City Research Online City, University of London Institutional Repository Citation: Abdullah, A.D. (2011). The Iraqi Media Under the American Occupation: 2003 - 2008. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) This is the accepted version of the paper. This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/11890/ Link to published version: Copyright: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to. Reuse: Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] CITY UNIVERSITY Department of Journalism D Journalism The Iraqi Media Under the American Occupation: 2003 - 2008 By Abdulrahman Dheyab Abdullah Submitted 2011 Contents Acknowledgments 7 Abstract 8 Scope of Study 10 Aims and Objectives 13 The Rationale 14 Research Questions 15 Methodology 15 Field Work 21 1. Chapter One: The American Psychological War on Iraq. 23 1.1. The Alliance’s Representation of Saddam as an 24 International Threat. 1.2. The Technique of Embedding Journalists. 26 1.3. The Use of Media as an Instrument of War. 29 1.4. Attempts to Dominate Media through the use 30 of Physical Attack. 1.5. Portraying the Occupation in a Positive light. 32 1.6. The Involvement of Private P.R. Companies. 34 1.7. The Alliance’s Public Diplomacy in the Lead Up to 36 2003 Invasion. 1.8.The Relationship between the American Government and 40 Media Communications Companies. 2 1.9. Biased and Selective Reporting of Events. 41 1.10.WikiLeaks Exposé. 46 1.10.1. Exploiting Information. 50 1.10.2 The Iraqi Media Network. 53 1.10.3.Information Operations. 54 2. Chapter Two: American Journalism in Japan and Germany 56 after WWII. 2.1. The American Occupation of Japan. 56 2.1.1.Japan’s Post-Occupation Media. 63 2.2. German Press History Before the American Occupation. 65 2.2. 1.The American Occupation of Germany. 66 2.2. 2. Germany’s Post–Occupation Media 72 3. Chapter Three: The History of Iraqi Media before the 2003 73 Invasion. 3.1. The initiation of Iraqi Media (1869-1914). 73 3.1.1.Iraqi Media During WWI. 76 3.1.2. The Press of the Twentieth Revolution. 78 3.2. Catalysts for the Development of the Iraqi Press. 80 3.3. Iraqi Media during the Monarchic era (1921-1958). 81 3.4. The Iraqi Press during WWII. 83 3.5. The Iraqi Press after the 14th of July Revolution,1958. 84 3.6. The Establishment of Television Broadcasting in Iraq. 86 3 3.7. Iraqi Television during the New Republic from 1958. 88 3.8. Iraqi Television after 17-30 July Revolution 1968. 89 3.9. Iraqi Television under Saddam Hussein. 90 3.9.1.Baghdad International Television. 93 3.9.2.Al-Shabab Television. 99 4. Chapter Four: Al-Iraqiyah Television Channel. 103 4.1.The US Administration’s Preplanning of the Post-War Stage. 103 4.2.The development of a New Media Landscape. 105 4.3. The Iraqi Media Network (IMN) in operation. 108 4.4. Iraqi Media during the Paul Bremer period. 109 4.4.1. Attempts to Protect the Media’s Integrity with Legislation 113 4.4.1. Discord between the Americans and Arabic Satellite 116 Channels. 4.4.3. IMN’s Competition with the Arabic Satellite 117 Channels. 4.4.4. The American’s Recruitment of Harris Corp. 118 4.4.5. Continuing the Legacy of Censorship. 120 4.5. Al-Iraqiyah under the Rule of the Provisional Prime 122 Minister Ayad Alawi. 4.6.Al-Iraqiya during Islamist Prime Minister Ibrahim 128 Al-Jafari’s Tenure. 4.7.Changes Made within Al-Iraqiyah under Prime. 132 Minister Nouri Al-maliki. 4 5. Chapter Five: Special Cases. 140 5.1.The Baghdad Club. 141 5.1.1.The Baghdad Club Scandal. 141 5.1.2.The Work Statement of the Baghdad Club. 143 5.1.3.The Baghdad Club’s Techniques. 146 5.2.Yathrib Newspaper. 150 6. Chapter Six: Salah Ad Din Satellite Channel. 155 6.1.Salah Ad Din Province. 155 6.2.The Establishment of Salah Ad Din TV. 115 6.3.Statement of Purpose. 160 6.4.The Establishment of the Board of Directors. 162 6.5.Main Programmes. 167 6.6. Salah Ad Din TV’s Ownership. 169 6.6.1.Salah Ad Din TV’s Performance. 170 7. Chapter Seven: Personal Experience. 175 7.1. First Impressions. 175 7.2.The Gap between American Promises and Practices. 176 7.3. Learning Media Practices from the Home of Journalism. 179 7.4. The Death Squads. 179 7.5. Working for an Iraqi-Exiled Channel. 188 7.6. Back to International Standards. 188 5 7.7. Face-to-Face with Embedded Journalism. 189 Conclusion: Summing up of Research Outcomes. 192 Future study. 198 Endnotes 200 Working Bibliography 232 6 Acknowledgments. I would like to dedicate this work to my supervisor, Professor Howard Tumber, who was always available with ample patience, guidance and support, and without whom this thesis would not have been possible. His academic skills, deep journalistic knowledge and charismatic personality have guided and greatly inspired my efforts. I am warmly grateful to my wife Noura Saddon for her invaluable support and encouragement throughout years of research and hard work. I owe an endless debt to my mother, brothers and sisters for their support along the way. I would like to warmly remember my father, who passed away during my research, and thank him a lot for his sacrifice and encouragement. A lot of thanks goes to my previous supervisor, Adrian Monk, for his friendship, encouragement and supervision throughout the early stages of my research. This research would not have been possible without the selfless contribution and help of hundreds of Iraqi journalists working in television, radio, printed and online press. Some are mentioned throughout the thesis and many others have agreed to talk to me anonymously. I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep gratitude for all they have done for Iraq in their quest for a free press. 7 Abstract. The American war on Iraq in 2003 has unleashed tremendous changes to the Iraqi media. It has been changed from a draconian, state-run institution into a free-for-all one. However, the relative freedom the media enjoyed was marred by the US management of the press, as part of the military operation and the campaign to win the hearts and minds of Iraqis who were suspicious of America’s plans for ‘liberation and democracy’. The stages of this US policy of press management and its impact on the shaping of the Iraqi media are the core elements of this thesis. This study examines the relations between the media in Iraq and the American occupation military forces, including the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA). It focuses on how American practices formed the media in Iraq after the invasion, how these practices and policies have affected the freedom of press and whether they conform to the international standards of journalism. It argues that the American policies undermined their promises to create free, independent and professional journalism in Iraq, and call into question the sincerity of their intentions. It presents evidence that the Iraqi media has been a tool used for the benefit of the American forces and the established Iraqi government. To show the US dominance of the Iraqi media, the thesis studies the American policies and practices of building some of the Iraqi media institutions, and how they were used as part of US psychological warfare. The thesis also details how these media organisations developed through the years of the occupation; first serving the American agenda and tactical requirements, and then being handed to the Iraqi government to start a new era of state–run media in the name of democracy, or given as a gift to loyal individuals who served the Americans during the occupation. The various factors that have influenced the Iraqi media after the 2003 invasion have been discussed at length. A qualitative methodology acted as a basis for an in-depth examination of the establishment and performance of the Iraqi media organisations, which were created by the American army. Unprofessional practices, unethical policies and negative influences on news 8 coverage riddled the Iraqi press throughout the period of military occupation. Figures in the American and Iraqi administrations and militaries, as well as influential members of the media organisations themselves, all had a hand in manipulating the press to propagate material that furthered their ideological and tactical goals. A severe lack of laws to protect journalists and their organisations and of a professional media greatly restricted the freedom of reporting, and stifled the growth of a free and independent media. In analysing the history of Iraqi media, it is clear that the development of journalism in Iraq was directly affected by frequent changes in the Iraqi political administration and military leadership. In the Middle East politicians and militaries often held dominating positions in their relationships with the national media. The unethical policies imposed upon media organisations by the powers that be had a detrimental effect on their human resources and on practices within the institutions, which has in turn led to the current distortion and inefficiencies in the performance and professionalism of Iraqi media.