Title: Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

Author(s): Carolyn Livingston

Source: Livingston, C. (1992, Fall). Theme and variations: European imports to American music education in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The Quarterly, 3(3), pp. 31-40. (Reprinted with permission in Visions of Research in Music Education, 16(3), Autumn, 2010). Retrieved from http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/

It is with pleasure that we inaugurate the reprint of the entire seven volumes of The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning. The journal began in 1990 as The Quarterly. In 1992, with volume 3, the name changed to The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning and continued until 1997. The journal contained articles on issues that were timely when they appeared and are now important for their historical relevance. For many authors, it was their first major publication. Visions of Research in Music Education will publish facsimiles of each issue as it originally appeared. Each article will be a separate pdf file. Jason D. Vodicka has accepted my invitation to serve as guest editor for the reprint project and will compose a new editorial to introduce each volume. Chad Keilman is the production manager. I express deepest thanks to Richard Colwell for granting VRME permission to re-publish The Quarterly in online format. He has graciously prepared an introduction to the reprint series. Thetlle And Variations: European Jrrrp-or-ts To Atnerican Music Education In The Nineteenth And T-w-entieth Centuries By Carolyn Livingston University of Rhode Island

lthough history does repeat it- new practices at times when pressures from A. self, it is not strophic in form, society indicated that innovation was needed. but can be compared to a The "variations" refer to the different prac- theme with variations. The variations are tices and the ways in which they were car- likely to be diverse from one another and ried out in the United States. may vary widely from the original subject. Societal Pressures on American The theme can always be found, however, by the observer who attends closely. Music Education There is a striking similarity between Seeking a way to have music accepted as a Lowell Mason 0817-1892) sailing to Europe valid pzrt of the public school curriculum, and for Pestalozzian enlightenment as the nine- being well aware of the European influence teenth century neared its mid-point, and the on American culture and thought, it was logi- American music educators who traveled to cal that Lowell Mason might seize upon meth- Europe to study and import the instructional ods that were then being promoted by the Eu- approaches of such European music educa- ropean pedagogical community. Much the tors as Dalcroze, Kodaly, and Orff, beginning same salt of pressures existed for Mason as for near the middle of the twentieth century. American music educators in the late 1950s Americans through the years have been mes- and early 1960s after Sputnik I, the Soviet merized by Europe and the air of culture it Union's early triumph in technology, created a invokes. Music of the United States has a need for educated workers in the space indus- long tradition of being affected by European try. Advances in technology had begun earlier practices and innovations. A number of writ- in the twentieth century but were brought to ers have pointed out the strength of this in- the attention of the public with new intensity fluence on American composers.' Birge, as when the Russian space satellite was launched early as 1928, mentioned the influence of and began orbiting the earth in 1957. A wide- Pestalozzi on American music education as spread demand for accelerated concentration well as that of the tonic sol-fa method begun on mathematics and science in the school cur- in England in 1840 by Elizabeth Glover and riculum quickly followed. Because of the con- adapted by John Curwen.s The "theme" of straints of time and funding involved, music's this article, therefore, is the fact that Ameri- position in the curriculum was threatened. can music educators have gone to Europe for Many reasoned that if the study of math and science were to be increased, something Carol Livingston is Assistant Professor and would have to decrease, and subsequently the Coordinator of Music Education at the Uni- arts were looked upon as "frills" which were versity of Rhode Island. expendable.

Volume III, Number 3, 1992 31 This portrait engraving of Lowell Mason was clipped from an unknown publication in about 1865. Although the artist is unknown, "Kilburn Del." and "Brightly SC" appear at the bottom of the engraving. The portrait accompanies a biographical article. Credit: Music Library, University of Maryland at College Park (Lowell Mason Collection).

The curricular tensions which Lowell Mason for grades one through eight had already been faced in the nineteenth century were established in Boston in the early nineteenth prompted by America's earliest efforts at in- century, in part to prepare an increasing im- dustrialization, pan of what Toffler refers to as migrant population to enter the industrialized the Second Wave.3 Workers were needed to work force. The school attendance law made meet the demands of an expanding nation. In it possible to control large groups of people . ew England and the 1 ortheast, rapidly grow- whose values and social mores were sometimes ing industries were producing firearms, tex- embarrassingly different from those of native tiles, machinery, and numerous other goods in Bostonians. The bureaucratic industrial man- mass quantities. Compulsory public education agement model was thought to be the answer

32 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning to the problems of a city school system growing it demanded men and women prepared to more crowded with new residents from foreign slave away at machines or in offices,perform- shores. Toffler describes the way in which this ing brutally repetitious operations." led to the "overt" and the "covert" curricula: As Lowell Mason's grandson and biogra- Builton the factorymodel. mass education pher, Henry Lowell Mason (1864-1957), taught basic reading, writing,and arithmetic,a stated of this period, "Music... was neither bit of history and other subjects. This was the well understood, nor, generally speaking, "overtcurriculum." But beneath it lay an in- held in high esteem." As the Second Wave visible or "covertcurriculum"that was far demanded well-trained workers, so did the more basic. It consisted...of three courses: Third Wave, which depicts the present tech- one in punctuality,one in obedience, and one nological society. The desired worker char- in rote, repetitivework. Factorylabor de- acteristics for the Third Wave were some- manded workers who showed up on time, what more sophisticated, but the emphasis especiallyassembly-linehands. It demanded placed on the required attributes was still so workers who would take orders from a man- strong that it left little room in the school agement hierarchywithout questioning. And curriculum for music and the other arts.

rI

This portrait engraving appears to be a variant of the engraving shown on the opposite page. Is it, perhaps, another artist's version of the same photographic original? This engraving has no signature. It accompanies an obituary article published in The Phrenological Journal and Life Illustrated 55 (October 1872): 215-19. Credit: Music Library, UniversityofNlaJylandatCollegePark (Lowell Mason Collection).

Volume III, Number 3, 1992 33 Lowell Mason's Work in the around 1793 as a reaction against the primi- Nineteenth Century tive, indigenous American music of William Mason was born in Medfield, Massachu- Billings, Timothy Swan, and other Yankee setts, where his musical talents, under the tunesmiths. Not only was their untrained instruction of several local teachers, found style of composition under attack, but the early expression in singing and playing in- harsh vocal techniques and out-of-tune sing- struments. In 1812 he traveled to Savannah, ing employed were criticized by such musi- Georgia, where he made his home. At that cians as Andrew Law, William Cooper, Tho- time Savannah had the distinction of being mas Hastings, and later by Mason himself.7 the southernmost city in the United States. Of the proponents of the "scientific" method, An international seaport and thriving com- Hamm wrote, "Their teaching methods, pub- mercial center, it offered rich cultural oppor- lications, and public pronouncements were tunities, similar to those Mason had left in based wholly on the premise that music New England, with its musical societies and should be a literate art, that nonliterate music regular performances. was inferior to literate music, that universal The city's religious heritage also played a musical literacy was the only way to improve significant role in Mason's life. It was in Sa- the art in America.t" vannah that John Wesley (1703-1791), the Even the title of Mason's first published founder of Methodism, had established the collection of music, The Boston Handel and world's first Protestant Sunday school in 1736. Haydn Society Collection of Church Music Mason was later to write hymn tunes for many (1822), reflects the fact that his own style of of the approximately 6,500 hymns authored by composition was based extensively on that of John Wesley's brother, Charles. Mason had the European masters. During his lifetime, been a member of his family's Congregational Mason adapted almost 500 melodies from church in Medfield and soon became active as these and other composers and wrote some organist and choirmaster at Savannah's Inde- 1,200 original hymn tunes. Most of the latter pendent Presbyterian Church, the same church exemplify Mason's preference for the Ger- where the English evangelist, George manic style. Whitefield (1714-1770) had begun his Ameri- Five years after his first collection ap- can ministry. The work of Whitefield and the peared, Mason moved to Boston. He as- Wesleys contributed greatly to the revival sumed a post as director of music for three movements which had extended southward Boston churches through an agreement with

and westward from l ew England by the time an organization known as the Boston Church Mason arrived in Savannah. Committee. A simultaneous position, that of It was in Savannah that Lowell Mason came president and conductor of the Handel and under the tutelage of Frederick L. Abel 0794- Haydn Society, allowed him to build the cho- 1820), a German musician and nephew of ral group to the level of prestige it enjoys to Carl Frederick Abel 0722-1787), who had this day. Under Mason's dynamic five-year been a prominent composer and viola da leadership, the organization expanded its gamba player as well as a student of Johann repertoire, attracted larger audiences, and Sebastian Bach. Abel "probably contributed attained a reputation for high-quality perfor- to Mason's esteem for 'scientific' music as op- mances of masterworks by Handel, Haydn, posed to the less suave and polished Ameri- Mozart, and other composers. can style."? Since it was during this time that Mason continued to produce music publi- Mason began to compose hymn tunes and cations, reaching a total of approximately 70 arrange hymn settings from the melodies of during the years he spent in Boston. His the German master composers, it may have reputation took on national proportions been Abel who instilled in young Mason his through the outstanding success of The Bos- high regard for Europe as the seat of author- ton Handel and Haydn Society Collection of ity in matters concerning musical quality. Church Music as well as through the publica- Mason's interest in "scientific' music" was re- tions which followed, such as his collabora- lated to the reform movement which began tion with Elam Ives, Jr. (1802-1864), Tbe juue-

34 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning nile Lyre: Hymns and Songs, Religious, Moral sented a lecture, "On Vocal Music as a and Cheerfulfor Useof Primary and Com- Branch of Common Education," to the Ameri- mon Schools (1831), and Manual of Instruc- can Institute of Instruction.t> Mason ad- tion of the Boston Academy of Music, for In- dressed the same organization in 1834, struction in the Elements of Vocal Music on speaking on "Music as a Branch of School the System of Pestalozzi (1834). His compos- Instruction, and the Pestalozzian Method of ing, writing, and editing became financially Teaching It," and used his own children's rewarding as well. Except for an early part- choir to serve as a model of what could be time position as a bookkeeper, Mason sup- accomplished. 14 ported his family solely through his work in In 1836, after three petitions (two by Bos- rnusic.? ton citizens and one by the Boston Academy The Boston Academy of Music opened in of Music) had been submitted to the Boston 1833, organized by a group of businessmen, School Committee requesting that music be civic leaders, clergy, and educators, for the added to the public school curriculum, the purpose of offering musical opportunities to School Committee appointed a special com- both children and adults. Other stated goals mittee on music to study the petitions and of the academy were to sponsor concerts by make recommendations. After careful con- its students, present lectures, publish essays, sideration, the music subcommittee recom- offer classes for music teacher training, and mended that vocal music be introduced in employ teachers who would actually intro- four public schools on an experimental basis duce vocal music into the Boston schools. under the supervision of the Boston Acad- Lowell Mason was engaged as "professor" emy of Music. and George J. Webb (1803-1887) as "associ- The rationale for music's inclusion in the ate professor.t'-" curriculum was based on Mason's preface to Pemberton points out that Mason, whose Tbefuuenile Lyre and recommended the ad- name never appeared as one of the academy dition of music for three reasons, all of which organizers or board members, deliberately were extramusical. Music, the committee stayed in the background in order to better maintained, would further the intellectual, achieve his and the academy's goals.l! Pu- moral, and physical development of the stu- pils flocked to the Boston Academy of Music, dents. The intellectual argument directed and approximately 3,000 were enrolled dur- attention to music's place, along with arith- ing the second year of operation. By this metic, geometry, and astronomy, in the time, the institution sponsored an amateur Greek quadrivium. The moral contention orchestra as well as a 200-member choir. asserted that happiness, contentment, cheer- The academy quickly realized its goal of fulness, and tranquillity were the "natural ef- providing music instruction in the Boston fects of music" and that "the natural scale of schools, both public and private. During the musical sound can only produce good, virtu- 1833-34 school year, Mason and Webb, spon- ous, and kindly feelings.v> These qualities sored by the Boston academy, rotated the would seem to complement those of punctu- teaching of music classes in nine schools on ality, obedience, and the willingness to per- a bi-weekly basis. The academy also devel- form the repetitive tasks needed by an in- oped a "voluminous correspondence with creasingly industrialized society. The physi- educators across the country, becoming, in cal argument referred to a statement by an essence, the national center for the promo- unnamed American physician which recom- tion of music education."12 mended singing as a way of defending the Throughout his tenure at the academy, Ma- "organs of the breast" from "those diseases to son continued his campaign to have music which the climate and other causes expose accepted into the public school curriculum. them."l6 We may wonder if the pollution Even prior to the founding of the academy, encountered in factories of the time fell un- William C. Woodbridge 0794-1845), an influ- der the category of "other causes." ential educator who was to become a mem- The music subcommittee's recommenda- ber of the academy'S governing board, pre- tion was approved by the Boston School

Volume 111,Number 3, 1992 35 Committee on September 19, 1837. When cember 1851. Due to Mason's unexpected funding for the project failed to materialize, opportunities to teach and publish in Lon- Lowell Mason, upon his return from Europe don, they did not return until the spring of in October, 1837, agreed, with the sanction 1853. of the School Committee, to teach at one In the fall of 1853, Mason and former col- school without benefit of salary for the re- leagues, George F. Root (1820-1895) and Wil- mainder of the 1837-1838 school year. liam B. Bradbury 0816-1868), collaborated in Mason's work with children at the Hawes a new venture, the New York Normal Musical School drew ample public praise. After an Institute. After a three-month session in the exhibition concert at the South Baptist spring of 1853, classes began the following fall Church in August of 1838, the Boston School and ran for four eleven-week terms. It was Committee approved a motion to instruct the the most extensive American effort to date for committee on music to appoint a teacher of the purpose of training music teachers. vocal music for the public schools. For the Courses were offered at the institute in meth- first time in the United States, music in the ods, voice, theory, and piano. Similar efforts school curriculum was to receive support spread across the country. Mason shifted his from public school funds. attention to the institute in North Reading, Mason was appointed superintendent of Massachusetts, in 1856 and continued to work music and given the authority to hire his as a trainer of teachers until 1862. own assistants. The first year, Jonathan C. Throughout his remaining years, Mason Woodman (1813-1894) was hired, and four persevered in promoting the improvement of additional assistants were appointed soon church music, especially congregational sing- after that. By 1844, Mason had ten assistant ing. A large number of the books published teachers working in ten different schools and later in his career were dedicated to that end. was himself teaching in six schools. Due to Mason had been a partner of the Mason and what appears to have been a lamentable po- Law publishing firm from 1851 to 1853. A litical situation, he was removed as superin- new business was established in 1853 under tendent of music in the fall of 1845. He was the name "Mason Brothers" with Mason's two rehired early in 1846 and stayed with the sys- oldest sons, Lowell Mason, Jr., and Daniel tem until 1851. By all accounts, Mason's Gregory Mason, as owners. In 1868, Henry work in the Boston schools was not only Mason, lowell and Abigail's youngest son, successful but presented a model of fine was brought into the firm. Their third son, teaching for others to follow. "The fact that William, became a celebrated concert pianist. Mason's concepts have survived would seem In 1854, Mason and his wife moved to a final vindication of his work with the Bos- their estate, Silver Spring, at Orange, New ton public schools.tt? Jersey. He continued to publish song collec- The Boston Academy of Music ceased op- tions, write articles, teach at institutes, and erations in 1847. By that time most of its ob- present lectures. He joined Root and jectives had been met and its leaders were Bradbury in a book publishing company in committed to other endeavors, some of 1860. Lowell Mason died peacefully at his which had grown directly from their work in home in 1872 at the age of 80. the academy. The academy had extended its The Pestalozzian Influence influence across the state and nation through teachers' classes, conventions, music publica- Mason first visited Europe in 1837, immedi- tions, and classes convened outside the im- ately before he began to teach at the Hawes mediate Boston area. Public support of mu- School. In addition to observing several sic education grew from all these activities, classes in schools, the time spent in England, and it came from many parts of the United Germany, Switzerland, and France included a States. IS number of concerts, calls on publishers, and After making plans for a move to New visits to churches, museums, and other cul- York, Lowell Mason and his wife, Abigail, tural attractions. He called on Georg left on an extended journey to Europe in De- Friedrich Kubler, a little known music

36 The Quarterly journal of Music Teaching and Learning teacher who had published Guide to the good and that children can best learn from Study of Singing in Schools in 1826, a book the natural environment. Pestalozzi encour- which Mason later stated had strongly influ- aged learning through active participation. enced his Manual of Instruction of the Boston He felt that positive moral and social values Academy of Music, and observed some of were to be cultivated and could be gradually Kubler's classes.l? Mason also met with nurtured through a loving environment. Ex- Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg 0771-1844), periential learning, crafts, and manual train- a former colleague of Johann Heinrich ing were emphasized in the schools which Pestalozzi 0746-1827)20 Pestalozzi administered. It is evident that Mason had been attracted Although Pestalozzi did not specify how to the principles of Pestalozzi through the music was to be taught, singing had an im- persuasion of Woodbridge, who served as portant role in his schools. Formulated at editor of The American Annals of Education. the invitation of Pestalozzi, Pfeiffer's and This journal was a primary source of infor- Nageli's method emphasizes the musical ele- mation for American educators about the ments of length (rhythm), pitch, and dynam- Pestalozzian schools in Europe.F! Since ics.24 One of Mason's later works was, Woodbridge was born in Medfield, Massa- Asapb, tbe Choir Book: A Collection of Vocal chusetts, only two years after the birth of Ma- Music, Sacred and Secular (1861), a compre- son, it is possible that their acquaintance ex- hensive collection of instructional materials, tended back to boyhood. simple melodies, hymns, anthems, motets, Mason may also have been aware of and "set pieces," co-edited with his son, Wil- Pestalozzi's work through other sources. An- liam. An examination of this work reveals other American proponent of Pestalozzi's ap- that Mason continued to espouse the ideas of proach was Elam Ives, Jr., who has been cred- Pestalozzi toward the end of his long career. ited with being the first American music edu- The introduction to Asapb states, cator to apply the principles of Pestalozzi.i? An examination of Tones, (musical sounds) Pestalozzi's ideas on pedagogy had been in- will make it apparent even to the untutored corporated into a music method, The Teaching ear, that certain differences naturally exist of Music on Pestalozzian Principles, by Swiss between them, giving rise to the following distinctions: long or short; low or high; soft educators Michael Pfeiffer and Hans Georg or loud. Hence, it is evident that tones have Nageli in 1812. Additionally, Pestalozzi's work three essential properties (qualities or condi- had been promoted in the United States tions of existence): length, pitch, power or through the efforts of John Griscom 0774- force. It becomes convenient, therefore, to 1852) and Joseph Neef (1770-1854). divide rudimental music into three depart- Before Pestalozzi made his ideas known ments: through such works as Leonard and Gertrude That which treats of length rhythmics. (1781), Researches Into the Course of Nature in That which treats of pitch melodies. the Development of tbe Human Race (1797), That which treats of power dynamtcs.e" A model for teaching children a new song is and How Gertrude Teaches Her Children suggested. The class is to assimilate the song (1801), the emphasis in education was on the by rote while it is sung several times by the acquisition of memorized knowledge. Teach- teacher. The song may then be presented on ers, who had little preparation for their work, the board with the teacher pointing to the called on one child at a time to recite psalms, notes as the students sing. If the song is to be catechism, or other texts. "Bored by the te- found in their book, the students may then be diousness of this method the children often directed to the printed version of the song. became restless. The rod, cane, and rawhide Finally, they should be able to sing the song whip, part of the irlstructional apparatus in from the book without the teacher's help. "Let each school, were used to force the children there be a sufficient number of repetitions at to sit still and study the lessons.v> each step,"26 the authors admonish. Influenced by Rousseau's Emile (1762), In nonmusical subject matter, Asapb carries Pestalozzi's revolutionary principles included out an emphasis on morals, the power and the beliefs that humankind is essentially

Volume III, Number 3, 1992 37 beauty of nature, and patriotism. Such titles based on a conceptual approach to music as as "God Speed the Right," "Tis by Doing That an important component of aesthetic educa- We Know," "A Song of Cheerful Measure," tion. This position was carefully formulated "Lofty Pine," "Bubbling Brook," "The Thun- through a sequence of events, such as the derstorm," "Thou Land of Good," and "Bless- Yale Seminar (963) and the Tanglewood ings of Freedom" reflect Pestalozzi's influ- Symposium (967), which arose in response ence as well as society's need for workers to the age of technology. with strong work ethics and attitudes of loy- The educational theories of Swiss com- alty, appreciation, and industriousness. poser Emile jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950), the Later researchers have acknowledged that son of a music teacher who had studied Lowell Mason may sometimes have failed to Pestalozzian methods and philosophy, were carry out the principles of Pestalozzi with to- stated in his Rhythm, Music and Education tal authenticiry.s? Indeed, he has hardly been (921) and Eurhythmics, Art and Education alone in this regard. As Green points out, (930). The three areas of study which he Pestalozzi has had many imitators, and not a stressed were eurhythmics, solfege, and im- few fell short of the ideal. "Earnest men and provisation. Through his teaching experi- women, impatient to obtain practical skill, ences at the Geneva Conservatoire, Dalcroze take hold of a mechanism which is not came to believe that the intellectual study of meant to be universal, which is in its very music is inadequate and that, since rhythm concreteness limited to the circumstances of and dynamics are closely related to the a moment, a first approximation, perhaps, in physical nature of human beings, a logical an endeavor to give a principle practical way to study music is through an active shape."28 In adapting Pestalozzi's ideas to physical response to it. Taught by personal the American culture, adjustments necessarily instruction rather than through written mate- took place. The spirit of these ideas, how- rials, Dalcroze principles have made their ever, found a stronghold in American educa- way slowly into the American curriculum. tion, while at the same time assisted Mason's Because of the intense teacher training re- cause in providing a justification for includ- quired, and the needs for ample classroom ing music in the curriculum. space and time in the school day, the Music education is only one example of method is seldom found in its pure form in Pestalozzi's influence on American education American schools. In most cases, Dalcroze in general. His principles, which stressed techniques are added to enhance the eclectic participation and strong moral character, as composite common in American music edu- well as the much-needed element of humane cation. Their influence is evident in graded educational practices, were useful in helping music series texts published as early as 1936. Americans of all backgrounds adapt to the Lucy Duncan Hall, who taught at New industrial way of life. York University for a number of years, was Twentieth-Century Importation the first American to receive Dalcroze certifi- cation.v? Dalcroze certificates are offered in and Adaptation of European only four United States institutions of higher Approaches learning, although Dalcroze instruction is The ideas of Da1croze, Orff, and Kodaly now offered in about 20 colleges.e? In addi- introduced into twentieth century American tion to Hall, music educators who first wrote education new elements of creativity, sponta- about the approach in American publications neity, intuitive thinking, and self-expression, were jo Pennington, Mabelle Glenn, Rose qualities needed for an age of technology. Marie Grentzer, and Hilda M. Schuster.J' Attention to such attributes, unique to the The pedagogical ideas of composer and arts, helped to strengthen the position of mu- ethnomusicologist Zoltan Kodaly 0882-1967) sic education in the curriculum at a time were brought forth in his native Hungary un- when it was threatened by an increased em- der a state-controlled educational system phasis on mathematics and science. The which was conducive to a structured ap- place of music in the curriculum came to be proach to teaching music literacy. To sup-

38 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning port his intent of strengthening Hungary's American edition, edited by Dr. Hermann musical culture, Kodaly stressed music read- Regner of the Orff Institute in Salzburg, Aus- ing and writing through ear-training and sight tria, is in three volumes and contains exercises, singing. The plan incorporates sol-fa syl- songs, lesson plans, and articles by American lables represented by hand signals, stem no- Orff educators. The American Orff-Schulwerk tation, and syllables to represent rhythmic Association (AOSA)was founded in 1963 and values. The Kodaly approach relies heavily publishes the journal, 0111Echo. Courses, upon the folk song repertoire of the country workshops, and certification programs in insti- in which it is used.V tutions throughout the United States prepare American adaptations of Kodaly's work teachers in the Orff approach. were devised in the 1960s by Tibor Conclusions Bachmann, Denise Bacon, Lois Choksy, and Mary Helen Richards. The Organization of Like Lowell Mason, in his interpretation of American Kodaly Educators (OAKE) was Pestalozzi's ideas, beliefs, and practices, the formed in 1974 and publishes an official jour- mid-twentieth century music educators who nal, Tbe Koddly Envoy, 33 A number of imported the approaches of Dalcroze, American colleges and universities sponsor Kodaly, and Orff may not always have been courses and workshops for training music completely true to the original intent. More- teachers in the Kodaly approach. over, except in isolated instances, these inno- Like Dalcroze, and Kodaly, Carl Orff vations probably could not have been im- 0895-1982) was a composer. Influenced by ported to American curricula and survived Dalcroze's theories of eurhythmics, he and exactly as they were conceived. Mark and dancer Dorothea Gunther founded the Gary assert that these imports have been as- Gunther Scbule in 1924, primarily to train similated into the American scene through a physical education teachers in movement, process of adaptation, rather than being rhythm, and improvisation. Orff soon devel- adopted intact. They surmise that this natu- oped an instrumental ensemble which incor- rally occurred because the educational envi- porated recorders as well as specially devel- ronment is different from the ones in which oped xylophones, metallophones, and glock- the ideas originated. "Given the different enspiels in several ranges, and non-pitched conditions, such as having infrequent or ir- percussion instruments of many sizes and regular meetings of music classes, or teachers timbres. Plans had been made to test the ap- being trained to offer a traditional curricu- proach in the schools of Orff's native Ger- lum, it was natural that music educators many when World War II broke out. Follow- would seek the best parts of the methods ing the war, Orff revisited his approach, con- and adapt them for use in their own cur- cluding that it could become the basis for ricula. The most attractive elements of Orff music education in early childhood. With his and Kodaly, and to some extent Dalcroze, associate, Gunild Keetman, he tested the idea found their way into the eclectic American in kindergartens and nursery schools.o+ Like music curriculum and enriched it."36 Kodaly, Orff believed that the folk materials For nineteenth-century society, music edu- of the child's own culture should be the basis cation reinforced the qualities which were for the approach, and that simple pentatonic needed in the industrial age-steady work tunes are preferable for beginners.s> Move- habits, patriotism, and good moral character. ment, playing instruments (which have come For twentieth-century society, music educa- to be known as Orff instruments), singing, tion reinforces the aesthetic and conceptual speech, body percussion, and drama are all dimensions needed by the technological age. employed. It should be emphasized, however, that the Orff's five-volume Musicfor Children was American environment in which all of these published from 1950 to 1954 and attracted music educators lived and worked, from Ma- international interest. A British version was son on through his twentieth-century coun- edited by Margaret Murray and a Canadian terparts, presented unique challenges. In re- one by Doreen Hall and Arnold Walter. The sponding to society's needs, music education

Volume III, Number 3, 1992 39 turned to proven innovations from Europe, a Education, 117. continent long thought to be a source of ar- 23. Gerald Lee Gutek, Pestalozzi and Education tistic value. In adapting (through varied pro- ( ew York: Random House, 1968), 102. 24. Ibid, 127. cesses) these innovations to American educa- 25. Lowell Mason and William Mason, Asapb, tional systems, the music education profes- The Choir Book: A Collection of Vocal Music, sion has proved its worth by rising to the Sacred and Secular (New York: Mason Brothers, challenge existing in each era. 1861), iii. 26. Ibid, 18. References 27. Tellstrom, Music in American Education, 45; 1. Charles Hamrn, Music in the New World, Mark and Gary, A History of American Music (New York: \V W. Norton, 1983), 208-220; H. Education, 127-128. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A 28. J. A. Green. The Educational Ideas of Historical Introduction, 3rd ed., (Englewood Pestalozzi (London: W. B. Clive, 1914; reprint, Cliffs, 1\]: Prentice Hall, 1988): 56-60; Nicholas New York: Greenwood, 1969), 159. Ternperley, "The Great Musical Divide: Ocean or 29. Polly Carder, ed., The Eclectic Curriculum in Channel?" American Music 8 (Spring 1990): 1-11. American Music Education, revised ed. (Reston, 2. Edward Bailey Birge, Hist01Y of Public School VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1990), Music in the United States (Boston: Oliver Ditson, 28. 1928; new and augmented edition, Reston, VA: 30. Mark and Gary, A History of American Music Music Educators National Conference, 1966), 105. Education, 358. 3. Alvin Toffler, The Third Wave (New York: 31. Carder, The Eclectic Curriculum, 161-163. William Morrow, 1980), 20. 32. Ibid, 73. 4. Ibid, 45. 33. Mark and Gary, A Hist01Y of American Music 5. Henry Lowell Mason, Lowell Mason: An Education, 360. Appreciation of His Life and Work. (Springfield, 34 Ibid, 359. OH: Hymn Society of America, 1941), 3. 35. Carder, The Eclectic Curriculum, 135-136. 6. H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United 36 Ibid, 360.~ States: A Historical Introduction, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988), 66. 7. Hamrn, Music in the New World, 159-172. 8. Ibid, 171 Moving? 9. Carol A. Pemberton, Lowell Mason: His Life If so, let us know! and Work, Studies in Musicology (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1985), 55. Don't miss a single issue of 10. Ibid, 71. The Quarterly Journal of Music 11. Ibid, 73. 12. David Z. Kushner, "The 'Masonic' Influence Teaching and Learning on 19th-CentUly American Musical Education," Journal of Musicological Research 4 (December Give us a call with your new ad- 1983): 444-445 dress, or send us a change-of-ad- 13. Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary. A dress card provided by the U.S. History of American Music Education (New York: Schirmer, 1992), 123 Postal Service. We'll make sure that 14. Pemberton, Lowell Mason: His Life and your new issue is sent to your new 1.\7ork,82. address. 15. Quoted in Mark and Gary, A History of American Music Education, 142. Call (303) 351-2254 16. Ibid, 142-143. 17 Ibid,123 OR Mail your cbange-of-address 18. Pemberton, Lowell Mason: His Life and card to: Work,78. 19. Michael Broyles, ed., A Yankee Musician in Europe, Studies in Music (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI The Quarterly Journal oj Music Research Press, 1990), 84-87. Teaching and Learning 20. Ibid, 98. University of Northern Colorado 21. A. Theodore Tellstrom, Music in American Education (New York: Holt, Rinehart and 123 Frasier Hall Winston, 1971),23. Greeley, CO 80639 22. Mark and Gary, A History of American Music

40 171eQuarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning