from spatially averaged (Ikm resolution) Landsat 1, MSS-7 (0. 8 to
1. 1 pm) data and day-night ground brightness temperature
differences from Nimbus 5 THIR 11 ym data (9 km resolution)
under clear sky conditions.
IV CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION ...... 1i..
THE ELECTRICALLY SCANNING MICROWAVE RADIOMETER (ESMR). 2
THE TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INFRARED RADIOMETER (THIR) . 4
CASE STUDIES ...... 5
EGYPT ...... 6
MICROWAVE PHYSICS RELATIONSHIPS ...... 7
NILE DELTA - NILE RIVER VALLEY...... 12
THERMAL INERTIA RELATIONSHIPS ...... 13
MICROWAVE AND INFRARED BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS ...... 16
SAUDI ARABIA ...... 18
CONCLUSION ...... 21
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 22
REFERENCES ...... 23
V ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
la. Nimbus 5 spacecraft with associated experiments . . . . 33
lb. Nimbus 6 spacecraft with associated experiments . • 34
2. Relative spectral response of the 11.5 Im and 6.7 pm channel of Nimbus 5, THIR ...... 35
3. Cut-away of the Nimbus 5 THIR ...... 36
4. Scanning pattern of the Nimbus 5 THIR, 11 pm (Surface resolution in km at varied nadir angles)...... 37
5. Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm scan sequence ...... 38
6. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 618 (day), 28 July 1975, facsimile picture. a) Difference of c) and d); b) Average of c) and d); c) Vertical polarization; d) Horizontal polarization ...... 39
7. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 3813 (day), 21 Sept. 1973, horizontal polarization, analysis of computer produced grid print maps, 1:2 million, Mercator . . . . 40
8. Geological map of Egypt (Said, 1966) (Dotted area indicates large units of Eocene limestone) ...... 41
9. Map showing distribution of Nubia sandstone (diagonal lines) in Egypt (Issawi, 1973) ...... 42
10. a) Nimbus 3 HEIR (day), 26 May 1969, pre-flood stage of Lake Nasser; b) Map of flood area of Lake Nasser; c) Nimbus 3 HEIR (day), 11 Sept. 1966, flood stage ...... 43
10. d) Landsat 1 MSS 7, 24 Feb. 1973 over Lake Nasser, Egypt, (UAR) ...... 44
11. Track-mounted passive microwave radiometer equipment used in geologic research (Edgerton and Trexler, 1970) ...... 45
vi ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure Page
12. Computed and measured brightness temperatures of limestone, asphalt and coal at 10 GHz, vertical polarization (Edgerton and Trexler, 1970) ...... 46
13. NOAA 2 'Visual picture (V-RR), 23 October 1974 (1 km resolution) over Egypt and Red Sea area ...... 47
14. ONC H-5 Map, 1:1 million scale of the Nile Delta .. . 48
15. NOAA 4 Infra-red analysis (10.5 to 12.5 lm), orbit 2816, 28 June 1975 (day - unrectified). Dotted area
indicates T B values from 320 to 360C ...... 49
16. Landsat 2 MSS 7, 10 May 1973, over Nile Delta (southern end), Egypt (UAR) ...... 50
17. Nimbus 5 THIR It Am, orbit 7813 (day), 16 July 1974, analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 51
18. Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7821 (night), 16 July 1974, analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 52
19. Diurnal surface temperature variation as a function of thermal inertia (Watson et aL, 1971) ...... 53
20a. Landsat 1 MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972, Lake Nasser and Nile Valley, Egypt (UAR) ...... 54
20b. Space reflectivity (%)derived from Landsat 1 MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972 frame shown in Figure 20a (Cal-Comp line-drawn) ...... 55
21. Geological nmap of West Aswan area, derived from Landsat 1 MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972 frame shown in Figure 20a (El Shazely et al., 1974) ...... 56
22. Geological unit classification used in Figure 21 (El Sliazely et al., 1974) ...... 57
vii ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure Page
23. Laboratory spectographic analysis of Sinai desert sand showing total diffusive reflectance (%)...... 58
24. Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813 (day) - orbit 7821 (night) 16 July 1974; analysis of brightness temperature difference, computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 59
25. Radiosonde data, 1200 GMT, 16 July 1974, Aswan, Egypt (UAR) ...... 60
26. Least squares fit of thermal inertia versus day-night temperature difference for albedos ranging from 0. 10 to 0.70 (Pohn et al., 1974) ...... 61
27. Landsat 1 MSS 7, uncontrolled composite photo-mosaic of all available cloud-free orbits over Egypt (UAR), with 4 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR T]1 comparison ...... 62
28. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 7821 (night), 16 July 1974; horizontal polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1:2 milion, Mercator, with 4 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR TB comparison ...... 63
29. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 7934 (day), 25 July 1974; horizontal polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1-2 million, Mercator, with 4 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR TB comparison ...... 64
30. Landsat I MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972, Lake Nasser and Nile Valley, Egypt (UAR), with box limits of THIR and ESMR T. comparison ...... 65
31. Landsat 1 MSS 7, 8 Nov. 1972, Lake Nasser and Nile Valley, Egypt (UAR), with box limits of THIR and ESMR TB comparison ...... 66
vili ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure Page
32. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESME, orbit 7821 16 July 1974 (night) between 24'N and 240 30'N, Egypt (UAR) ...... 67
33. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 0 1974 (day), between 24 N and 240 30'N, Egypt (UAR) . . . 68
34. Landsat 1 MSS V, 9 Nov. 1972, Nile River (Qena) Egypt (UAR) with box limits of THIR and ESMR TB comparison ...... 69
35. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESMR, orbit 7821 16 July 1974 (night) between 250 30'N and 26 0 N, Egypt (UAR) ...... 70
36. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day) between 250 30'N and 26 0 N, Egypt (UAR) ...... 71
37. Landsat 1, MSS 5 and 7, composite photo-mosaic of all available cloud-free orbits over Sinai and Red Sea, with 2 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR TB comparison ...... 72
38. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESMR, orbit 7821, 16 July 1974 (night) between 28°N and 280 301N, Egypt and Saudi Arabia ...... 73
39. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day), between 28°N and 280 30'N, Egypt and Saudi Arabia ...... 74
40. Landsat 2 MSS 7, 10 May 1973, El Fayum, Nile River Valley, Egypt (UAR) with box Limits of THIR and ESMR TB comparison ...... 75
Ix ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure Page
41. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESMR, orbit 7821 16 July 1974 (night),between 29°N and 290 30'N, Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia ...... 76
42. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day), between 29°N and 290 30'N, Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia ...... 77
43. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 618 (day), 28 July 1975, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator . . ... 78
44. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 618 (day), 28 July 1975, vertical polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator . . ... 79
45. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 846 (day), 14 August 1975, vertical minus horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 80
46. a) U.S. Air Force DMSP visual picture, orbit 4752, 14 Feb. 1975, 0837Z, (2 mile resolution); b) Map of Saudi Arabia indicating major geological features . . . . 81
47. Map of Saudi Arabia and associated areas, elevations, land features, 1:5 million, (FAO-UNESCO Map, P. Laland) ...... 82
48. Geological map of the Arabian Pemnsula, 1:2 million, indicating large units of limestone. (A complete description of the abbreviations on this figure may be found on legend of referenced map)...... 83
49. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 3780 (night) 18 Sept. 1975, facsimile picture...... 84
x ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure Page
50. Nimbus 5 ESME 19.35 GHz, orbit 3779 (night), 18 Sept. 1973, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 85
51. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 3853 (day), 24 Sept. 1973, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator . . . . 86
52. Nimbus 5 ESME 19.35 GHz, orbit 10974 (night), 8 March 1975, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 87
53. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GIz, orbit 7813 (day), 16 July 1974, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator; dashed box indicates area of crossection shown in Fig. 55...... 88
54. Nimbus 5 TIHR 11 pim orbit 7813 (day), 16 July 1974, analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator; dashed box indicates area of crossection shown in Fig. 55...... 89
55. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESMR, orbit 7813 (day), between 23 0 N and 230 301N, Saudi Arabia 90
56. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 880 (night), 16 August 1975, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator . . . 91
57. Nimbus 6 ES1VIE 37 GHz orbit 880 (night), 16 August 1975, vertical polarization; analysis of computer produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator . . . . 92
58. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 880 (night), 16 August 1975, vertical minus horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 93
xi ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont.)
Figure Page
59. Nimbus 6 ESME 37 GHz, ORBIT 738 (day), 6 August 1975, vertical minus horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator ...... 94
TABLES
Table Page
1 ...... 8
4 ...... 16
xii ENTRODUCTION
Early television pictures of the Mliddle East recorded by TIROS 1 to 5 (Schnapf,
1962, World Meteorological Organization, 1963) and geophysical observations by Nimbus I to 4 and Gemini 4, provided the first detailed satellite images of geological interest (Nordberg and Samuelson, 1965, Lowman and McDivitt, 1967,
Pouquet, 1968, 1969, Pouquet and Raschke, 1968, Merrifield et al., 1969,
Sabatini et al., 1971). With the flight of Landsat 1 in July 1972, more sophis ticated rock type discrimination techniques were developed using computer enhanced images recorded in the 0.5 to 1.1 gm region (Rowan et al., 1974,
Blodget et al., 1975).
The Nimbus 5 and 6 meteorological satellites which were launched on 12
December 1972 and 12 June 1975 respectively, carried the electrically scanning microwave radiometer (ESMR) and the temperature-humidity infrared radiometer (THIR) which recorded useful complimentary data.
The purpose of this paper is to study the geological features of selected
Middle East regions using the combination of Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR and THIR primarily, with supportive data from Landsat 1, NOAA 2 and 4, US Air Force
DMSP images and USGS geological charts and reports. The following sections contain a brief description of the two radiometers used in this study.
1 THE ELECTRICALLY SCANNING MICROWAVE RADIOMETER (ESME)
The Nimbus 5 and 6 were flown in near-polar (810 retrograde) sun-synchronous circular orbits of about 1100 km (600 n. miles). Each orbit crossed the equator with an approximate 270 longitude separation and a period of 107 minutes (Nimbus 5 User's Guide, 1972, Nimbus 6 User's Guide, 1975). The basic physics behind the Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR are the same although the scanning geometry and operating wavelengths are different.
The Nimbus 5 ESMR measures the earth and atmosphere radiation in a 250
MHz band centered at 19.35 GHz (1. 55 cm) with a noise equivalent temperature difference (NE AT) of approximately 2 K (Fig. la). It scans the earth every
4 sees. from 500 to the left through nadir to 500 to the right in 78 steps with some overlap. The scanning process is controlled by an onboard computer and scans a region approximately 30' of longitude wide at 30 0 N. The half power beamwidth of the antenna is 1. 40 or 22 km at nadir and 2. 20 or 45 by
160 km at the 500 nadir angle edges. The instrument is discussed by Wilheit,
1972, Allison et al., 1974, 1975, Wilheit et al., 1976 and Kidder, 1976.
The Nimbus 6 ESMR receives thermal radiation from the earth in a 250 -MHz band centered at 37 GHz (0.81 cm) (Fig. ib). Each electrically scanned sweep records brightness temperatures at 71 steps over a 5.3 see. period and scans a region approximately 130 of longitude wide at 300 N. The antenna beam
2 scans ahead of the spacecraft along a conical surface with a constant 450 angle with respect to the antenna axis and delineates a 15 km to 30 by 60 km field of view at the earth's surface with an NEAT of 10 K. The Nimbus 5 ESME measures only the horizontally polarized component while the Nimbus 6 ESMR measures the horizontal and vertical components by using two radiometer channels. A fall description of this instrument has been discussed by Wilheit,
1975.
The microwave brightness temperature of the earth's surface is mainly effected by the surface emissivity and temperature, atmospheric water yapor and liquid water droplets. Cloud ice crystals (cirrus) have little effect on microwave radiation and at the Nimbus wavelengths are essentially transparent.
Molecular oxygen absorption can also be neglected (Wilheit et al., 1975,
Sabatini, 1975). The emissivity of the surface may vary due to the change in dielectric constant. Since the dielectric constant of water can be 80 and dry soil as low as 3 to 5, water content of soil can have a strong effect at micro wave frequencies (Schmugge et al., 1974 (a and b), Meneely, 1975). The resulting soil emissivity can vary from 0.5 (wet) to 0.9 (dry) (Poe et al., 1971).
The emissivity of non-vegetating surfaces can vary from 0.85 to > 0.95 and depending on the soil moisture content, the occurrence of dew, the surface temperature and receiver polarization, can indicate microwave brightness temperatures between 2050 to > 3100K. Surface microwave radiation can
3 be effected by roughness, topographic slope, stratigraphy (layering of different materials), density of rocks, vegetation cover, receiver wavelengths, and angle of incidence observed (Oberste-Lehn, 1970, Cihlar and Ulaby, 1974,
Vickers and Rose, 1971). Ocean surfaces have a low emissivity of ca. 0.40 and a resulting cold microwave brightness temperature of 1200 to 1700K
(horizontal polarization) and 190Q to 2200 K (vertical polarization).
THE TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INFRARED RADIOMETER (THIR)
The Nimbus 5 and 6 satellites carried the THIR, a two-channel radiometer which had proven its reliable performance by recording several years of day-night data indicating cloud heights, ground and sea temperature and providing a qualitative estimate of mid-tropospheric humidity under clear sky conditions (Allison et al., 1975).
The two THIR detectors consist of germanium-immersed thermistor bolometers which have peak spectral responses in the 10.5 - 12. 5 Im "window" region and the 6. 3 - 7.25 pm water vapor absorption region (Figure 2). A cutaway of the radiometer, shown in Figure 3, includes the scan mirror, sun shield,
5 inch-folded optical Cassegranian telescope, a dichroic beam splitter, electronics module and two detectors.
The elliptically-shaped plane scan mirror, inclined at 45 degrees to the optical axis of the instrument, rotates at 48 rpm and scans through a 360 degree angle in the plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the satellite. 4 Figure 4 shows the 7.7 by 7.7 km (4.1 by 4.1 n. miles) ground resolution
(scan spot) of the 11 im channel at zero degree nadir increasing to an elongated
14 by 31.8 km scan spot at 50 degrees nadir, at an 1112 km (600 n. mile) orbital altitude. Similarly the ground resolution of the 6. 7 pm channel at the sub-satellite point was 22.6 km while at 50 degrees nadir, it was 41.1 km by
93.5 km.
A sample Nimbus 5 THIR (11 pm) scan sequence is shown in Figure 5. The two detectors simultaneously view the housing, A at spacecraft zenith,
(zero seconds). Seven synchronous pulses start at C, followed by six-1 volt calibration steps. A space scan starts at D to G, followed by an earth scan
(1170 wide) to I, a space scan to K, a housing scan to M, and then back to zenith. The entire sequence lasts 1.23 seconds. The space and housing viewed parts of the scan serve as part of the in-flight check of calibration.
Note the small noise ripple on the housing and space scans (MeCulloch, 1972).
The NE AT for the 11 pm channel is approximately 1. 50 K at 1850K and 0. 28 0 K at 300 0K. Corrections of 2 to 70 K must be added for losses due to atmospheric water vapor. A correction of < 1 0 K may be disregarded for extremely dry desert atmospheres, which was the case in this study.
CASE STUDIES
Two areas of the Middle East were examined using the Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR and THIR data in order to explain the repetitive occurrance of distinctive cool
5 microwave surface brightness patterns on successive cloud-free days and nights over a 2 year period.
EGYPT
A light gray "V" structure was noted in the Nimbus 6 ESME pictures in the region of north-central Egypt (Fig. 6). A computer-produced grid print map
(1:2 million, Mercator) of this scene (Fig. 7) shows cool brightness values of < 240'K to 2650 K overlaying the Nile Valley, Lake Nasser and extending northwestward along a line of known oases in the Western Desert. A review of all Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR pictures over Egypt was made from December
1972 to the June 1976. This "V" structure appeared consistently in the imagery both day and night under cloud-free conditions. Two geological maps of Egypt (Figs. 8 and 9) delineate the Eocene limestone (Said, 1962) and
Nubia sandstone (Issawi, 1973). These rook formations together with large sand areas in the Western Desert and igeneous-metamorphic rocks formations along the Red Sea, outline and coincide with the "V" structure shown in Figs.
6 and 7. A more detailed geological analysis of the Nile Valley in the Aswan
Dam area was made from Landsat I data by El Shazly et al. (1974, a, b,) who confirmed the limestone, sandstone and granitic deposits.
Since surface and sub-surface soil moisture can lower microwave brightness temperatures in the salt deserts (Ulaby et al., 1975) a literature search was
6 made of Egypt with the hope of finding some evidence of sub-surface water seepage from prominent surface water systems such as the Nile or Lake Nasser.
Figs. 10(a) through (d) show the pre-and flood stage of the Lake Nasser
Reservoir in 1969 on Nimbus 3 and Landsat 2 images, respectively. A New
York Times article by Tanner, 1975 reported that Lake Nasser had been filling ufl more slowly than expected since 1969 and that only 5 to 6 of 12 available hydroelectric turbines were being utilized in the Aswan Dam due to the lack of water storage. Drs. Farouk El Baz and Abdel-Hady (1975) confirmed the possibility that underground water seepage could occur in the extensive Egyptian limestone and sandstone deposits in the Lake Nasser and
Nile Valley region. Surface drilling would be attempted in 1976 in Egypt to measure the extent of water loss.
MICROWAVE PHYSICS RELATIONSHIPS
Previous field work by Edgerton and Trexler, 1970, Kennedy et al., 1966, and later by Edgerton et al., 1973 using a truck-mounted microwave-sensing equipment (Fig. 11), showed that limestone had a low computed and measured brightness temperature (high dielectric constant) when compared with other minerals of lower dielectric constants (high brightness values) (Fig. 12).
Note the emissivity decreases more rapidly for the Brewster angle (> 600) resulting in a drop in brightness values. The dielectric constant of a material
7 is defined as the ratio of the capacitance of a condenser filled with the material to the capacity of the condenser when a vacuum exists between its plates
(Oberste-Lehn, 1970).
The dielectric constants of selected solid rocks measured at 35 GHz can range from 2 to 10 (Peake, 1967, Campbell and Ulrichs, 1969, Peake and Oliver,
1971). The following tables contain a partial list of the physical characteris tics of ground materials relevant to this study (Clark, ed., 1966, Peake, 1967,
Edgerton and Trexler, 1970, Ingersoll, 1954, Poha et al., 1974).
Table 1
Surface Dielectric Constant Emissivity Density Porosity Materials (Real Part) (at 37 GHz) (gm cm - 3 ) (T0)
Desert Sand 2.9 0.93 1.4-1.93 39-46%
(quartz, dry.
med. fine)
Sandstone 4.2-4.8 0.93 2.2-2.7 0.7-20%
Granite 4-5.3 0.90 2.5-2.8 0%
Limestone 6-8.9 0.75 2.65-2.8 0.5-5%
8) Table 2
Surface Thermal Inertia Thermal Conductivity Materials (cal cm -2 IC sec-'/) (cat cm -1 sec 1 °C-I)
Desert Sand 0.01 -0.02 0.00063
Sandstone 0.030-0.058) 0.0062)
Granite 0.036-0.066 0.0065
Limestone 0.04 -0.06) 0.0048
Table 3
Surface aea Thermal Diffusivity Materials Volumetric Heat Capacity 3 (cmr2 sec 1 ) (cal cm 0C1)
Desert Sand 0.0020 0.314
Sandstone 0.0113) 0.546
Granite 0.0127 . 0.511
Limestone 0.0081 0.594
The physical constants above which appear to be similar, are enclosed by a bracket. The use of thermal inertia mapping to discriminate geological units in the United States and Oman indicated that limestone, dolomite, sandstone
2 and granite fall in a thermal inertia class interval of 0. 03 to 0.06 cal cm -
0C1 see/2 (Pohn et al., 1974, Watson et al., 1971, Rowan et al. , 1970,
9 Watson, 1975, Kahle et al., 1975). Any microwave radiation technique which
will better selectively identify any of these minerals within this class interval
would be of value (Pohn, 1976).
The following parameters effect the Nimbus 5 ESMR (19.35 GHz) brightness
values (T.), of a smooth desert surface (Moore et al., 1975, Ulaby, 1975):
TB =7 [ETg+(I-e)TdI +Tu
Where
r = atmospheric transmittance
e = emissivity
Tg = ground temperature, 0K
Td = downward emitted atmospheric temperature, OK
T u = upward emitted atmospheric temperature, 'K
For two fields of view with different emissivities but the same ground tempera
ture, the difference in T B is:
AT 1 = (Tg-Td) (ez - e)
For a dry desert atmosphere, a ground temperature of 310°K, O0. 95 and
Td410°K, the emissivity is:
e=i1 - VK+iI
10 Where K is the dielectric constant. Limestone Sand Thus: Dielectric Constant: 8.4 2.9
Emissivity : 0.763 0.932 these emissivities give:
Sand: TB = 2850K
Limestone: TB = 2370K
ATB = 48 'K
The effect of roughness is minimal for a high emissivity material such as sand but roughness in limestone, a lower emissivity material, may warm the
TB by 20'K or more at 19.35 GHz.
From the basic thermodynamic relationship:
Emissivity = 1-Reflectivity
The reflectivity of a rough surface is smaller than a smooth surface since multiple reflections tend to reduce the total amount of incident radiation reflected. Therefore, the emissivity is greater and the TB value is warmer.
Conversely, high soil moisture content can cause an increase in dielectric constant which results in higher reflectivity or lower emissivity, causing the
TB to decrease. A one percent change in soil moisture content can result in a 40 K change in brightness temperatures (Edgerton et al., 1973).
11 NILE DELTA - NILE RIVER VALLEY
An excellent cloud-free visible picture (0. 5 to 0. 7Am) of the Nile Valley was
taken on 23 October 1974 by NOAA 2 VHRR (Ikm ground resolution) (ig. 13).
Note the darker heart-shaped region to the southwest of the present Nile Delta
which I labelled the "Old Nile Delta". This area according to a hypothesis
of the "Urnil", described by Hanter, 1975, was the region where the Nile
River exited to the Mediterranean Sea at 29 0 E, southwest of Alexandria and
may have produced an "old" delta, which consists of fluvial and fluvio-marine
sediments deposited during lower and middle Miocene period. This sand and
shale region which logically could have moved eastward according to current
theory to the present delta location, appears warmer in all the Nimbus 5 and 6
ESMR analyses, to be discussed later. Figures 14, 15 and 16 which cover the
Nile Delta show an ONC H-5, 1:1 million base map for reader reference, a NOAA
4, VHRR (10. 5 to 12. 5 pm) (1 km resolution) day, unrectified thermal IR map of 28 June 1975, and a typical Landsat 1, band 7 (0.8 to 1.1 pm) (80 meter resolution) picture of the region. The irrigated farmland in the Delta which extends from Port Said westward to Rosetta and southward to Cairo, appears 4' to 8°K cooler in the IR (Fig. 15) than the nearby desert sand. A wedge of cooler TB values indicating high soil moisture in the Delta is also shown on
Nimbus 5 THIR (11 pm) day, on 16 July 1974 (Fig. 17). The Red Sea hills and mountains of Jordan and Saudi Arabia are generally the warmest (> 3150K),
12 followed by large portions of the Western Desert (3100 to 315°K) and the coastal strip and Nile Valley (<310'K). The water-land interface shows up well in the daytime but there is little coastal, hill or low-land definition at hught (2930 to 3030K).
THERMAL INERTIA RELATIONSHIPS
The thermal inertia of a material is determined by its volumetric heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, specific heat and density.
Figure 19 shows the variations of surface temperature as a function of thermal inertia. Optimum surface heating and cooling occurs at 1:30 pm and 2:30 am.
The temperature variations are caused by atmospheric cooling and heating at
35 0 N, heat loss by thermal emission and heat gain by solar energy absorption
(Watson et al., 1971, Smith, (ed), 1974). The greater the diurnal surface temperature variation of a material, the smaller the inferred thermal inertia and conversely the smaller the temperature variation the larger the thermal inertia (Schutt, 1975, Price, 1976).
A previous study by Pohn et al., 1974, used Nimbus 3 High Resolution Infrared
Radiometer (HRIR) (0.8 to 1.1 pm) day-time data for measuring surface reflectivity and Nimbus 4 THIR (11 pm) data for day-night temperature differ ences to derive a thermal inertia map of geological units in Oman. A similar visible band (MTSS-7, 0.8 to 1.1g m) from Landsat 1, on 9 November 1972
13 was used in this study to obtain space albedo over the Lake Nasser region and
Nimbus 5 THIR for day-night differences. The Landsat 1, 80 meter resolution elements were averaged to 1 kin elements in order to permit comparison with the larger scan spots covered by the THIR data.
Space reflectivity (R7), from MSS 7, on Landsat 1 was derived as follows:
(Otterman & Fraser, 1976)
R ir N7 S7 Cos 00
R 7(%) = 1. 3795 x C7 where:
N 7 = nadir radiance
S 7 = solar constant for MSS 7
00 = sun zenith angle
C7 = Landsat digital count for MSS 7
A one km element represents an average of 16 columns and 12 rows of the full resolution (80 meter) Landsat digital data printout.
Figures 19 and 20 show the Landsat 1, MSS 7 image and the 1 kn averaged
Cal-Comp line drawn analysis for 9 November 1972, respectively. Large limestone areas indicated by space reflectivities of 50 to 65% are shown to the left of column 1600 (top) while the Nubian sandstone (greytone) and granite areas are 35 to 45% and < 35%, respectively. Figures 21 and 22 are included to
14 show the large limestone units described by El Shazly et at., 1974, for the same Landsat picture. Otterman and Fraser, 1976 had reported space reflec tivities of 54 to 57% for Libyan desert sand from Landsat 2, MSS 7. A labora tory spectrographic analysis of Sinai desert sand indicated 49 to 54% total diffusive reflectances for this wavelength (Fig. 23) which makes the above space reflectivities more credible.
Day-night temperature differences for 16 July 1974 were obtained using
Nimbus 5, 11 pm data, under clear sky conditions (Fig. 24). A radiosonde run at Aswan, Egypt on 16 July 1974, 1200 GMT, (Fig. 25) indicated a dry atmosphere and therefore no atmospheric corrections were made to the 11 gm analyses. The southern Sinai Peninsula, the Red Sea hills, mountains of
Jordan and Saudi Arabia and portions of the Western Desert show the largest diurnal temperature difference (200 to 35 0H), while the limestone deposits
0 in the Nile Valley and coastal deserts indicate 50 to 20 K. The Red Sea -
0 Mediterranean Sea, and Nile Delta show a smaller AT B of 3' and 50 to 10 K, respectively.
Pohn et al., 1974, developed a least squares fit of thermal inertia versus day-night temperature difference for different albedos (Fig. 26). By overlaying a portion of the day-night temperature difference chart (Fig. 24) on the reflectivity chart of the Lake Nasser region (Fig. 20), the following range of thermal inertia (cal cm - 2 0C sec-A) was derived:
15 Table 4
Space Day-night Thermal Reflectivity 11 pm TB differences Inertia
Granite 20%- 35% 200 - 25 0 K 0. 038 - 0.058
Sandstone 35%-45% 16o - 20 0 K 0.040 - 0. 060
Limestone 50%- 65% 120 - 160K 0. 035 - 0.058
The thermal inertia values for the 3 materials above range from 0. 035 to 0. 060
2 - cal cm- 0C sec which is in agreement with published values in the literature,
shown in Table 2. The use of microwave data to further differentiate these
materials will be discussed in the next section.
MICROWAVE AND INFRARED BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS
In order to compare the Nimbus 5 ESiIMR (19.35 GHz) and THIR (11 pm)
brightness temperatures, four crossections, (Box 1, 2, 3, 4) were drawn
through the area of interest (Figs. 27, 28, 29). Coincidental data was used
for the night of 16 July 1974 but a 10 day separation occurred for the day
comparison (July 16 to July 25, 1974) due to satellite instrument processing problems.
Individual Landsat 1 and 2 frames with box area limits in black are shown for
ready reference of geological formations (Figs. 30, 31, 34, 37, 40).
16 Averages of IR and ESMR brightness values were plotted within a half degree of latitude from 24°N in the 4 regions to 290 300 N using the respective Nimbus grid print map (1:2 million, Mercator). The IR brightness data was uncorrected due to negligible atmospheric moisture content.
An analysis of the crossectional data in Figs. 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42 show the following relationships:
1. The Nimbus 5, 11 pm brightness values over the igneous-metamorphic rocks in the Red Sea hills and southern Sinai peninsula were the warmest
(320 0 K ± 20 K) during the day while the cooler nighttime TB gradients appear rather flat (2960 ± 40C) over most ground surfaces.
2. The Nimbus 5 ESMR, 19.35 GHz brightness values were warmest
(2700 to 282 0 K, day) (2600 to 265°K, night) over the igneous-metamorpnc rocks and sandstone and coolest (2500 to 2630K day) (2400 to 2510 K, night) over limestone. The average day or night difference between the above materials was approximately 15 ° to 30 K.
3. The THIR-ESMR brightness difference is largest for the Red Sea (> 1000 K), followed by limestone (480 to 520K, day) (420 td 450K, night), igneous metamorphic rocks (380 to 470 K, day) (260 to 400 K, night) and sandstone (350 to 41 0 K, day) (280to 370 K, night). A second areal average of THIR-ESMR brightness temperature difference between limestone and igneous-metamorphic
rocks-sandstone was 140K night and 10 0 K, day. Sandstone and igneous
17 metamorphic rocks have similar dielectric constants, density, thermal inertia
but different porosity and surface roughness (Tables 1 and 2).
Nimbus 6 ESME (37 GHz) data were also analyzed for selected days in July
and August 1975. The dotted "V" structure in the horizontal polarization data
of 28 July 1975 (Fig. 43) appears cooler (TB : < 2500 to 2600K) while the
sandstone and igneous-metamorphic rocks are warmer (TR : 2700 to > 3000K).
The cool "'V" structure in the vertical polarization data appears to be < 280'
to 2900 while the sandstone and granitic hilly areas are warmer: 3000 to 318 0 K.
(Fig. 44). When horizontal polarization data is subtracted from the vertical
polarization data on 14 August 1975, large 700 to 800K T. differences occur
over the sea while 400 to 500K TB differences occur in the Western Desert and
the An Nafud Desert (Fig. 45). These differences may have been caused by
scattering from smooth sand dune surfaces which have similar scattering
characteristics to that of the 100 to 150 slope of a "low wind" sea surface
(Peake, 1975). A similar effect was noted in the sands of the Rub Al Khali
Desert (Empty Quarter) of southern Saudi Arabia (Fig. 59). Smaller Tn
differences (<20OX) appear in the hilly regions bordering the Red Sea, the
Sinai Peninsula and Israel.
SAUDI ARABIA
Several Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR and THIR orbits over Saudi Arabia were selected in order to study the patterns of microwave and infrared brightness temperatures
18 over an adjacent cloud-free desert-mountainous region. This area does not have an established river system flowing through it like the Nile in Egypt which could have underground water seepage and possibly change the surface micro wave emissivity patterns of the desert.
Figure 46 (a) shows an excellent U.S. Air Force Defense Meteorological
Satellite Program DMSP visible picture of the region (Dickinson et al., 1974) on 14 Feb. 1975 while (b) indicates the main geological features as described by Powers et al., 1966.
The Arabian Shield consists mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks which have been tectonically stable since the Precambrian period and locally overlain by Cenozoic volcanics, and Quaternary alluvial and Eolian sediments (dark and light-tones) (Blodget, 1971).
The Interior Homoclme falls away from the shield (Fig. 47) and consists of eroded limestone, dolomite, shale and sandstone which appear in a stripe pattern in the central Arabian arch area. Extensive low lying wind-blown
Eolian sand occur in the An Nafud and Rub Al Khali Deserts, to the north and south respectively. The Hadramawt Plateau along the south coast is a high, dissected plateau with a dominant east-west drainage system make up of limestone, shale and marl strata. Fig. 48 shows all areas containing large units of limestone obtained from the U. S. Geological Survey-Arabian
19 American Oil Co., 1963, Geologic map of the Arabian Peninsula; U.S.
Geological Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-270A. Note the similarity in the light grey areas in the Interior Homocline (central portion) and south coast of Saudi Arabia in the Nimbus 5 ESMR image (Fig. 49) and the limestone deposits in Mg. 48.
Cool microwave brightness temperatures at night, (2400 to 2600 K) on 18
Sept. 1973 clearly outline these areas (Fig. 50). The Arabian Shield (granitic rock) is progressively warmer (>2600 to 2700 K) and the Rub Al Khali Desert is the warmest (>270'K). However in a day analysis over the same area on 24 Sept. 1973 (Fig. 51) a 2 to 40 of longitude-wide strip of hills in the
Arabian Shield from 40 0 E to 450 E indicate warmer TB values (2800 to > 290'K) than the sands of the Rub Al Khali Desert. A similar pattern showing this temperature reversal is found on 16 July 1974, day (Fig. 53). A distinctively warm T. pattern (>270K) night, > 2800K, day) was found over the Kuwait oilfields (MeCaslin, 1975) in all Nimbus 5 ESMR analyses. This was an area mixed with chalk, limestone and quartz gravel, marly sandstone, sandy marl, sandy limestone and calcareous silty sandstone (Fig. 48) (Powers et al., 1966.)
Fig. 52 which shows another view of the region at night on 8 March 1975 indicates a pattern similar to Fig. 50 but overall ESMI brightness values are lower by 10Q to 20 0 K due to seasonal temperature changes. Analyses of Nimbus 5 ESMR and THIR (Fig. 53, 54) for 16 July 1974, day were made,
20 on which a half degree latitude crossection through the Arabian Shield, the
Interior Homocline and Platform was performed (Fig. 55). Large differences
(520 to 610K) were found between the 11 gm and ESMR TB values over lime stone and dolomite hills while smaller differences (380 to 430K) were found over igneous-metamorphic rocks and sandstone. The limestone-ddlomite structures in the Interior Homocline are generally 200 to 300K cooler than the granitic rocks in the Arabian Shield and 100 to 20 0 K cooler than the eolian sand in the
Rub Al Khali and An Nafud Desert at 19.35 GHz.
Nimbus 6 ESMR (37 GHz) vertical and horizontal polarization data for 16
August 1975 (Fig. 56, 57) showed a similar mght temperature pattern as did the Nimbus 5 analyses (Fig. 50, 52) i.e., the eolian sand appeared warmest in both polarizations. When horizontal was subtracted from vertical polarization
0 data, large 400 to 60 K T B values were noted to be located over the sands of the Empty Quarter (Fig. 58, 59). This may be caused by a surface scattering effect of the sand dunes at 37 GHz (Peake, 1975).
CONCLUSION
The microwave brightness temperatures from Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR and
THIER have been used to identify large units of limestone-dolomite against a background of igneous-metamorphic rocks, sandstone and eolian sand in the Middle Eastern deserts. Nimbus G, Seasat and Shuttle to be launched
21 in the 1978-81 time period will carry multi-frequency passive and infrared radiometers which hold great promise for further geological exploration from space.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Robert Fraser and
Dr. 0. Bahethi in processing the Landsat data and to Dr. Joseph Otterman for initiating this study over the deserts of the Middle East.
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32 YAW NOZZLE
SOLAR TRACKING & DATA RELAY €0 SUU EXPERIMENT (T & DRE) SU ANTENNA DUMMY SENSORPITCH NOZZLE PNEUMATICS ASSEMBLY
DIRECTION IN ORBIT
HORIZON " CASCANNER
AUXILIARY LOAD0RIGHTPANELSOLA R PADDLE/
INTERCONNECTING TRUSS E E T IA L THERMAL SCANNING MICRO- CONTROL SHUTTERS iWAVE RADIOMETER VERSATILE INFORMATION (ESMR) tANTENNA PROCESSOR (VIP) BEACON DEPLOYED POSITION) ANTENNA NEMSSPACE RADIATORS LEFTSOLAR PADDLE SELECTIVE CHOPPER NIMBUS-E MICROWAVE RADIOMETER (SCR) SPECTROMETER (NEMS) S-BAND "SURFACE COMPOSITION ANTENNAS MAPPING RADIOMETER TEMPERATURE HUMIDITY (SCMR) INFRARED RADIOMETER INFRARED TEMPERATURE (THIR) PROFILE RADIOMETER (ITPR)
Figure la. Nimbus 5 spacecraft with associated experiments
ORI GZ Z
33 SOLAR ARRAY SUN SENSOR TRACKING a DATA RELAY /- EXPERIMENT (T&DRE) YAW NOZZLE SPITCH N0ZZLE
PNEUMATICS ASSEMBLY LEFT SOLAR PADDLE
DIRECTION IN ORBIT HORIZON "SCANNER AUXILIARY LOAD PANEL ELECTRICALLY SCANNING MICROWAVE RADIOMETER JESNRI
RIGHT SOLAR PADDLE DIGITAL SOLAR I ASPECT SENSOR (DSAS)
INFRARED RADIOMETER (THIRI THERMAL CONTROL SHUTTERS
VERSATILE INFORMATION ANTENNAS PROCESSOR (VIP; BEACON ANTENNA HIGH RESOLUTION INFRARED SCANNING MICROWAVE RADIATION SOUNDER (HIRS SPECTROMETER (SCAMS) TROPICAL WIND EARTH RADIATIOM COMMAND ANTENNA BUDGET (ERB) ENERGY REFERENCE PRESSURE MODULATOR LEVEL EXPERIMENT (PMR) (TWERLE) ANTENNA LIMB RADIANCE INFRARED RADIOMETER RADIOMETER (LRIRI
Figure lb. Nimbus 6 spacecraft with associated experiments
ORIGINAL PAGE IS OF-.POOR QUALUTy
34 I II II I
100 100 90- 90 90 go
80 80 80
- ,0 z 70 - C o. 60 n60 50- - 50 a 40- - 40- LU 30- - 30 o 40 20- - 20 10 10
010 11 12 13 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 725 7,50 7.75 00
WAVELENGTH, MICRONS WAVELENGTH, MICRONS
Figure 2. Relative spectral response of the 11.5 pm and 6.7 pm channel of Nimbus 5, THER PREAMPLIFIER HOUSING
I R DETECTORS THERMISTOR SOLOMETERS
TELESCOPE
SCAN MIRROR
SUN SHIELD
Figure 3. Cut-away of the Nimbus 5 THIR 500 1U0
)o7.7
301.31 08.0
300 .
RESOWTION INKILOTERS
Figure 4. Scanning pattern of the Nimbus 5 THIR, 11 mm (Surface resolution in Ian at varied nadir angles) 0 VOLTS TBB ( K)
S5,PACE EARTH SPACE HOUSING 3250
4 SCAN SCAN SCAN - 306o .3 0"z i _2830 -2 2540 -1 2100
0.1 0.2 03 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 TIME (SECONDS) I I I I I I I I I I I 30 0O No 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 330o. SCAN ANGLE (DEGREES) ft t t ft f f f t f AB C DEFO H J K L M
L MAB
C K
E S F 1 * 61 EARTH SCAN ANGLE 1170
LEGEND
REFERENCE ANGLE TIME LETTER (DEGREES) IMSEC) EVENT
At 00 0 SPACECRAFT ZENITH B: so 17.4 RADIOMETER IFOV JUST STARTING TO LEAVE HOUSING. ° C: 48 166.7 SCAN MIRROR POSITION PIP NO. 1 OCCURS AND RADIOMETER SYNC WORD AND CALIBRATION SIGNAL SEQUENCE IS STARTED. 6.7 MICRON CHANNEL GAIN RETURNED TO NORMAL. ° D: 100 347. RADIOMETER IFOV JUST STARTING TO SEE ALL OF SPACE. E: 103.50 359.4 CALIBRATE SIGNAL SEQUENCE ENDS AND RESTORE PERIOD STARTS. F: 110-70 384.4 RESTORE PERIOD ENDS G: 121.S0 422.2 EARTH SCAN PERIOD BEGINS (600NM ORI8T) H: IWO 626.0 SPACECRAFT NADIR I 238.50 828.8 EARTH SCAN PERIOD ENDS IDO0-NMI ORBIT) J: 21o5 868.9 RADIOMETER IFOV JUST STARTING TO SEE HOUSING K: 3020 1048,5 SCAN MIRROR POSITION PIP NO. 2 OCCURS AND 6.7 MICRON CHANNEL GAIN ISATTENUATED BY A FACTOR OF 3. L: 345 1197.9 RADIOMETER IFOV COMPLETELY FILLED BY HOUSING Mt 3550 1232.6 RADIOMETER Z-AXIS
Figure 5. Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm scan sequence
OitG1NVAL
POOR Qu"38 COOL STRUCTURE
(a) (h) (c (d)
Figure 6. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 618 (day), 28 July 1975, facsimile picture. a) Difference of c) and d); b) Average of c) and d); c) Vertical polarization; d) Horizontal polarization
-YTGfqIAL PAGE M3 te POOR QUALIT= 39 20E251 0 ______S 35. F.,--.
(142-70-156-K)
30Ni . 30-M
'iiiiii~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ...... iiiii
1~ ~ ~ ~ "==i!!!!!!}! ......
(424-T 1655K TO 240' TO265%
Figure 7. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 3813 (day), 21 Sept. 1973, horizontal polarization, analysis of computer - produced grid print maps, 1:2 million, Mercator
40 NIL(ALLWIW MEDITERRANEAN SEA fEClaMOA IS1E OCEnt
ISRAEL MDJOLICOUNE
I I ~I LfACn'~~l 6. .. IMtNLYCRETACEOUS)
-FU-AUEAFF ......
--- FAULTS(iNFERREI
Figure 8. Geological map of Egypt (Said, 1966) (Dotted area indicates large units of Eocene limestone)
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUJAILTYf 4]. 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 35° 360 370 320 MEDITERRANEAN SEA A* JORDAN
310 WESTERNI DESERT 290 ufo-
HAHARIA EASTERN DESERT SAUDI ARABIA 28,0 OASIS jJ
27* _
2 60 AKOHLAOAS IS -- ARE E SCAL ESA 250 Y////KHARGA OASIS CAIRO000
2342
220' ,. - -- j . ~o.. oAN
0 50 100 15D 20D Km DISTfRIBUTION OF NUBIA SANDSI0HE SCALE 15,000,000
Rgu.e 9. lvf:p showing di-strzibuton of Nubi.a sazndstLone (di.agonal lines) in E;yPf,(Issawi., 1973)
42 SEA lo II
RED '~ ASWAN HIGH A DAM> ----- ASWAN W
NIMBUS III DAY (HRIR) ., NIMBUS III DAY (HRIR) 26 MAY 1969 9 1, 11 SEPT 1969 (PRE-FLOOD STAGE) (FLOOD STAGE) FLOODING OF THE LAKE NASSER RESERVOIR AT THE ASWAN HIGH DAM, UAR
Figure 10. a. Nimbus 3 HRIR (day), 26 May 1969, pre-flood stage of Lake Nasser; b. Map of flood area of Lake Nasser; c. Nimbus 3 HRIR (day), 11 Sept. 1966, flood stage 24U73 C IN MG-attna. I-r EIOS FZ3OSS-GIPdi1 NI l L-&2,ve- 61
Figure 10.d. Landsat 1 MSS 7, 24 Feb. 1973 over Lake Nasser, Egypt, (UAR)
44 op
I! VC,
Cn
Figure 11. Truck-mounted passive microwave radiometer equipment used on geologic research (Edgerton and Trexler, 1970) BREWSTER ANGLE
300 20 290,
280 4Z
-270 0,, 'SOS
260 1Ej
Z . S250
0~~~~~ ~ unnms C~nA"OMPUTED VALUES
240 o. o MEASURED DATA AFTER PEAKE 230 1 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (DEGREES)
Figure 12. Computed and measured brightness temperatures of lime stone, asphalt and coal at 10 GHz, vertical polarization (Edgerton and Trexler, 1970)
46 Figure 13. NOAA 2 Visual picture (VHRR), 23 October 1974 (1 km resolution) over Egypt and Red Sea area - r r
M M MEDITERRANEAN SEA
AOEANDRAI
ROSETTA wR u.CMET
EAY ALEXANDRIA CINitNIN. FORT SAI ED--
DAOtANHU t ------
I- Buy CL - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ SN DUNES) OU -SOOAO Fiue10OC115 A,11mlinsal fteNl et
/r 4 O -5 AIEO ioi LEGEND0 0 (ltDs .- MEDITERRANEAN SEA ci
24 > /l
.0. 28 PORT SASA Y i.
...... RO.
400
igure 15. NOAA 4 Ifra-red analysis (10.5 to 12.5MIm), orbit 2816, 28 June 1975 (Day - unreotified). 0 Dotted area indicates TB values from 320 to 36 C IUW?3 CM-uIWNurn-tiOs-eM9 tELMI 10 9-1--40=-7 It
Figure 16. Landsat 2 MSS 7, 10 May 1973, over Nile Delta (southern end), Egypt (UAR)
50 25 30E 3SE
MEDITERRANfEAN SEA 296. To 300-K
3sow 311.6r~ 30N 30IN - 10 9
K- 54+
25'N N.5°
2531 30°1 331P
IQGEID
S 3231>
Figure 17. Nimbus 5 THtIR 11 pm , orbit 7813 (day), 16 July 1974, analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 miLlion, Mercator
ORIGN4 PAGR I 0 5 OF OR'QUALrIY 5 '4-K
WI. 0SMrd AN SA
S0 00
q 4P
nIIIIIJ
computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator
52 S/C AT 350N.LAT. 0 " .02
60 ., 50 = '(CA.3P =LS/CM THERMAL 2/V INERTIA -aisi 50 .04 04 -- P =..0
~20 10 0 MIDNIGT -10 1, ,. 6 12 18 0 LOCAL SOLAR TIME (HRS)
Figure 19. Diurnal surface temperature variation as a function of thermal inertia (Watson et aL., 1971) ?Em-nI
•k5,
momo
Figure 20. a. Landsat 1 MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972, Lake Nasser and Nile Valley, Egypt (UAtt)
OR IGDAL PAGw E%
54 COLUMN NUMBER o 2 9020 60"920 2242 2S60 2... 300
-9'.
p21
k,(1 41 1'
.0-
06 -
- - ,-. 5 -17~A'- 9
LEEN ='II.AU
Fiue2.b. Spc relctvt derived> frm nsaIMS7,9Nv
192faesow nFgr 2a(atop iedan
ORGNL 60 GI OF06 POO - -9> 6
'-'>155 3 3C(10O 20 f30 31 3n
flgure 21. Geological map '7, 9 Nov. of West 1972 Aswan area, frame shown derived in Figure from 20a Landsat (El Shazely 1 MSS et aL, 1974)
56 FORELAND SEDIMENTS Fifth Detrital Calcareous-Evaporite Sediments Cultivaton [till vegetation Surfacial deposits, Alluvium-eluvium Quaternary mainly alluvium SPlaya Conglomerate j Darb El Gallaba gravel Tua FM Calcite Pliocene-Quaternary Fourth Calcareous Sediments = Gebel Serai Formation T Gebel Serai Formation, basal Lower Eocene upper Esna Formation + Gebel Garra Formation -Tarawan Formation Mainly Paleocene turkur Formation Lower Esna Formation s Dakhla Formation Gebel Du4 Phosphate Formation Upper CIetaceous Wadi Abbad Formation Third Detrital Sediments Nubian Sandstone, lineated with wind-blown sand Nubian Sandstone, undifferentiated Cretaceous 5 .Nubian Sandstone, iron-ore member O* Nubian Sandstone, basal
POST OROGENIC PLUTONITES t + Aswan monumental granite and associated rocks. Cambrian
LATE OROGENIC PLUTONITES I Pink granite Precambrian
GEOSYNCLINAL SEDIMENTS M Metasediments
Figure 22. Geological unit classification used in flgure 21 (El Shazely et al., 1974)
57 SI I I I I 90
80
70
60
u 50- H2O z H,0 tLANDSAT 1 Cn 40 - MSS-7 -' I~~g0 - 8 tolltum
30
20
10
0 I I I I I I ,I ' 04 05 06 O7 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 {- VISIBLE 0 NEAR IR
Figure 23. Laboratory spectographic analysis of Sinai desert sand showing totdt diffasive reflectance (%) .o MEDITERRANEAN SEA 1w
0 25E20 E 35.E 40-E
20'o
7813 (0 2-3 1 m o
1974; anayses of brightness temperature difference, computer produced grd print map, 1:2 milion, Mercator 150 MB ISO M
200 MB "200 MB
00M 0 v~~~ 1o %/ 250MB - 250 MB
Il
S DEW POINT TEMPERATURE /, 1%,
40000 MB , 400 MB 300M
50 MB / 50 MB
850MJA 1/1 0, 400 MB 300 MB 0ooo __ MB e 11 700ure . R/ 100MB -/ / 5o1000 MB,MB 0%
600MB0s, s, 0060 0.10 0.09 IL 0.08 0.07
ccLU 0.06 0.05 ALBEDO < 0.04 0.10
w.- 0.03 - I' 0.02 0.70 0.01 0.00 100200300400 500 600700800900 DAY-NIGHT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (oC)
Figure 26. Least squares fit of thermal inertia versus day-night temperature difference for albedos ranging from 0. 10 to 0. 70 (Pon et al., 1974)
61 29.5 too )( A 90l
.... t41 s Y 3 )
too
26°N Box ' 24 N....
30 0 E
Figure 27. Labdsat 1 MSS 7, uncontrolled composite photo-mosaic of all available cloud-free orbits over Egypt (UAR), with 4 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR T B comparison 2WO METRRANEAN0m6) S00A (i390TO 149)40 /
//
' 22
m
270 T 20
200
Figure 28. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 G~ft, orbit 7821 (night), 16 July 1974; horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1.2 million, Mercator, wit 4 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR T4 comparison oRIGxNVA ?AG I8 63 oP QU2j foR (270 TO15-
Figure 29. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 7934 (day), 25 July 1974, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator, with 4 boxes showing region of THER and ESMR Tli comparison
64 311301E 32E 3230'E 33E
256N
24*30'N
24030'N-
240N
24*N i
~23030'N
31*301E 320E 320 301E
Figure 30. Landsatt 1 MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972, Lake Nasser and Nile Valley, Egypt (UAR), with box limits of THER and ESMR T. comparison
65 WE 330301 34DE 340 30,E
25*,N
2430'N
24° 30'N .....
24*N
24 N 77
' .23030,N
330E 33030'E 34E
FIgure 31. Landsat 1 MSS 7, 8 Nov. 1972, Lake Nasser and Nile Valley, Egypt (UAR), with box limits of THIR and ESME T, comparison
66 32 o lljm NIGHT SURFACE TEMPERATURE .. 3000 ORBIT 7821 .. ,."r -""- : (NIGHT) w280".6iIULY 1974 W ESMR 3 - ORBIT 7821 16JULY 1974 .2400 I'- 22(r - A ._ - ,.
SANDSTONE LIMESTONE SuiDSTONE IGNEOUS & RED SEA z 200- AV. T, DIFF. -11~3ESMR)23' 330 A180-T IseP , 7
I W ArII I l
29E 300E 310E 320E 330E 340E 350E 360E LONGITUDE
Figure 32. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pim and ESMR, orbit 7821 16 July 1974 (night) between 240 N and 240 0 N, Egypt (UAR) 0 ORBIT 7313 DAY SURFACE TEMPERATURE (DAY) -16JULY 1974 e S- SMR 34 1 46 5v I1 W 140,
Ir ORBIT 7934 280 - (DAY)
- SANDSTONE LIMESTONE SANDSTONE IGNEOUS & RED SEA METAMORPHIC ROCK _ (11L.m-ESMR)35' 4838 --. z2OO~ AT'1
~16(0
E 300E 310E 320E 330E 34°E 350E 360E LONGITUDE
Figure 33. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day), between 24 0 N and 240 30N. Egypt (UAR) 0 330 E 320E 32 30'E
26*30WN
• 26 ON
262N
~250o30'N
25°N
0 33E 32tE 32 30E
River (Qena) Egypt (UAR) with Figure 34. Landsat I MSS 7, 9 Nov. 1972, Nile comparison box limits of THIR and ESMR T
ORIGINAL PAGE 1S OF POOR QUALITY 69 111m NIGHT SURFACE TEMPERATURE
280 16 JULY 1974
2W - ORBIT 7821
24240 o -, 16 JULY 1974 A,_
2W - AVERG METAMORPHIC ROCKS AVERAUE T3 z DIFFERENCE P.. 2OO - (11IM.ESMR) 42 38O
rx1800 - T._.O 40
140-E9 I I1-- I I I I I I* 030E 310E 32°E 330E 340E 350E 361E LONGITUDE
Figure 35. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESMR, orbit 7821 16 July 1974 (night) between 25' 301N and 26° N, Egypt (UAR) 3200-o 11zm ,DAY SURFACE TEMPERATURE ORBIT 7813 (DAY) 3000 16 JULY 1974
OMBIT 7934 S2600- (DAY)
- UMESTONE IGNEOUS & RED SEA METAMORPHIC ROCKS 2AVERAGE To _l DIFFERENCE z 200 (11Im.ESMR} 52' 47'
0 1806 AT' 50
*160'
rb E 300E 310E 32°E 330E 340E 359E 360E LONGITUDE
Figure 36. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pir, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day) between 250 30'N and 26 0 N, Egypt (UAR) ° 32* N320Ei 340E 360E 370E 380E 400E32 N
3 0 N 30 0 N - 29.50 N- N (BOX 4) 290 N-- 290 N 28,5 ° N i 28.50
(BOX 3) , 280N
260 N 260N
240 N- i T-24°N 320E 340E 360E 370E 380 E 400E
Figure 37. Landsat 1, MSS 5 and 7, composite photo-mosaic of all available cloud-free orbits over Sinai and Red Sea, with 2 boxes showing region of THIR and ESMR TB comparison
>~~AJ.PAGE 1 OFPOOR QUAUgpX
72 320P 320" llL m NIGHT SURFACE TEMPERATURE r 300 ORBIT7821 (NIGHT) W 2800 16 JULY 1974 Zr 49' 3? 26'
2600 ORBITJB21 w (NIGHT) C 240 16JULY1974 LU PLIOCENE LIMESTONE IGNEOUS & GULFOF IGNEOUS &METAMORPHIC MIOCENE (EOCENE) METAMORPHIC SUEZ ROCKS ~2 W20 OLIGOCENE (EGYPT) ROCKS (SAUDI ARABIA) co (OLD NILE DELTA) zIGNEOUS & GULFOF x AVERAGE Ts METAMORPHIC AQABA 1800 DIFFERENCE (SINAI) (11lLm-ESMR) 350 45 40* 35 26' - T 100 50 50 go ~ 1600- AT_10.. . - 19I "0 A TI 1 1 "29DE 300E 310E 32E 330E 340E 350E 360E 370E LONGITUDE
Figure 38. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm and ESMR, orbit 7821, 16 July 1974 (night) between 28 0 N and 280 30'N, Egypt and Saudi Arabia S114 m DAY SURFACE TEMPERATURE 3200 - ORBIT(MY)7813 43r 3O0 16 JULY 1974 52' 47, 45' 38
L" 280 ESMR ORBIT 7934 (DAY) GULF - 25 JULY w"\ 26 1974 OF SUEZ 0 2400 -OLD NILE IUMESTONE IGNEOUS & IGNEUS& GULF OF IGNEOUS &METAMORPHIC ROCKS LTA" (EGYPT) OC METAMORPHIC QABA (SAUDI ARABIA) 2200-t ~220 ROKS (sImROCKS (% (SINAI) Z 200 AVERAGE Ta DIFF. 4 450 (__.M-ESMR)43 521 471 45 380 AT' go 5 70 " 1600 4 ° -AT 140 140o --176 I I 1 1I 1 1I 1 i 290E 300E 310E 320E 330E 340E 350E 360E 370E LONGITUDE
Figure 39. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pm, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESMR, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day), between 280 N and 280 30'N, Egypt and Saudi Arabia 300E 30030'E 31OE
2903 0'N 29030'N
29N
290N
300E 30030'E
Figure 40. Landsat 2 MSS 7, 10 May 1973, El Fayum, Nile River Valley, Egypt (UAR) with box limits of THIR and ESMR TB comparison
75 320D
MMIGHT SURFACE TEMPERATURE l1/Im OMIT Y821 L 2W80 ° 1'4 3V 4r M9 Z2? 16 (MIGHT)JULY 1974
ESUR 2600 ORB.,IT 7321 2W (NIGinT 24 16 JULY 1974 L2400- *,OLD NIL LIMESTONE GULFOF E LUDIELTA" (EGYPT) SUEZ EGMARTTUOCKST, "oGUS
z'2000t S.LE.Or
1280o AV. T8 nIF.
e'290 (11Ftm'ESMR) 42Q 410 29' . 1600 130 10 TT 12
""T1 0 !T 13"' I I I I ;M A II I I I 29E 30°E 310 E 320 E 33E 3E 5E 3E 3UE LONGITUDE
Figure 41. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR tl pin and ESME orbit 7821 16 July 1974 (night) between 290 N and 290 30'N, Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia 11/tm ORBIT o 7813 DAY SURFACE TEMPERATURE 320 16(DAY) JULY ,
e.3000 _94 33' 45* 7 48' ' 23000 1974 391 34 Uj -ESMR 2800 ORBIT 7934 - 260-(DAY) w 2600 25 JULY U.1 1974 2 2400 - "OLD NILE LIMESTONE GULFOF LIMESTONEEGMA IGNEOUS &METAMORPHIC I DELTA" (EGYPT) - SUEZ &TIH PLATEAUS ROCKS - (SI NAI) GULF (JORDAN &SAUDI ARABIA) cn 2200- _ip AQABAOF
Z 2000- DIFFERENCE . - 330 (11 m-ESMR) 490 48' 380 1800 - ATO 16' 10 100
i1600 0- AT° IATO 110 1400 I II I I I I I I I I I I 290E 300E 31°E 320E 330E 340E 350E 360E 370E LONGITUDE flgare 42. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 gim, orbit 7813, 16 July 1974 (day) and ESME, orbit 7934, 25 July 1974 (day), between 29'N and 29' 301N, Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia 25E 30E 35E 40-E 0 35 N 20
SEA MEDITERRANEAN 0 (1200 to 166 K)
2600
2 0 270 ... 2EA
20ON - 7'2O 20 . 20ON
252N 270 24N 200N
0 25F 30°E 35 E 40OE
W7 2000 to 260°K
- 2700 to 290K
280280K
Figure 43. Nimbus 6 ESME 87 GI-z, orbit 618 (day), 28 July 1975, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, M~ercator
78 E 25 302 3509 40E
300. 300. MEDITERRANEAN SEA 1932. o 2160K
50' N w
200-
° 290- 250 to 290
• 300' N do' 220' 0
25E 300.00020EQ~-C CD0 0E 0 3310
29' N 25' N 30W 280 290'K025 't
25- R- 29- 300' 25OON
>3 1 8. P20 3~~00t30K
2907D
'300 25-E 30' E 35E 40oE
7'o 7 MEDITERIRANEAN SEA cZ:: D:: -70O 70 0 70' 70r U ew C70
7070
710'
255
20o. V .1 2°
25oE 3°E 35E340N
LEGEND
" 200 to 40K
- 400 to 504K
Figure 45. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 G~z, orbit 846 (day), 14 August 1975, vertical minus horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator
80 Arobian .AG~ Shietd ts Mts (a) (r
d-Ce
$alli of A40n
Figure 46. a) U.S. Air Force DMSP visual picture, orbit 4752, 14 Feb. 1975, 0837Z, (2 mile resolution) b) Map of Saudi Arabia indicating major geological features (Anon, U.S. Geological Survey, 1966) 'jg^i
31A
tSQ-. - i -
:4,'
Figre 4 Mpo aujAai ndascae ares elvtonln
242
Figure 47. Map of Saudi Arabia and associated areas, elevations, land features, 1:5 million, (FAO-tJNESCO Mlap, P. Laland)
82 . I VIIt
SIPERSIAN L I KUWAI
DESETRUB AL KHA DESET
UU '~SAUDIN ARABIA I, " (Ante ". GULF OFADN , ER
Fiue4.Gooia map ofteAainPnnua : ilin niaiglreuiso
imestone. (A complete description of the abbreviations on this figure may be found on legend of r:eferenced map) Figure 49. Nimbus 5 ESMR 19.35 GHz, orbit 3780 (night) 18 Sept. 1975, facsimile picture
84 M -
o0
C14 tt 154K
~~2
45(E * $055-E I'00ND
Figure 50. Nimbus 5 ES1ME. 1935 0Hz, orbit 3779 (night), 18 Sept. 1973, horizontal polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator
85 272 6 2 2W*2W77 7 ! V.
0
2W2
27( 2W2 270
0 27t7 7 285 2v
27&2 CY 2. - 2W 2W k_/%
200 2 tc 7 0
27Z L
_ r 2 t 2- 29 2 >290 Figre51Nmbu 5 2SVIL.35 G}z ori'83(a) 2 ep.193 horzotalpoariaton anlyi of copue-podue grid6 print~ ~ Mraoma,2bmlin~f
2w C5-86 aw2Z 2W W2 40'E 45E 50'E 55E
4 di 245-2/ ~ 24f , M 25°N25 0 C' 25p N
G30'N o40,~9 ' GUL 25 2451t 245 . 2
25 >)5 2 24ED SE-'C60 204 ' 5'GL o10)2 : (F ) 50 20 245P. 24 4 < o b t 240'i09gt
15 N n, eroato02) 2 0 aZ: , 0 0D 245' 240 20 C;45 C>
2 20'N~~~ 0c sQ-25 d' 250'N
0 .20 , RED SE A 0L24 5 1 -> a 40 1 ,
0 W 0 26-20'
2W' T2 1S1
40'E 50' 55 LEEN
60,__ 200-240.'I
26 26
FigureNimbus 52. 5 ESMR19.35GULF Orbi 107Anih)E8MrhN95
Figre52 Nmp, 5:Emin Mercat~zorbt194(gh)8Mac175
87 4oE 45E W0E
? (1 6' TO 1966)
00
203!
Cr PRSIAN AE UF
LEGEND 25rTO f70OK 26" 2O72905K
Figure 58. Nimbus S ESMR 19.35 GI-z, orbit 7813 (day), 16 July 1974, horizontal polariza tion; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator; dashed box indicates area of crossection shown in Fig. 55.
88 4W'E 45'E 5WE 55E SE 30'N 3r29 \-t 325 30 0 3538 315" 320 3n- 3160 30 N
320 300 AN NAFUD DESERT 320 3100 320 322 317- 325 32' 3 W <
3250 305- PE SIANGULF 310' 30 to 302K)(9 (2(3 t
325'
P= 22, 27
D 1305K
40E 45 'E 50 ( 55 E28 -
LEGEND in >325 K
Figure 54. Nimbus 5 TIR 11. i orbit 7813 (day), 16 July 1974, aLnalysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator; dashed box indicates area of erossection shown in Fig. 55.
89 DAY SURFACE TEMPERATURE 3400
£ 3200 0 < 3O0°
S28O0- ORBIT
S2600260°6 (DAY)JULY 1974 to' 240 ° " C 20 IGNEOUS &METAMORPHIC ROCKS LIMESTONE SANDSTONE LIMESTONE SANDSTONE z .-Z O 1W. ARABIAN SHIELD) &DOLOMITE &DOLOMITE •220 °
cQ 2000
ia8 o I I I I I I I I I I I I II I 431E 44E 1 451E 461E 47E 1 481E 491E 50°E LONGITUDE
Figure 55. Comparison of Nimbus 5 THIR 11 pin and ESMR, orbit 7813 (day), between 230 N and 230 30'N, Saudi Arabia 45-C WE ~~25S 5245- r45 255'-iLV.'Ehs , 245\ 50--'' o Q
c 2i5 fs 545 30- 0o 0 § 265
a.5 No, 00 %RSIAN GULF 0
255. 2 125 TO 169-IC)
25N C20000
C)23' P, 20
C0, 245- S' & a a0024- ea45 as L45*
0
200' 10 45 6J 200 e255' C0 26
0 (n g t, 1 16BSM 3 G0iz, o b t Figure~ N1Auus 9 6 oiotlplrzto;aayi ofcomputer-poue rdpitmp: milion Mercator (1241 TOISU'j 91 40-E 45rE 501;
alp. D0 REDAS to2 ~30
( T2 TO6 K1)0K
4OE45E S0oE LEGENLD 2W240 to 270K
t30K
Figure 57. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 0Hz, orbit 880 (night), 16 August 1975, vertical polarization; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator
92 40-E 45-E 50-E
3& 2
300 N 30o0 41s c) 30-N
PrERSIANGULF 0*9 0 (55- to 85-1
00*
30.5N 5-N
- * 0 adrarc~~t t 25
SE ;DD W 40- AP
M0 RUB AL.KHALI
REDSEA 0 (56 . iE88-K)5 40°40 OB d5b 0
GULOADEN
40E 45E - - LEGEND
6 rn (54- 1:286-K),Mecao 40- to501( SO' .60-K
Figure 58. Nimbus 6 ESME 37 0Hz, orbit 880 (night), 16 August 1975, vertical minus horizontal pciLari zation; analysis of computer-produced grid print map, 1:2 million, Mercator
93 0 45 E 50OE 550 E 60-E
i I 300.
300400o 0 30-N 3O - t - 30 N
6r = i 0-. NA _6 _40
300 s0"
250 N 4wSOaUF FOA 250 N 4 .n0 50 0
"20- 30.
520 0
20ON CD 40 40-.- 0 20-,N RUB AL KHALI4 -O40
4030°- 020" ARABIAN SEA (51 to 760K)
30' ^ ]SON 20 15'N - 30L--- 15-'N
45'E 50°E 55°E 60°E
LEGEND [< 30-K
i400 to 50'K
S0 to 600 K
Figure 59. Nimbus 6 ESMR 37 GHz, orbit 738 (day), 6 August 1975, vertical minus horizontal polarization; analysis of computer produced grid pnnt map, 1:2 million, Mercator
94