Environmental Health Review Spring 2009

Drinking Water Source Protection in the Valley

J. Ivor Norlin, Interior Health – Health Protection* Mike Adams, Interior Health - Health Protection

ABSTRACT to characterize health risks and support a comprehensive approach to drinking Safe, clean, and reliable tap water is water management efforts to protect essential for the prosperity and health of drinking water sources in the Okanagan all communities in the Okanagan Valley. will undoubtedly fall short. Only with a firm understanding of A multiple-barrier approach is the best all components of the water system means of addressing the numerous INTRODUCTION (including water source, treatment, challenges to supplying safe drinking financial capacity, and governance) water in this fast growing, water limited Located in the southern interior of can all options for improving and region of . A multiple- British Columbia (Figure 1), the protecting source water quality and barrier approach recognizes and applies Okanagan Valley is home to over public health be given adequate efforts at all points where risks to 325,000 people (BC Stats, 2008) and consideration. drinking water and public health can with its lakes, ski hills, and warm be reduced. Source protection is a climate is a world-class, year-round core element of the multiple-barrier tourist destination. It is also one of the approach. driest watersheds in (Stats Can, 2003). As such, water has traditionally As is the case for most regions in British been a critical factor for the valley’s Columbia, the needs of Okanagan communities and ecosystems. But communities make exclusion of even in the Okanagan drinking water is human activity and dedication of often taken for granted; when turning entire watersheds for the sole purpose on the tap we expect safe, pleasant of providing drinking water typically tasting water. Tap water delivers * (corresponding author), jivor. unfeasible. Thus, successful source public health, fire protection, and [email protected] protection for most hinges on integrated economic development and is an watershed management to control essential element to overall quality of An earlier version of this paper potential threats to drinking water and life. Safe, clean, and reliable tap water was published in the proceedings public health. The ultimate vision is valuable; considering the critical tap for the Canadian Water Resource is that everyone (including water water addresses some might consider Association’s “One Watershed, One suppliers, industry, land-use agencies, it a bargain! Water” conference held in , and the public) has the information and BC, October 2008. opportunity they need to be empowered To have an adequate supply of safe water stakeholders in management of drinking for everyday drinking, cooking, and all The views expressed in this document water sources. Collaborative efforts of other domestic uses, it is essential to are those of the authors and not water suppliers, government, and other ensure it is properly protected. The necessarily of Interior Health. Any watershed stakeholders have resulted link between water supply and disease, errors are the sole responsibility of the in improvements. However, without particularly from microbial pathogens, authors. source-to-tap water system assessments is well recognized (CCME, 2004; 6 Environmental Health Review Spring 2009 universal standard for drinking water protection, the multiple-barrier approach is an effective way to reduce the risk of illness from drinking water contamination to acceptable levels (Figure 3) (NHMRC/NRMMC, 2004; CCME, 2004). Multiple barriers compensate for short term reductions in performance of any individual barrier, thus providing a greater assurance that the water will be safe to drink over the long term (CCME, 2004; Hrudey & Hrudey, 2004).

The components of a multiple-barrier approach differ slightly between jurisdictions, but always include the following key elements: Figure 1: The Okanagan Valley • Source selection and protection NHMRC/NRMMC, 2004). At greatest relying heavily on surface water sources (high-quality and protected water risk are the immunocompromised, from upland community watersheds source) young children and the elderly (BC- (Figure 2). Using observations from • Appropriate water treatment PHO, 2001). The first responsibility other regions of British Columbia and (as determined by source of all water suppliers must be the North America this paper seeks to characteristics and risks) provision of continual access to clean, identify the key elements for defining • Water distribution system safe and reliable tap water. and over-coming obstacles to protecting protection (secure with appropriate these sources. monitoring) Within the Okanagan Valley there • Water quality monitoring are 220 identified water suppliers of M U L T IPLE- b a R R I E R (including timely, appropriate various sizes, from those that serve a APPROACH TO PROTECTING response to adverse results) few homes to large municipal scale DRINKING WATER • Financing and governance systems. Approximately 70% of the (engaged, supportive management core population in the Okanagan is No single barrier can be 100% and regulatory oversight) provided water from 10 community successful 100% of the time against water systems (Table 1), most of those all potential hazards. A recognized These elements need to be managed in an integrated manner and supported by vigilant, qualified operators (Hrudey, Surface water source(S), Approximate Community Water System Groundwater Source (G) 2003). Population Served or both (S/G) City of Kelowna 58,000 S Several factors hinder water supplier’s Greater Vernon Water Utility 45,000 S/G pursuit of providing the elements City of Penticton 32,000 S of a multiple-barrier system in the Black Mountain Irrigation District 23,000 S Okanagan, including: Rutland Waterworks District 14,000 G Westbank Irrigation District 13,000 S • Multi-use watersheds and a multi- Glenmore Ellison Improvement District 12,000 S/G Municipality of Summerland 12,000 S agency regulatory environment Lakeview Irrigation District 10,000 S • Large scale residential development South East Kelowna Irrigation District 6,000 S/G based on systems originally built for irrigation Total Population Served 225,000 • Emerging threats (e.g. protozoan Table 1: Principal Community Water Supply Systems in the Okanagan Valley parasites Cryptosporidium and

7 Environmental Health Review Spring 2009 in Canada: counter the effects of inadequate treatment (Hrudey, 2003) • Health risk is a direct function of raw water Since proclamation of the BC quality; as such source Drinking Water Protection Act and characterization and pro- Regulation in 2003, regulators in the tection should be the Okanagan have focused on critical basis of providing safe improvements to treatment, operations, drinking water and monitoring (Interior Health, 2007). • Source protection can In consideration of the long-standing not be relied upon to pro- (circa 1986) Canadian water quality vide significant improve- guideline that filtration be provided ments over the short-term for all surface waters (Health Canada, nor absolute protection; 2004), upgrading treatment on systems as such, initial focus providing only chlorine disinfection has should be on upgrading been a top priority. However, many treatment, monitoring, suppliers have made other significant and emergency response improvements including: • Robustness of water sources, treatment opera- • Recruitment, training, and retention tions, institutional, and of certified operators human elements of water • Improved online monitoring and systems all need to be biological/chemical sampling pro- evaluated when assessing grams water supply systems • Updated emergency response plans • Distribution protec- that are reviewed annually tion is important, but Figure 2: Designated Community is typically of a lower Having taken these initial crucial steps Watersheds in the Okanagan Valley importance and cannot to protect public health, attention is

Giardia) • Climate change (e.g. changing seasonal and extreme weather patterns) • Competition with home treatment and bottled water industries • Numerous water supply systems with differing governance struc- tures

When considering how to move forward with improving drinking water safety, it is important to recognize that in terms of the ultimate goal (i.e. protecting public health) not all barriers are equal. In their 2002 report on safe drinking water, the Network Figure from: of Environmental Risk Assessment Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health and Management (NERAM) made Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment the following observations and From Source to Tap – May 2002 recommendations for enhancing Figure 3: Multiple Barrier Approach to Protect Drinking Water robustness of drinking water systems 8 Environmental Health Review Spring 2009 shifting towards the complex, difficult Examples of this gold 1. Income and Social Status tasks of assessing water systems and standard include the Metro 2. Social Support Networks taking action to protect drinking water Vancouver and Greater 3. Education sources. Victoria water supplies. 4. Employment/Working Conditions The three watersheds 5. Social Environments SOURCE PROTECTION supplying Metro Vancouver 6. Physical Environments comprise a total area of over 7. Personal Health Practices and Coping Skills 8. Healthy Child Development Selection and protection of a high 580km2 to which public 9. Biology and Genetic Endowment quality water source is the first access is restricted and all 10. Health Services step in a multiple-barrier approach activities are managed in 11. Gender and a cornerstone of safe, clean, the interest of protecting 12. Culture reliable tap water (CCME, 2004). the one billion litres of However, there are limitations to what water delivered daily Adapted from www.phac-aspc.gc.ca (PHAC, 2008) protection can be achieved through (Metro Vancouver, 2008). Figure 4: Public Health Agency of Canada – watershed management alone; even ’s Sooke Determinants of Health the most pristine watersheds devoid Reservoir watershed is of any human activity still harbour strictly controlled, including specific that determine the overall health of a contaminants harmful to human health. wildfire, wildlife, and security programs community, physical environment is a But by avoiding or controlling potential for the purpose of providing safe water key, but typically not the only (or even hazards before they enter the drinking to over 300,000 residents (CRD, 2008). most critical) factor. The Public Health water system threats to public health In both examples intakes are located Agency of Canada currently recognizes are reduced and operation costs are at higher elevation thus decreasing a number of key determinants for minimized (CCME, 2004). In some reliance on treatment while increasing public health (Figure 4), with physical cases intake location and source distribution costs. environment (including access to safe, protection can make a difference to the clean drinking water) listed as number level of treatment required (e.g. Metro Exclusion of human activity from water six (PHAC, 2008). As such, when Vancouver’s Coquitlam Source). More supplies as a means of reducing risk deciding on what activities should commonly the economic benefits of to drinking water and public health be tolerated in a watershed, the best source protection and improved water seems intuitive; however, exclusion interests of the community necessitates quality are decreased operation and of human activity from water sources considering not only threats to drinking maintenance costs over the life of the is not practiced for the majority of water but also the impact the proposed treatment plant. water supplies in North America. activity will have on economic and Communities and governments often social well being. . With human activity in a drinking allow forestry, agriculture, recreation, water source comes an increased risk settlement, liquid waste disposal … etc So what is a reasonable level of of introducing hazards to drinking to occur in their drinking water supply protection to expect for drinking water supplies. Although mitigation areas. Whether a conscious decision water sources? Each watershed and (e.g. engineering; operations) and or a product of ignorance, activities community is unique and, as such, natural properties of the watershed increasing risk of exposing the public it is difficult to establish a standard (e.g. dilution; filtration) may reduce to drinking water health hazards are benchmark. However, from observation risk, if a hazard exists the risk it poses permitted in the majority of watersheds of communities with and without can never be eliminated with 100% in North America. dedicated watersheds the following certainty. As such, the only means to three factors appear significant: completely avoid risks from human At first glance, it is easy to conclude activity is to exclude it. However, that since drinking water is such a 1. Population Served – shear number even in the absence of human activity, high priority all activities potentially of people served is a factor in the threats to quantity (e.g. drought) and impacting drinking water should be comparative value of drinking wa- quality (e.g. wildlife; mineral deposits; banned. However, the exclusion ter production. As community size erosion) of drinking water may still of all activities from a watershed is increases, the relative importance of exist. As such, focused management of often not in the best interests of the activities in any specific watershed the watershed is required to achieve the community or public health (BC-PHO, to the overall economic and social highest quality source water possible. 2001). When considering the factors wellbeing of the community will 9 Environmental Health Review Spring 2009 tend to decrease. based management approaches) strive of Armstrong’s Fortune Creek source), 2. Available Water Sources – of seem- to comprehensively address physical at this time none of the communities in ingly equal importance is avail- and biological issues to achieve locally- the Okanagan enjoy the gold standard ability of a suitable water source. established goals and objectives. These of a watershed dedicated exclusively Despite having large populations local goals and objectives are determined for the production of drinking water. served by large water systems, based on watershed characteristics, It is beyond the scope of this paper many urban centers in North Amer- public needs, and regulatory/resource to assess why each individual system ica (e.g. New York City; Edmonton; management considerations (Hartig, and/or community has not achieved Calgary; Toronto) do not have dedi- 1995). This approach requires a this standard. However, a cursory cated water supplies. Economic thorough understanding of the water assessment suggests that the three and political costs of obtaining and systems and watersheds involved. factors identified above play a role in managing a dedicated watershed Without, the ability to characterize the current state of source protection in that may be located 100s or even risks, identify options (e.g. limiting the Okanagan. For example: 1,000s of kilometres away outweigh land-use vs. relocating intakes vs. potential benefits. Conversely, there increasing reliance on treatment) and • Population Served – Kelowna, are a number of small communities assess costs and benefits is severely the largest population centre with in British Columbia (e.g. Revel- limited. over 100,000 permanent residents, stoke; Nelson) that enjoy highly is served by five different water protected sources due in part to the From the perspective of protecting systems with distinct sources. As proximity of high yield, relatively drinking water sources, the primary a result, the relative importance of un-developed watersheds. objective of integrated watershed each of the water sources is diluted 3. Governance – the way water supply management is to limit hazards and over the entire population. Greater systems and land-use are managed maximize treatment (e.g. filtration, Vernon Services water system and regulated also impacts the disinfection) provided by the natural (with plans for Duteau Creek to be level of protection achieved. For environment. This approach of utilizing the primary water supply to over example, both Metro Vancouver natural processes to purify source 50,000 (GVS, 2006)), and the City and Victoria are served by a single, water as much and whenever possible of Penticton (which uses Penticton publicly-owned water supplier is consistent with BC provincial Creek as a source for over 38,000 that has the financial and political government’s Water Plan (BC Gov., (City of Penticton, 2007)) have the capacity to acquire and manage a 2008) and carbon reduction initiatives next greatest potential political/ large watershed. New York City’s and is typically achieved through: economic influence (Figure 5). aggressive source protection cam- paign is in large part a response 1. Compliance with (and when necessary • Available Water –with its relatively to pressure from their regulator enforcement of) environmental best under-developed upland watersheds (the US Environmental Protec- management practices for land-use (Turner et al., 2006), available tion Agency) (NYC-DEP, 2008). and resource extraction activities, water sources would not seem a In New Hampshire, legislation is particularly in sensitive areas, significant barrier to achieving op- available to bar activities that may 2. Maintaining natural functions timal source protection. However, cause adverse impacts to water of watersheds (e.g. riparian area historic development patterns have quality in drinking water supply preservation; stream corridor contributed a reliance on valley areas (NH-DES, 2008). protection; rainfall runoff bottom sources and multiple-use management), watersheds for drinking water. Given the common reality of multiple- 3. Appropriate location and design Coordinated water system planning, use watersheds, best practice for of intakes (e.g. maximizing natural focused management of upland protecting drinking water sources is barriers to contaminants) sources (e.g. reservoir construc- typically the provision of transparent, tion), and demand side manage- evidence-based management of SOURCE PROTECTION IN THE ment could make dedicated upland watersheds to ensure the appropriate OKANAGAN watersheds a realistic alternative allocation of resources (O’Connor, for some. To date comprehensive 2002; Hrudey, 2003; CCME, 2004). Although a few communities in the assessments exploring this potential Integrated watershed management (and Okanagan benefit from relatively have not been completed. the related ecosystem-based or place- under-developed watersheds (e.g. City 10 Environmental Health Review Spring 2009 • Governance –Patrick et al. (2008) provided a detailed review of the regulatory structure supporting source protection in the Okanagan. Key findings included: 

1. Direct water supplier engagement in watershed management has  brought about measurable, sustained improvements in drinking water source protection  2. A lack of co-ordination and engagement at the provincial agency  level poses a significant obstacle to source protection

The conditions observed by Patrick et al. are likely in part a result of poor coordination between water system management and land-use governance in the Okanagan. Even in cases where local governments are the water suppliers, consideration of drinking water in land-use approv- als has often been inconsistent or ineffective. For example, Greater Vernon Services has been active in the Duteau Creek watershed for many years working collaboratively with other stakeholders (e.g. forestry companies, range users) to better •  protect their source. However,  they have experienced difficulty in achieving a high level of protection  due in part to a perceived lack of support from provincial agencies •  responsible for regulating land-use and drinking water (GVS, 2008). 

Forestry (as demonstrated by the • numerous mills throughout the valley) and agriculture (producing 25% of  total crop by value in BC (Turner et al. 2006)) have historically provided the •  economic foundations for Okanagan  communities. More recently settlement (population projected to exceed 425,000 within 30 years (BC Stats, 2008)) and  tourism (~25,000 jobs linked to tourism in region (Okanagan Partnership,  2004)) have increased in importance.  As is the case with most other areas of

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5000 Comprehensive, transparent, evidence -based assessments (Figure 6) 4500 Dedicated drinking water watersheds characterize the hazards and events 4000 that can compromise drinking 3500 water quality while identifying and evaluating options for addressing 2 3000 risk to health. This information also 2500 serves to empower water suppliers in the management of their watersheds. 2000 Defensible information on health risks 1500 provides a basis for fair, evidence-based Persons per km 1000 Okanagan water supply systems application of legislation to protect drinking water and public health. It 500 is also a necessary precursor for area 0 specific governance models (e.g. Water

r t D d D ID D n n e c I n I I o o v ri Management Plans under the BC a la n w k t rn u t n r i e n ic e o is e ta i a t c Water Act; Drinking Water Protection w n v b n V n D lo m u e t e r a l e m o k s P te a K u a e a V n Plans under the BC Drinking Water t S M L e o io s k W r tr g a c G e e a Protection Act) to deal with issues -E l M l R h B t ita that existing legislation is unable to u p o a S C address.

Figure 5: Ratio of Community Size Served to Area of The shift of regulatory focus towards Principal Watershed Source drinking water source protection in the Okanagan is still in the relatively early stages. To date the attention to, and BC (BC Gov., 2008), the significance engagement and commitment of those validation of, concerns regarding risks of these sectors makes integrated use of who live and work in the watersheds. to community water sources is resulting watersheds a preferred scenario despite To ensure continuity and a focus for in improved range-use (e.g. installation the potential threats to drinking water drinking water protection at a local level, of off-stream watering; upgrading of and public health. water suppliers (and by extension the fencing in sensitive areas), industrial customers they serve) must continue to practices (e.g. direct collaboration DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS be engaged, empowered advocates for with water suppliers), and recreational drinking water in their watersheds. practices (e.g. off-road vehicle trail Integrated watershed management to management planning). However, a control risks to drinking water needs efficient, effective collaboration at all 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. levels to be successful. Cooperation Delineate & Inventory Assess Supply Evaluate Audit Water Review and planning between provincial (e.g. Characterize Contaminant System Elements Management, Quality & Financial Source(s) Sources Operations, & Availability Capacity & Southern Interior Regional Drinking Maintenance Governance Water Team) and regional (e.g. Okanagan Basin Water Board – Water Stewardship Council) stakeholders 7. Characterize along with focused planning for priority Risks areas (e.g. Shuswap Lake Integrated Planning Process (FBC, 2008); East 8. Kootenay Integrated Lake Management Identify Actions to Improve Drinking Water Partnership) serve to break down the Protection historical barriers to source protection identified by Patrick et al.. However, Adapted from draft Comprehensive Drinking Water Source to Tap Assessment real protection of drinking water Guideline (MOH/MOE, 2005) resources on the ground requires Figure 6: Drinking Water Risk Assessment Process 12 Environmental Health Review Spring 2009 lack information regarding threats to Retrieved July 22, 2008, from: www.crd.bc.ca/ drinking water and options for water water/watersupplyarea/index.htm NHMRC/NRMMC (National Health and supply system design/management Medical Research Council/Natural Resource FBC (Fraser Basin Council). (2008). Shuswap Management Ministerial Council). (2004). remains a common obstacle. Only with Lake Integrated Planning Process. Retrieved Australian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines a firm understanding of all components July 25, 2008, from /www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/ 6 (isbn 186496118x). Retrieved July 26, of the water system (including water programs/shuswap.html 2008, from www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/ source, treatment, financial capacity, synopses/_files/adwg_11_06.pdf and governance) can all options for GVS (Greater Vernon Services). (2006). Greater Vernon Services Master Water Plan (Working NYC-DEP (New York City – Department improving and protecting source water Paper Number 16). Retrieved July 22, 2008, of Environmental Protection). (2008). New quality and public health be given from: www.greatervernon.ca/user_files/File/ York Water Supply Watersheds. Retrieved adequate consideration. Working%20Paper%2016.pdf. July, 22, 2008, from: nyc.gov/html/dep/html/ watershed_protection/home.html Taking the time to conduct GVS (Greater Vernon Services). (2008). comprehensive assessments and Watershed Assessment and Protection Plan O’Connor, D. R. (2002). Report of the for the Duteau Creek Source draft version 3. Walkteron Enquiry Part Two: a strategy for planning can frustrate those who Vernon, BC: Kerr Wood Leidal Associates safe drinking water (ISBN: 0-7794-2621-5). yearn for immediate improvements to Ltd. Toronto, ON: Publications . drinking water source protection, but responsible drinking water management Hartig, J.H. (1995). Practical steps to Okanagan Partnership. (2004). Okanagan requires consideration of all water implementing an ecosystem based approach in Sustainable Prosperity Strategy Final Report. Great Lakes management (USEPA/Environment San Francisco: ICF Consulting. system elements. The future of clean, Canada Grant No. X995291-01). Detroit, MI: safe, reliable tap water in the Okanagan Wayne State University. Retrieved July 25, Patrick, R., Kreutzwiser, R., & de Loe, R. depends on it. 2008, from www.ijc.org/php/publications/html/ (2008). Factors facilitating and constraining toc.html source water protection in the Okanagan Valley, REFERENCES British Columbia. 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BC-PHO (British Columbia - Provincial Health Hrudey, S.E. (2003). Drinking water safety: a Statistics Canada. (2003). Human activity and Officer. (2001). A report on the health of British total quality management approach. Waterloo, the environment, Annual Statistics 2003 (Cat. Columbians. Provincial Health Officer’s annual ON: Network for Environmental Risk No. 16-201-XIE). Retrieved July 22, 2008, report 2000. Drinking water quality in British Assessment and Management. from: www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/031203/ Columbia: The public health perspective (ISSN d031203a.htm 1195-308X). Victoria, B.C.: Ministry of Health Hrudey, S.E. & Hrudey, E.J. (2004). Safe Planning. drinking water: lessons from recent outbreaks in Turner, R.J.W., Franklin, R.G., Taylor, B., affluent nations. London: IWA Publishing. Ceh, M., Grasby, S.E., Symonds, B., Adams, BC Stats. (2008). BC Regional District and M., 3700 Armour, G., Carmichael, V., Curtis, Municipal Population Estimates. Retrieved July Interior Health. (2007). 4-3-2-1-0 Drinking J., Davis, D., Epp, P., Harlow, C., Journeay, 22, 2008, from: www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/data/ Water Objective: the countdown to safer M., Machin, D., Molyneux, T., Neilsen, pop/pop/mun/Mun2007e.asp. drinking water. Retrieved July 22, 2008, D., Simpson, R., Stephens, K., & van der from: www.interiorhealth.ca/uploadedFiles/ Gulik, T. (2006). Okanagan Basin Waterscape CCME (Canadian Council of the Ministers of Health_and_Safety/Drinking_Water/ (Miscellaneous Report 93). Vancouver, BC: Environment) (2004). From Source to Tap: CountdowntoSaferWater823499.pdf Geological Survey of Canada. Guidance on the multi-barrier approach to safe drinking water (PN 1334; ISBN 1-896997- MetroVancouver. (2008). Metro Vancouver 48-1). Winnipeg, MB: Author.  Services: sources and supply. Retrieved July 22, 2008, from: www.metrovancouver.org/services/ City of Penticton. (2007). Water Treatment water/source/Pages/default.aspx Plant – Penticton Creek Watershed. Retrieved August 12, 2008, from: www.penticton.ca/ NH-DES (New Hampshire – Department of city/public_works/water/treatment_plant. Environmental Services). (2008). Drinking asp#watershed Water and Groundwater Bureau: drinking water protection program. Retrieved July 22, 2008, CRD (Capital Regional District). (2008). Capital Regional District: Wateshed Protection. from: www.des.state.nh.us/DWSPP/

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