DOCSLIB.ORG

Feral Beast": Cautionary Lessons from British Press Reform Lili Levi University of Miami School of Law, [email protected]

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Feral Beast University of Miami Law School University of Miami School of Law Institutional Repository Articles Faculty and Deans 2015 Taming the "Feral Beast": Cautionary Lessons From British Press Reform Lili Levi University of Miami School of Law, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.law.miami.edu/fac_articles Part of the Communications Law Commons, and the Comparative and Foreign Law Commons Recommended Citation Lili Levi, Taming the "Feral Beast": Cautionary Lessons From British Press Reform, 55 Santa Clara L. Rev. 323 (2015). This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty and Deans at University of Miami School of Law Institutional Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Articles by an authorized administrator of University of Miami School of Law Institutional Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. TAMING THE "FERAL BEAST"1 : CAUTIONARY LESSONS FROM BRITISH PRESS REFORM Lili Levi* TABLE OF CONTENTS Introdu ction ............................................................................ 324 I. British Press Reform, in Context ....................................... 328 A. Overview of the British Press Sector .................... 328 B. The British Approach to Newspaper Regulation.. 330 C. Phone-Hacking and the Leveson Inquiry Into the Culture, Practices and Ethics of the Press ..... 331 D. Where Things Stand Now ...................................... 337 1. The Royal Charter ............................................. 339 2. IPSO and IM PRESS ......................................... 341 II. "A Grave Error"?: Worrisome Aspects of the Leveson U ndertaking .................................................................. 347 A. "Voluntary Self-Regulation" or "Licensing By P roxy?".................................................................... 348 B. State Insulation or "Crossing the Rubicon?". ....... 352 C. Shifting Pow er ........................................................ 354 1. The M urdoch Factor .......................................... 355 2. Hacked Off and Fears of Increased Media Irresponsibility .................................................. 357 3. The Surveillance State and The Guardian's Snow den W oes ................................................... 359 1. See Patrick Wintour, Blair: media is feral beast obsessed with impact, THE GUARDIAN (Jun. 12, 2007), available at http://www.theguardian.compolitics/2007/j un/13/media.television (quoting outgoing British Prime Minister Tony Blair's characterization of the press in his Lecture on Public Life, June 12, 2007). * Professor of Law, University of Miami School of Law. I am grateful to Caroline Bradley, Mary Coombs, Mary Anne Franks, Ron Krotoszynski, Bernard Oxman, and Steve Schnably for detailed comments on prior drafts, and to Pat Gudridge and Ralph Shalom for illuminating conversations. Jaime Fromson, Octavia Green, Brian Oliver, and Tashyana Thompson provided able research assistance. All remaining errors are my own. SANTA CLARA LAW REVIEW [Vol: 55 4. A Divided Press ................................................. 361 5. The Power Impacts of Institutional Selectivity .......................................................... 363 D. Will Leveson's Model Predictably Lead to Press Self-Censorship? ..................................................... 366 1. Structural Bias: Regulator Composition Requirem ents .................................................... 367 2. Cyclical Review and Systemic Ad Hoc Review Pow er .................................................... 369 3. Third Party Complaints .................................... 370 4. Pre-Publication Review ..................................... 371 5. Exemplary Damages and Costs ........................ 372 6. A rbitration ......................................................... 376 7. Uncertainty and Incoherence as to Scope of C overage ............................................................ 377 8. The Third Leg of the Stool: Changed Legal Rules Affecting Newsgathering ........................ 380 E. Will Regulatory Benefits Likely Outweigh the R isks of Chill? ......................................................... 381 1. Ineffectiveness in Protecting Privacy ............... 381 2. Inability to Limit Impacts to the "Pestilential" Tabloids ...................................... 383 F. Is the Leveson Report's Framework Misguided in the New M edia Age? ..................... ................. .. .. 387 1. Changes in the Production and Dissemination of News ..................................... 387 2. The Illusory Benefits of Disciplinary Codes .... 392 III. The "Message" Problem: What Signal Is The U.K. Sending Abroad By Its Press Reform Efforts? ...... ...... 399 C onclu sion ............................................................................... 40 1 INTRODUCTION Since the demise of press licensing in Britain 300 years ago, the U.K. has positioned itself as a vanguard of journalistic freedom-featuring a raucous and opinionated press-even in the absence of constitutional speech and press protections.2 Yet in January 2014, the World Association of 2. See Editorial Bd., Britain's Press Crackdown, N.Y. TIMES (Mar. 19, 2013), available at httpJ/www.nytimes.com/2013/03/20/opinion/britains-press- crackdown.html?. 20151 TAMING THE "FERAL BEAST" 325 Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA)-a leading press organization previously known for targeting press censorship in repressive regimes such as Azerbajian and Myanmar-undertook an "unprecedented" fact-finding mission in the U.K. to investigate governmental threats to British press freedom.3 It did so because Britain is currently engaged in a press regulation effort that poses a significant threat to press freedom both in the U.K. and far beyond British shores.4 The British press reform initiative began after revelations in 2011 that the Rupert Murdoch-owned tabloid News of the World had engaged in "industrial-scale"5 phone hacking, illegally intercepting the phone messages of thousands of unsuspecting people for years.' Instead of responding to the phone hacking revelations by focusing on criminal law enforcement failures, however, the British- government launched a wide-ranging, year-long Inquiry, headed by Lord Justice Brian Leveson, into the culture, practices, and ethics of the British newspaper press.7 3. Larry Kilman, International Delegation: UK Press Freedom Mission, WORLD ASSOCIATION OF NEWSPAPER AND NEWS PUBLISHERS (Nov. 8, 2013), http://www.wan-ifra.org/press-releases/2013/11/08/international-delegation-uk- press-freedom-mission. 4. WAN-IFRA recently released a critical report about the reform of British press regulation. WORLD ASSOCIATION OF NEWSPAPER AND NEWS PUBLISHERS, PRESS FREEDOM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 6 (Mar. 2014) [hereinafter WAN-IFRA, PRESS FREEDOM], available at http://www.wan- ifra.org/microsites/press-freedom ("Even the suggestion of a decline in Britain's regard for press freedom risks serious repercussions in other parts of the world."). 5. John F. Burns, Phone-Hacking Charges Seen as Chill on British Journalism, N.Y. TIMES (July 24, 2012), available at http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/25/world/europe/two-ex-editors-for-murdoch- to-be-charged-for-phone-hacking.html?_r=0. 6. See Lili Levi, Journalism Standards and "The Dark Arts": The U.K.'s Leveson Inquiry and the U.S. Media in the Age of Surveillance, 48 GA. L. REV. 907, 909 (2014). 7. LEVESON INQUIRY: CULTURE, PRACTICES AND ETHICS OF THE PRESS, REPORT, 2012, H.C. 779, Executive Summary, 5, 7-9, (U.K.) [hereinafter LEVESON REPORT], available at http://www.levesoninquiry.org.uk/aboutthe- report/. The fallout from phone-hacking is still continuing. See Katrin Benhold & Alan Cowell, Ex-Tabloid Executive Acquitted in British Phone Hacking Case, N.Y. TIMES (June 24, 2014), available at http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/25/world/europe/rebekah-brooks-found-not- guilty-in-phone-hacking-case.html (describing result of phone-hacking trial of former tabloid editors Rebekah Brooks and Andy Coulson and noting potential upcoming legal actions); Martin Hickman, Revealed: 10 Police Inquiries into 326 SANTA CLARA LAW REVIEW [Vol: 55 Having issued an almost 2000-page Report damning much of the newspaper press culture, Leveson called for a new plan of "voluntary" self-regulation backed up by a statutory oversight regime.' Under the scheme, newspapers would independently establish a regulatory body, which would in turn seek recognition and continuing certification from a government-established certifying entity charged with ensuring that the press' self-regulator properly followed the Leveson Report's recommendations. Currently, the Leveson- recommended press oversight body has been established pursuant to a government-favored Royal Charter. Press resistance to the Royal Charter regime makes the ultimate contours and details of British press reform uncertain. What is certain, however, is that some kind of Leveson-inspired reform is inevitable-certainly in light of Prime Minister David Cameron's warning to newspapers that, otherwise, the press runs the risk of facing "hideous statutory regulation" in the future.' While designed to be modest and proportionate, the British effort to promote a "responsible" press via the Royal Charter regime in fact effectuates a power play by government and the political class against the press. It introduces the Trojan horse of press control under the guise of "voluntary" self-regulation to restrain the excesses of tabloid journalism. Its structural
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Response to the Government Consultation on the Leveson Inquiry and Its Implementation
    Response to the Government Consultation on the Leveson Inquiry and its Implementation Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................... 2 The commencement of section 40 ............................................................................. 4 Option (a): Government should not commence any of section 40 now, but keep it under review and on the statute book ..................................................................... 4 Option (b): Government should fully commence section 40 now ............................ 5 Option (c): Government should ask Parliament to repeal all of section 40 now ...... 8 Option (d): Government should partially commence section 40, and keep under review those elements that apply to publishers outside a recognised regulator ... 10 Option (e): Government should partially commence section 40, and ask Parliament to repeal those elements that apply to publishers outside a recognised regulator 11 The impact of section 40 .......................................................................................... 13 The impact of section 40 on the press industry .................................................... 13 The impact of section 40 on claimants .................................................................. 19 The purpose of section 40 ........................................................................................ 22 Part 2 of the Leveson Inquiry ..................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Participation, Citizen Journalism and the Contestations of Identity and National Symbols: a Case of Zimbabwe's Natio
    Participation, citizen journalism and the contestations of identity and national symbols: A case of Zimbabwe’s national heroes and the Heroes’ Acre Shepherd Mpofu Department of Communication University of Johannesburg [email protected]@uj.ac.za/ [email protected] Abstract This article constitutes an examination on how citizen journalism has challenged Robert Mugabe’s authoritarian regime on issues pertaining to national heroes and usages of the Heroes Acre as central national identity markers. Under Mugabe’s ZANU‐PF, Zimbabwe has seen the public being limited from directly participating in salient national debates. ZANU‐PF’s control of the official public sphere has also constrained alternative views from ventilating the government‐controlled communicative spaces. The party’s narrative on heroes, the Heroes Acre and national identity has gained a taken‐for‐granted status in the public media. This has obtained against the backdrop of what has become known as the Zimbabwe crises, characterised by a declining economy, a constricted political space, a breakdown in the rule of law, and the subsequent flight of a number of Zimbabweans into the diaspora. The accompanying wave of technological advancements and the mushrooming of mostly diaspora‐based online media have opened up new vistas of communication, enabling a hitherto ‘silenced’ community of ordinary people to participate in national conversations. The conclusion reached here, is that citizen journalism has not only enhanced the culture of conversation among people (as espoused under democratic conditions) but has also covered up the democratic deficit experienced in the public sphere, mediated by traditional media, parliament and pavement radio.
    [Show full text]
  • The Leveson Inquiry Into the Cultures, Practices And
    For Distribution to CPs THE LEVESON INQUIRY INTO THE CULTURES, PRACTICES AND ETHICS OE THE PRESS WITNESS STATEMENT OE JAMES HANNING I, JAMES HANNING of Independent Print Limited, 2 Derry Street, London, W8 SHF, WILL SAY; My name is James Hanning. I am deputy editor of the Independent on Sunday and, with Francis Elliott of The Times, co-author of a biography of David Cameron. In the course of co-writing and updating our book we spoke to a large number of people, but equally I am very conscious that I, at least, dipped into areas in which I can claim very little specialist knowledge, so I would emphasise that in several respects there are a great many people better placed to comment and much of what follows is impressionistic. I hope that what follows is germane to some of the relationships that Lord Justice Leveson has asked witnesses to discuss. I hesitate to try to draw a broader picture, but I hope that some conclusions about the disproportionate influence of a particular sector of the media can be drawn from my experience. My interest in the area under discussion in the Third Module stems from two topics. One is in David Cameron, on whose biography we began work in late 2005, soon after Cameron became Tory leader. The second is an interest in phone hacking at the News of the World. Tory relations with Murdoch Since early 2007, the Conservative leadership has been extremely keen to ingratiate itself with the Murdoch empire. It is striking how it had become axiomatic that the support of the Murdoch papers was essential for winning a general election.
    [Show full text]
  • Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism Cosmopolitan Reflections
    Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism Cosmopolitan Reflections David Hirsh Department of Sociology, Goldsmiths, University of London, New Cross, London SE14 6NW, UK The Working Papers Series is intended to initiate discussion, debate and discourse on a wide variety of issues as it pertains to the analysis of antisemitism, and to further the study of this subject matter. Please feel free to submit papers to the ISGAP working paper series. Contact the ISGAP Coordinator or the Editor of the Working Paper Series, Charles Asher Small. Working Paper Hirsh 2007 ISSN: 1940-610X © Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy ISGAP 165 East 56th Street, Second floor New York, NY 10022 United States Office Telephone: 212-230-1840 www.isgap.org ABSTRACT This paper aims to disentangle the difficult relationship between anti-Zionism and antisemitism. On one side, antisemitism appears as a pressing contemporary problem, intimately connected to an intensification of hostility to Israel. Opposing accounts downplay the fact of antisemitism and tend to treat the charge as an instrumental attempt to de-legitimize criticism of Israel. I address the central relationship both conceptually and through a number of empirical case studies which lie in the disputed territory between criticism and demonization. The paper focuses on current debates in the British public sphere and in particular on the campaign to boycott Israeli academia. Sociologically the paper seeks to develop a cosmopolitan framework to confront the methodological nationalism of both Zionism and anti-Zionism. It does not assume that exaggerated hostility to Israel is caused by underlying antisemitism but it explores the possibility that antisemitism may be an effect even of some antiracist forms of anti- Zionism.
    [Show full text]
  • Hacking Affair Is Not Over – but What Would a Second Leveson Inquiry Achieve?
    7/10/2019 Hacking affair is not over – but what would a second Leveson inquiry achieve? Academic rigour, journalistic flair Hacking affair is not over – but what would a second Leveson inquiry achieve? July 25, 2014 3.57pm BST Author John Jewell Director of Undergraduate Studies, School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies, Cardiff University On we go. Ian Nicholson/PA In the latest episode in the long-running saga that is the phone hacking affair, Dan Evans, a former journalist at the News of the World and Sunday Mirror, has received a 10 month suspended sentence after being convicted of two counts of phone hacking, one of making illegal payments to officials, and one of perverting the course of justice. Coming so soon after the conviction of Andy Coulson and the acquittal of Rebekah Brooks and others, one could be forgiven for assuming that the whole phone hacking business is now done and dusted. Not a bit of it. As Julian Petley has written: “Eleven more trials are due to take place involving 20 current or former Sun and News of the World journalists, who are accused variously of making illegal payments to public officials, conspiring to intercept voicemail and accessing data on stolen mobile phones.” We also learned in June that Scotland Yard had officially told Rupert Murdoch of their intention to interview him as part of their inquiry into allegations of crime at his British newspapers. The Guardian revealed that Murdoch was first contacted in 2013, but the police ceded to his lawyers’ request that any interrogation should wait until the Coulson–Brooks trial had finished.
    [Show full text]
  • HOW the OTHER HALF VOTES HOW the OTHER Big Brother Viewers and the 2005 General Election HALF VOTES
    HOW THE OTHER HALF VOTES HOW THE OTHER Big Brother Viewers and the 2005 General Election HALF VOTES Stephen Coleman Big Brother Viewers and the 2005 General Election Why is it that the experience of taking part in Big Brother is so much more compelling for some people than the routines and rituals of electoral politics? How the Other Half Votes raises radical questions about the condition of contemporary democracy, the Stephen Coleman borders between the political and the popular and the case for thinking creatively about what it means to be politically engaged. May 2006 Price £10 Hansard Society ISBN 0 900432 18 7 www.hansardsociety.org.uk The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and the Hansard Society, as an independent non-party organisation, is neither for nor against. The Society is, however, happy to publish these views and to invite analysis and discussion of them. HOW THE OTHER HALF VOTES Big Brother Viewers and the 2005 General Election Stephen Coleman Stephen Coleman is Professor of Political © Hansard Society 2006 Communication at Leeds University All rights reserved. No part of this publication and also senior research associate may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or with the Hansard Society transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the Hansard Society. Published by The Hansard Society is an independent, Hansard Society non-partisan educational charity, which exists 40-43 Chancery Lane to promote effective parliamentary democracy. London WC2A 1JA For further information
    [Show full text]
  • N Ieman Reports
    NIEMAN REPORTS Nieman Reports One Francis Avenue Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 Nieman Reports THE NIEMAN FOUNDATION FOR JOURNALISM AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOL. 62 NO. 1 SPRING 2008 VOL. 62 NO. 1 SPRING 2008 21 ST CENTURY MUCKRAKERS THE NIEMAN FOUNDATION HARVARDAT UNIVERSITY 21st Century Muckrakers Who Are They? How Do They Do Their Work? Words & Reflections: Secrets, Sources and Silencing Watchdogs Journalism 2.0 End Note went to the Carnegie Endowment in New York but of the Oakland Tribune, and Maynard was throw- found times to return to Cambridge—like many, ing out questions fast and furiously about my civil I had “withdrawal symptoms” after my Harvard rights coverage. I realized my interview was lasting ‘to promote and elevate the year—and would meet with Tenney. She came to longer than most, and I wondered, “Is he trying to my wedding in Toronto in 1984, and we tried to knock me out of competition?” Then I happened to keep in touch regularly. Several of our class, Peggy glance over at Tenney and got the only smile from standards of journalism’ Simpson, Peggy Engel, Kat Harting, and Nancy the group—and a warm, welcoming one it was. I Day visited Tenney in her assisted living facility felt calmer. Finally, when the interview ended, I in Cambridge some years ago, during a Nieman am happy to say, Maynard leaped out of his chair reunion. She cared little about her own problems and hugged me. Agnes Wahl Nieman and was always interested in others. Curator Jim Tenney was a unique woman, and I thoroughly Thomson was the public and intellectual face of enjoyed her friendship.
    [Show full text]
  • Press Freedom Under Attack
    LEVESON’S ILLIBERAL LEGACY AUTHORS HELEN ANTHONY MIKE HARRIS BREAKING SASHY NATHAN PADRAIG REIDY NEWS FOREWORD BY PROFESSOR TIM LUCKHURST PRESS FREEDOM UNDER ATTACK , LEVESON S ILLIBERAL LEGACY FOREWORD EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. WHY IS THE FREE PRESS IMPORTANT? 2. THE LEVESON INQUIRY, REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS 2.1 A background to Leveson: previous inquiries and press complaints bodies 2.2 The Leveson Inquiry’s Limits • Skewed analysis • Participatory blind spots 2.3 Arbitration 2.4 Exemplary Damages 2.5 Police whistleblowers and press contact 2.6 Data Protection 2.7 Online Press 2.8 Public Interest 3. THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK – A LEGAL ANALYSIS 3.1 A rushed and unconstitutional regime 3.2 The use of statute to regulate the press 3.3 The Royal Charter and the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 • The use of a Royal Charter • Reporting to Parliament • Arbitration • Apologies • Fines 3.4 The Crime and Courts Act 2013 • Freedom of expression • ‘Provided for by law’ • ‘Outrageous’ • ‘Relevant publisher’ • Exemplary damages and proportionality • Punitive costs and the chilling effect • Right to a fair trial • Right to not be discriminated against 3.5 The Press Recognition Panel 4. THE WIDER IMPACT 4.1 Self-regulation: the international norm 4.2 International response 4.3 The international impact on press freedom 5. RECOMMENDATIONS 6. CONCLUSION 3 , LEVESON S ILLIBERAL LEGACY 4 , LEVESON S ILLIBERAL LEGACY FOREWORD BY TIM LUCKHURST PRESS FREEDOM: RESTORING BRITAIN’S REPUTATION n January 2014 I felt honour bound to participate in a meeting, the very ‘Our liberty cannot existence of which left me saddened be guarded but by the and ashamed.
    [Show full text]
  • A Better Death in a Digital Age: Post
    Publishing Office Aims and scope Abramis Academic ASK House Communication ethics is a discipline that supports communication Northgate Avenue practitioners by offering tools and analyses for the understanding of Bury St. Edmunds ethical issues. Moreover, the speed of change in the dynamic information Suffolk environment presents new challenges, especially for communication IP32 6BB practitioners. UK Tel: +44 (0)1284 700321 Ethics used to be a specialist subject situated within schools of philosophy. Fax: +44 (0)1284 717889 Today it is viewed as a language and systematic thought process available Email: [email protected] to everyone. It encompasses issues of care and trust, social responsibility and Web: www.abramis.co.uk environmental concern and identifies the values necessary to balance the demands of performance today with responsibilities tomorrow. Copyright All rights reserved. No part For busy professionals, CE is a powerful learning and teaching approach that of this publication may be reproduced in any mate- encourages analysis and engagement with many constituencies, enhancing rial form (including pho- relationships through open-thinking. It can be used to improve organization tocopying or storing it in performance as well as to protect individual well-being. any medium by electronic means, and whether or not transiently or incidentally Submissions to some other use of this Papers should be submitted to the Editor via email. Full details on submission – publication) without the along with detailed notes for authors – are available online in PDF format: written permission of the www.communication-ethics.net copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Subscription Information Designs and Patents Act Each volume contains 4 issues, issued quarterly.
    [Show full text]
  • Traineeship Brochure 2020
    TRAINEESHIP BROCHURE 2020 Matrix is ‘the future of the Bar.’ Chambers and Partners TRAINEESHIP BROCHURE CONTENTS • Introduction to Matrix- page 2 • Why choose Matrix?- page 2 • Glossary - plain words- page 2 • Becoming a barrister - page 3 • Areas of work - page 3 • Training schedule - page 3 • Life as a trainee - page 4 • Application procedure- page 6 • Deferred applications- page 6 • Third six- page 6 • Training awards- page 6 • Visa requirements- page 6 • Information for applicants who have a disability- page 6 • Traineeship supervisors- page 7 • Matrix selection procedure - page 10 • Stage 1- page 9 • Stage 2- page 110 • Stage 3- page 11 • Notes regarding the application form- page 11 • Equal opportunities- page 11 • Useful contacts- page 11 • Matrix core values- page 12 • Members- page 13 1 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX Matrix is a barristers’ chambers located in hierarchies and attitudes demonstrated by our London, Geneva and Brussels. We are a members – all these elements make Matrix a collection of lawyers specialising in a wide really great place to train and to work. range of practice areas throughout the UK and Matrix is committed to providing a stimulating, internationally. Described as “professional and balanced and comprehensive training forward thinking”, we are an approachable schedule. As a junior member of Matrix, the set that are proud of our record of innovation. expectation is that you will be in court regularly Our core values govern the way we work and on a wide range of cases and practice areas outline our commitment to operating within an as this is a very important part of continuing environment where diversity, accessibility and training to be a fully-rounded barrister.
    [Show full text]
  • Through the Network (Of Networks) – the Fifth Estate* By
    Through the Network (of Networks) – the Fifth Estate* by William H. Dutton Professor of Internet Studies Oxford Internet Institute University of Oxford *Prepared for an Inaugural Lecture, Examination Schools, University of Oxford, 15 October 2007. I thank Martin Elton, Linda Frankland, Ellen Helsper, Malcolm Peltu and Juliet Webster for their comments and encouragement to discuss this topic. 1 It is an honour for me to present my inaugural lecture to you, and to do so here in The Examination Schools. This is a special place and – as we all know – place matters. Today, I will focus on how – in Internet time and space – users are able to reconfigure their access to information, people and other resources in new ways that are of major significance for society. The Rise of a Fifth Estate in Internet Time and Space In an earlier era, printing was tied to the rise of the press as a major institution. Its subsequent growing role in conjunction with the development of radio, television and other mass media has created an independent institution in many nations, which has become known as the ‘Fourth Estate’. This has become central to pluralist democratic processes. Today I would like to explain why I believe it would not be an exaggeration to argue that a new form of social accountability is emerging in what I am calling the ‘Fifth Estate’. It is enabled by the growing use of the Internet and related information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as the personal computer and World Wide Web. Essentially, the Internet is enabling people to network with other individuals and with a vast range of information, services and technical resources.
    [Show full text]
  • The Allied Occupation of Germany Began 58
    City Research Online City, University of London Institutional Repository Citation: Abdullah, A.D. (2011). The Iraqi Media Under the American Occupation: 2003 - 2008. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) This is the accepted version of the paper. This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/11890/ Link to published version: Copyright: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to. Reuse: Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] CITY UNIVERSITY Department of Journalism D Journalism The Iraqi Media Under the American Occupation: 2003 - 2008 By Abdulrahman Dheyab Abdullah Submitted 2011 Contents Acknowledgments 7 Abstract 8 Scope of Study 10 Aims and Objectives 13 The Rationale 14 Research Questions 15 Methodology 15 Field Work 21 1. Chapter One: The American Psychological War on Iraq. 23 1.1. The Alliance’s Representation of Saddam as an 24 International Threat. 1.2. The Technique of Embedding Journalists. 26 1.3. The Use of Media as an Instrument of War.
    [Show full text]