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Young, Wild and Free? Young, wild and free? The social and cultural context of adolescent risk behavior Margaretha de Looze Cover design and photography Bamshad Houshyani Layout Renate Siebes, Proefschrift.nu Printed by Ridderprint, Ridderkerk ISBN 978-90-393-5992-1 © 2013 Margaretha de Looze All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author. The copyright of the articles that have been accepted for publication or that have already been published, has been transferred to the respective journals. Photography disclaimer: The photo on the cover is taken with coordination and permission of the youth’s parents. The poses and acts in the photo are directed and have illustrative purposes only. Young, wild and free? The social and cultural context of adolescent risk behavior ‘Young, wild and free?’ De sociale en culturele context van risicogedrag bij adolescenten (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. G.J. van der Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 25 oktober 2013 des middags te 4.15 uur door Margaretha Elizabeth de Looze geboren op 2 juni 1984 te Vlaardingen Promotoren: Prof. dr. W.A.M. Vollebergh Prof. dr. T.F.M. ter Bogt This study was funded by a grant from Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) (grant number 481-08-002). For my mother CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction 9 Part I: The role of educational track in adolescent substance use and sexual activity 23 Chapter 2 Explaining educational differences in adolescent substance use and early 25 sexual debut: The role of parents and peers Journal of Adolescence (2012) Chapter 3 Explaining educational differences in adolescent substance use and early 43 sexual debut: The role of conceptions and expectations of adulthood Emerging Adulthood, in press Part II: The role of parents in adolescent substance use and sexual activity 63 Chapter 4 Trends in alcohol-specific parenting practices and adolescent alcohol use 65 between 2007 and 2011 in the Netherlands Re-submitted for publication Chapter 5 Parenting practices and adolescent risk behavior: Rules on smoking and 87 drinking also predict cannabis use and early sexual debut Prevention Science (2012) Chapter 6 Parent–adolescent sexual communication and its association with 105 adolescent sexual behaviors: A nationally representative analysis in the Netherlands Re-submitted for publication Part III: The role of national context in adolescent substance use and sexual activity 127 Chapter 7 Trends in educational differences in adolescent daily smoking across 129 Europe, 2002–2010 European Journal of Public Health, in press Chapter 8 Decreases in adolescent weekly alcohol use in Europe and North America: 145 Evidence from 28 countries, 2002–2010 Submitted for publication Chapter 9 Do societal wealth, family affluence, and gender account for trends in 157 adolescent cannabis use? A cross-national study of 30 countries Re-submitted for publication Chapter 10 Macro-level age norms for the timing of sexual initiation and adolescents’ 177 early sexual initiation in 18 European countries Re-submitted for publication Part IV: Cross-national consistencies in the co-occurrence and correlates of adolescent 197 substance use and sexual behavior Chapter 11 Cross-national evidence for the clustering and psychosocial correlates of 199 adolescent risk behaviors in 27 countries Submitted for publication Chapter 12 Early risk behaviors and adolescent injury in 25 European and North 219 American countries: A cross-national consistent relationship The Journal of Early Adolescence (2012) Chapter 13 Discussion 235 Summary 251 Samenvatting (Summary in Dutch) 257 References 263 Acknowledgements 303 About the author 307 Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction Adolescence, the transitional phase between childhood and adulthood, is a unique period of discovery and experimentation. It is a complex but exciting phase of life during which young people gradually develop into adults. Physically, adolescents experience many changes, including changes in sexual characteristics. In terms of social relationships, their focus shifts from their family to their peers. While desiring more autonomy and freedom to make their own choices and decisions, adolescents typically distance themselves from their parents and start spending more time with peers (Meeus, Iedema, Maassen, & Engels, 2005), for example at school, while playing sports, or during leisure activities at night in bars and pubs. In the course of this process, many adolescents start experimenting with tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis use as well as sexual activities. The present thesis aimed to investigate socio-cultural factors that may influence substance use and sexual behaviors among adolescents in Europe and North America. Adolescent substance use and sexual activity: Problematic or normative? Substance use and sexual activity often co-occur during adolescence. Adolescents who engage in any form of substance use are more likely to engage in other forms of substance use and to be sexually active, and vice versa (Jessor, in press; Willoughby, Chalmers, & Busseri, 2004; Zweig, Duberstein Lindberg, & McGinley, 2001). These clustered behaviors are generally perceived as norm-breaking behaviors (Arnett, 1992; Jessor & Jessor, 1977; Moffitt, 1993; 2006). Two different perspectives exist in research on these behaviors. While the first stresses the problematic nature of these behaviors, the second focuses more on their developmental and normative character. Jessor and Jessor’s problem behavior theory (PBT, 1977) is an influential theory that is based on the first perspective, underlining the problematic nature of adolescent substance use and sexual activity. According to PBT, substance use and sexual activity during adolescence are part of a larger cluster of problem behaviors, including also aggressive, antisocial, and delinquent behaviors. All these behaviors are seen as expressions of an underlying syndrome of problem behavior, the Problem Behavior Syndrome (PBS). PBS has a number of negative social correlates, such as detachment from parents and school (Petraitis, Flay & Miller, 1995; Ream, 2006; Rostosky, Wilcox, Wright, & Randall, 2004; Schvaneveldt, Miller, Lee, & Berry, 2001), the potential development of deviant friendships, and an increased likelihood to engage in delinquent and other deviant behaviors (Jessor & Jessor, 1977; Jessor, 1991; 1998; in press). Furthermore, the fact that these behaviors can have negative health outcomes, such as sensitization for addiction and mental health problems, 10 Introduction Chapter 1 brain damage, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and teen pregnancy (Blum, Solberg, & Wolinsky, 2004; Kaestle, Halpern, Miller, & Ford, 2005; MacLeod et al., 2004; McLaren, 1 Silins, Hutchinson, Mattick, & Hall, 2010; Minozzi et al., 2010; Moore et al., 2007; Spriggs & Halpern, 2008a), strengthens the problematic nature of adolescent substance use and sexual activity. On the other hand, Moffitt’s theory of adolescence-limited antisocial behavior (1993; 2006) supports the second perspective, stating that adolescent substance use and sexual activity are expressions of an underlying set of normative, developmental processes. According to this theory, norm-breaking behaviors, including substance use and sexual activity, are normative and adjustive for the majority of adolescents; thus, they should be understood in the context of adolescents’ transition to adulthood. More specifically, adolescent substance use and sexual activity are seen as expressions of adolescents’ strive for autonomy, desire to explore different (adult-like) behaviors, and the need to develop an identity. According to Moffitt’s theory, most adolescents starts engaging in norm-breaking behaviors because they are trapped in a so-called maturity gap, i.e., ‘a time warp between biological and social age’ (Moffitt, 1993; p. 687). As they are biologically mature but not yet accepted as fully mature individuals by society, they become frustrated and feel the need to demonstrate their maturity to the outside world. This motivates them to engage in norm-breaking behaviors that can convey the symbolic message that they are mature enough to make their own decisions. As peers may regard engagement in norm-breaking behaviors as an ultimate sign of autonomy and maturity (Moffitt, 1993), these behaviors can increase adolescent peer status and facilitate peer group integration. Without trivializing the negative correlates and potential harmful outcomes of adolescent substance use and sexual activity (Odgers et al., 2008), Moffitt’s theory places norm-breaking behaviors during adolescence in a developmental context and thereby provides an explanation for why these behaviors peak and co-occur specifically among adolescents. Empirical research has provided supportive evidence for both the problematic and normative perspective. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal investigations (e.g., Costa, Jessor, Donovan, & Fortenberry, 1995; Jessor et al., 2003; Madkour et al., 2010b; Vazsonyi et al., 2008; 2010) have provided extensive empirical support for PBT by identifying associations among the clustered ‘problem behaviors’ and by demonstrating associations
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