A History of Malaysia Macmillan International College Editions will bring to university, college, school and professional students, authoritative paperback books covering the history and cultures of the developing world, and the special aspects of its scientific, medical, technical, social and economic development. The International College programme contains many distinguished series in a wide range of disciplines, some titles being regionally biassed, others being more international. Library editions will usually be published simultaneously with the paperback editions. For full details of this list, please contact the publishers. Macmillan Asian Histories Series: D. G. E. Hall: A History of South-East Asia - 4th Edition M. Ricklefs: A History of Modern Indonesia R. Jeffrey (Ed.): Asia - The Winning of Independence J-P. Lehmann: The Roots of Modern Japan A History of Malaysia Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya M MACMILLAN © Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya 1982 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place, London WC1E 7DP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 1982 Reprinted 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1991 Published by MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire R021 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-27673-0 ISBN 978-1-349-16927-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-16927-6 F or Elise and Alexis Contents Foreword Xl Acknowledgements XIV Preliminary Note xv Abbreviations XVI Maps XVIll Introductioll: The Environment and Peoples of Malaysia 1 1. The Heritage of the Past 7 The Reconstruction of Early Malaysian History: Historio- graphical Considerations 7 Early Trade and the Products of the Malay Archipelago 10 Indian Influence in 'The Land of Gold' 14 Chinese Trade and the Rise of Early Malay -Indonesian Entrepots 17 Srivijaya and Its Rivals 20 The Bases of Srivijaya's Power 23 The Weakening of Srivijaya's Authority 26 From Srivijaya to Me1aka: Two Differing Accounts 31 Melaka's Heritage 34 2. Melaka and Its Heirs 37 The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: Historiographical Considerations 37 In the Tradition of Srivijaya 39 Reasons for Melaka's Success 42 Nature of the Melaka State 44 Melaka's Territorial Expansion 50 Islam and the Spread of Melaka Culture 51 The Portuguese Conquest of Melaka 55 Brunei and Perak: Two Typical Responses to the Fall of 'Melayu'Melaka 57 Thai Influence in the Malay States 62 The Dutch and J ohar's Ascendancy 68 Vlll CONTENTS 3. The Demise of the Malay Entrepot State, 1699-1819 76 The Eighteenth Century: Historiographical Considerations 76 The Consequences of Regicide in J ohor 77 Bugis Influence in the Malay States 80 Developments in the Peninsula outside Riau-J ohor 84 Economic and Political Challenges in the Eighteenth Century 89 The Growing Influence of Non-Malay Groups in the Peninsula 93 Expansion of Bugis Influence 97 English-Dutch Rivalry and the Impact on Malay Trade 99 The Curtailment of Bugis PoWer and the Decline of Riau 102 The Resurgence of the Thais and the Establishment of Penang 106 The Demise of the Malay Entrepot State 108 4. 'A New World Is Created', 1819-74 114 The Nineteenth Century: Historiographical Considerations 115 Relations between Siam and the Northern Malay States 116 The Creation of New Political Units in the Peninsula 122 The Creation of New Political Units in Borneo 124 The Campaign against Piracy 130 Changing Patterns of Trade in the Malay States 133 Chinese Domination of Commercial Agriculture and Mining 135 Chinese-Malay Relations 139 Malay Conflicts and Straits Settlements Involvement 143 The Debate on 'Civilization' 150 The Pangkor Treaty 154 5. The Making of 'British' Malaya, 1874-1919 157 The Extension of British Control 157 The Residential System 172 The 'Plural Society' 1 75 Differing Rates of Development in the Protected States 181 The Federated Malay States 182 The Expansion of British Interests in Borneo 184 The Incorporation of the Northern Malay States into British Malaya 191 The Inclusion of J ohor under British Rule 198 Hardening of Ethnic Divisions in the New 'British Malaya' 200 6. The Functioning of a Colonial Society, 1919-57 205 Sources for the Colonial Period 206 Establishing the Framework for an Export Economy 207 The Tin Industry 210 Early Plantation Crops 211 CONTENTS m The Rubber Industry 213 The Palm Oil Industry 216 Padi (Wet-rice) Farming 217 Economic Development in North Borneo and Sarawak 219 Education under Colonial Government 222 Education in Sarawak and Borneo 235 Colonial Government and the Decentralization Debate 240 Final Years of Company and White Raja Rule in Borneo 245 Japanese Occupation and the Immediate Post-War Years 247 Malayan Union and the Federation of Malaya 254 The MCP and the Emergency 257 Independence 261 7. The Forging of a Nation, 1957-80 265 Independent Malaya/Malaysia: Sources and Historiographical Problems 265 The Alliance 266 The Formation of Malaysia 270 Maintaining the Unity of the Federation 275 Ethnic Disturbances of May 1969 and Emergency Government 280 Economic and Social Restructuring: The New Economic Policy 282 A Diversified Export Economy 289 Political Restructuring: The National Front (Barisan Nasional) 291 The New Malaysian 295 Conclusion: Some Themes in Malaysian History 299 Notes and Further Reading 305 Glossary 330 Index 337 Foreword Although a small country, Malaysia has been given more than its share of attention by foreign scholars especially those from the English­ speaking world. Two reasons perhaps account for this. Malaysia, since the mid-nineteenth century, has had a flourishing economy; its society is unique - it is, one might say 'Asia in miniature'. Writings on the Malay Peninsula, in English, paralleled the growth of British economic interests in the region in the first half of the nine­ teenth century as it became necessary to introduce the area to the British public. It was at this juncture that what might be considered the first history of the Malay Peninsula, in English, was published - The Malayan Peninsula Embracing Its History, Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants, Politics, Natural History &c. from its earliest Records - in 1834. The author (P. J. Begbie), a military officer, devoted much space to a discussion of the Naning War (1831-2) in which he had participated; the book nonetheless dealt rather elaborately with the history as well as various other aspects (including botany) of the Malay States. T. J. Newbold, another professional soldier, published his Political and Statistical Accounts of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca in two volumes in 1839. Quite apart from providing a useful political and social history of the Malay states, this work is still con­ sidered a mine of information on the contemporary economy of the Straits Settlements and the Peninsula. The next attempt to write a history of the Malay Peninsula, however, occurred more than fifty years later. ~ublished in 1906, Frank Swet­ tenham's British Malaya: An Account of the Origin and Progress of Br':tish Influence z"n Malaya was more an apologia for British colonialism than an exposition of Malay history and society as Begbie's and Newbold's books had been. Indeed Swettenham practically established the framework for Malayan history which remained unquestioned for the next fifty years. It is his view of Malayan history which the modem generation of scholars describe as Euro-centric. Following upon Swettenham's footsteps came R. J. Wilkinson and R. O. Winstedt, two officials considered authorities on Malay culture, literature and history much as Swettenham himself was then revered as an expert on things Malay. Originally interested in the Malays, Wilkinson first wrote his 'History of the Peninsular Malays' as part of a larger project entitled Papers on Malay Subjects; it was published in xu FORWORD 1908. Subsequently, it was revised and expanded to include the estab­ lishment of British political control and was published in 1923 as A History of the Peninsular Malays with Chapters on Perak and Selangor. Winstedt was the more prolific of the two. He edited Malaya: The Straits Settlements and the Federated and Unfederated Malay States (1923), wrote 'A History of Malaya' (1935) as well as 'A History of Malay Literature' (1939) both in the Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society; Britain and Malaya 1786-1941 (1944); The Malays: A Cultural History (1947) and Malaya and Its History (1948). Although both Wilkinson and Winstedt were avid students of Malay literature and culture, they, like Swettenham, saw Malayan history largely in political terms and, more specifically, as the story of the conquerors rather than the conquered, the rulers rather than the ruled. The 1930s, however, saw the appearance of the American, Rupert Emerson, whose valuable work - Malaysia: A Study in Direct and Indirect Rule (1937) - elicited from Frank Swettenham the comment that it was 'full of highly contentious writing'. Emerson was less con­ cerned with writing Malaysian history than a critique of Imperialism. Still his book provided a refreshing contrast to those of Winstedt (on Malayan history) if only because he was under no constraint to reveal frankly the motives behind the formulation of colonial policies. For a period of more than fifty years since the publication of Swet­ tenham's British Malaya, Malayan history had been cast in a particular mould, Emerson's Malaysia notwithstanding. In making the first attempt to reshape it, K.