Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience All rights reserved:
Technische Universität Berlin
Urban Management Program
Editors: Sonja Nebel Jesús Salcedo V. Authors: Jesús Salcedo V. Pedro Becerra Panagiotis Achamnos Florencia Carvajal Ana Alcántara Sonja Nebel Proofreading: Shane O’Hanlon Website: www.urbanmanagement.tu-berlin.de
© Al Buraimi, A Strategic Approach towards Integrated Urban Development and Resilient Urban Management
Layout by Jesus Salcedo V www.js-arquitectos.com
2 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Berlin, 2015
Technische Universität Berlin Urban Management Program
3 Foreword
The aspirations of communities evolve and change with the requirements and development of societies. Cities and towns are beautiful places that contribute to the variety of cultures and to the quality of life of communities in our diverse world. The Buraimi governorate with a history of intra-regional trade and a meeting ground of trading convoys was indicated as part of Twam, and the well known Al Buraimi oasis. Out of a desire for further development in the cities of Al Buraimi governorate, research institutions from Oman and abroad have been involved. The cooperation between the Municipal Council in Al Buraimi Governorate and the Technical University of Berlin brings in the Urban Management Master Program to evaluate the current situation and policies in the sectors covered by the studies of the program.
It is our goal that such cooperation serves as a model for further efforts with academic and research institutions of urban planning. The results of this cooperation will contribute in the formation of better government for the civil society and to enriching the knowledge about urban planning, public transport, tourism and architecture.
4 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Advancing the municipal sector in the cities of the world towards innovation, it is important to localize innovative thoughts within authorities of planning and executive bodies and activate the role of private sector as well as to encourage creative locals to play an active role in the formation of the civil character of modern cities. Such an approach will significantly contribute to the development, the culture and economy of the Sultanate of Oman.
On behalf of the people of Al Buraimi Governorate, myself and all municipal council and government institutions’ staff, I extend our thanks to the Technical University of Berlin - Urban Management Program- and all Master students that participated in the studies and co-operation with the municipal council in the governorate. We appreciate the efforts that they have made for the success of the co-operation and we are looking forward to further co-operations in the future. Our thanks go to all my fellow members of the municipal council on their active role.
Ibrahim Said Al Busaidi
Governor of Al Buraimi
Chairman of Al Buraimi Municipal Council
5 Foreword
This report is intended to open a broader discourse on future development in the Governorate of Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman. The country is facing high population growth and a dynamic urbanization process that has been started about 45 years ago based on the discovery of fossil fuels. Not only in the capital city of Muscat but as well in smaller towns and former rural areas drastic transformation took place – and is still ongoing. An increasing need for jobs, social and health facilities, transport infrastructure as well as for housing is confronted with limited resources such as oil and gas but as well land and environment.
The Governorate and Municipality of Al Buraimi have started to assess and reflect ongoing processes and invited five young architects and civil engeneers, students from the Urban Management Master Programme of TU Berlin, Germany to research on key fields of urban and regional development in the Governorate.
Five key fields have been selected according to emerging challenges in the Governorate, such as how to handle the threatening decay of the historic parts of the former oasis Hamasa and Sa’ara, how to meet the high demand for residential plots, how to get them serviced properly and in time with fresh water, electricity and sewage systems, how to allow for appropriate transport and mobility within the city and how to balance expanding urban structures with remaining rural ones in the region with its particular constraints and potentials.
This report describes the current state of development in the forementioned fields and presents recommendations towards a comprehensive strategic urban management in Al Buraimi, based on the overall goal of a sustainable and resilient future development to be managed within cross- sector coordination and interdepartemental cooperation. This is summarized in short-, medium- ,and longterm action plans accompanied by a chapter on further studies needed, on capacity development and on cross cutting issues related to all five key fileds worked on.
6 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
We hope to offer forwordlooking and encouraging findings that may foster a vivid dialogue - among all parties involved- about crucial issues of Al Buraimi future development. This report could have been elaborated thanks to the highly appreciated support –financial as well as technical and organizational- from the Governorate and the Municipality of Al Buraimi. The joint efforts taken from Al Buraimi Governmental Organizations and TU Berlin, Urban Management Programme made it possible to conduct a field survey in September/October 2014 followed by intensive scientific elaborations in form of master thesis submitted in February 2015.
We wish to express our sincere gratitude for the opportunity to carry out this report in fruitful cooperation between Al Buraimi Governorate and Municipality and TU Berlin
Dr. Sonja Nebel / Dr. Bettina Hamann
Urban Management Program
7 Acknowledgments
The team is most grateful to the Governorate of Al Buraimi, and to the Municipal Council for the opportunity to do research and field work, besides the generous financial support that made this possible.
This research would not have been possible without the help and interest of His Excellency Al Sayed Ibrahim Bin Said Al Busaidi, Governor of Al Buraimi.
The team would also like to thank the following Ministry Branches in Al Buraimi for their kindness and welcoming during all the interviews: Al Buraimi Governorate Office, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Environment & Climate Affairs Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Regional Municipalities & Water Resources Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Tourism Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Transport and Communications Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Transport and Communications in Muscat, Municipal Council of Al Buraimi, Oman Chamber of Commerce & Industry Al Buraimi Branch, and the Transit Department of the Royal Oman Police of Al Buraimi.
Many thanks to Dr. Hammad Al Gharibi for his initiative, guidance and welcoming in Al Buraimi.
Likewise, thanks to the members of the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi for fostering this research. Special thanks to Mohammed Al-Badi, Sheikha Al Naimi and Mohammed bin Hamed bin Miftah Al Shamsi.
Sinicerely,
Panagiotis Achamnos, Ana Alcántara, Pedro Becerra, Florencia Carvajal, Bettina Hamann, Sonja Nebel, Jesús Salcedo
8 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Table of contents Foreword ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 6
Acknowledgments ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
List of figures �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
List of boxes �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
List of abbreviations and acronyms ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
Executive Summary ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Part 1 Current trends and challenges Introduction ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
Rationale �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
Urbanization background in Oman and Al Buraimi ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
History and urbanization in inner Oman settlements �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
History and urbanization in Al Buraimi ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36
Current trends �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Current challenges ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
SWOT analysis ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
Al Buraimi 2030; a vision for a resilient future ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52
The need for a paradigm shift ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Part 2.1 Regional development & growth management Assesment of the current state ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������58
Spatial analysis ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
The setting of areas for strategic development and growth management ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
The city centre of Al Buraimi ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
The outskirts of Al Buraimi: ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
As Sunainah ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80
Selected instruments for urban growth management �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Action plan for regional development through growth management ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
Conclusions ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89
References ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
9 Part 2.2 Sustainable transportation Assessment of the current state of transportation and mobility ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 96
Transportation planning procedure �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
Transportation legal framework �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102
Urban space for mobility ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Goals.... �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Governance / Institutional recommendations ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
Technical recommendations �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 114
Improvement of regional public transportation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120
Action / management plan �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Conclusions ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122
References ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Part 2.3 Infrastructure Development Assesment of the current state of infrastructure ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
Water management �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134
Strategies for sustainable development in water management ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138
Solid waste management �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141
Strategies for sustainable development in solid waste management ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Wastewater management ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������147
Strategies for sustainable development in wastewater management ����������������������������������������������������������������������150
Conclusions ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
References ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Part 2.4 Housing & urban design Assessment of the current state of housing ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������162
Urban planning instruments – structure plans compared �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������164
Finding: Dual reality – dual dynamics of develoment �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170
Finding: Change in urban morphology �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������176
Recommendations ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������182
Guidelines for urban design �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183
References ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
10 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Part 2.5 Heritage management and responsible tourism Assesment of the current state of heritage ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190
Tourism in Al Buraimi �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Heritage assets inventory for tourism in Al Buraimi ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
Hamasa: an example for responsible tourism development �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������201
Guidelines and Action plan towards responsible tourism in Hamasa ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Conclusions ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 211
References ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������212
Part 3 Further recommendations Cross cutting issues ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������216
Capacity Development for sustainable development Al Buraimi ����������������������������������������������������������������������221
Further Studies recommended �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225
Conclusions �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Annex Methodological remarks ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������232
List of Institutions visited ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������233
Glossary. ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������234
Most relevant references ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������237
About the authors ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
11 List of figures Figure 1. Main suq in Al Buraimi ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
Figure 2. Abandoned agricultural plots in the city centre ���������������������������������������� 26
Figure 3. Geographical location of Oman. ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
Figure 4. Hajar mountain range, Oman. �����������������������������������������������������������������������32
Figure 5. Urbanization process of an inner Oman oasis settlement: Nizwa �����������33
Figure 6. Geographical location of Al Buraimi Governorate ����������������������������������������� 35
Figure 7. Villages in the Buraimi Oasis area. �����������������������������������������������������������������������36
Figure 8. View of an aflaj channel ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37
Figure 9. Current state of As Sara, ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
Figure 10. Lost oasis and heritage ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Figure 11. A street in Sa ‘ara, Al Buraimi �����������������������������������������������������������������������43
Figure 12. View of the scattered neighbourhoods �������������������������������������������������������� 55
Figure 13. Maximum and minimum temperatures in Al Buraimi Governorate. �����������58
Figure 14. Average rainfall in Al Buraimi Governorate ��������������������������������������������������������59
Figure 15. Production of desalinated water in different Governorates. ��������������������������61
Figure 16. Omani population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 ������������������������� 62
Figure 17. Expat population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 ������������������������� 62
Figure 18. Mens tailoring and readymade clothes. ������������������������������������������������������� 64
Figure 19. Spatial charachetristics in Al Buraimi ��������������������������������������������������������65
Figure 20. Satelite view of Al Buraimi’s �����������������������������������������������������������������������67
Figure 21. Current land use plan ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67
Figure 22. Strategic area 1. City centre and 2. Outskirts. ������������������������������������������������������� 69
Figure 23. Strategic area 2. As Sunainah ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
Figure 24. Strategic area 1. City centre satelite image ��������������������������������������������������������72
Figure 25. Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban growth management instruments �����������73
12 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 26. Strategic area 1. City centre: Specialized clothing cluster ��������������������������74
Figure 27. Strategic area 1. City centre: Time allowed for plots to develop ��������������������������75
Figure 28. Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban design intervention potential �����������75
Figure 29. Strategic area 2. Outskirts satelite image: ��������������������������������������������������������76
Figure 30. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban growth management instruments �����������77
Figure 31. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: New typology implementation ��������������������������78
Figure 32. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban design intervention potential: �����������78
Figure 33. Scattered housing in the outskirts of Al Buraimi �����������������������������������������79
Figure 34. Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: satelite image ������������������������������������������������������� 80
Figure 35. Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: urban growth management instruments �����������81
Figure 36. Action plan for growth management ��������������������������������������������������������87
Figure 37. View of Al Buraimi‘s scattered urbanism ������������������������������������������������������� 89
Figure 38. Built roads in Al Buraimi �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 98
Figure 39. Carbon dioxide emissions in Oman ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 98
Figure 40. Mobility creating factors ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 100
Figure 41. Transportation planning procedure ���������������������������������������������������������������������102
Figure 42. Sample area in Al Buraimi �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Figure 43. Map of roads network in Al Buraimi �������������������������������������������������������������������� 106
Figure 44. New road in Al Buraimi ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112
Figure 45. Public transportation plan ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116
Figure 46. Transit oriented development TOD concept ������������������������������������������������������ 118
Figure 47. Activity centers ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
Figure 48. Action management plan ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Figure 49. Technical recommendations ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Figure 50. Roundabout sign ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122
13 Figure 51. Thaqbah well ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Figure 52. Production from wells, ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Figure 53. Total water distribution in Al Buraimi ������������������������������������������������������ 137
Figure 54. Water saving campaign adds ���������������������������������������������������������������������139
Figure 55. Landfill �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������143
Figure 56. School children educated in recycling programmes ��������������������������������������� 145
Figure 57. Treatment plant ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149
Figure 58. Action plan 1984 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������164
Figure 59. Structure plan 1985 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������165
Figure 60. Expansion plan 1986-1996 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������166
Figure 61. Expansion plan 1987-1990 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Figure 62. Road hierarchy and town access according to structural plan ������������������������168
Figure 63. Current Al Buraimi map used for planning ������������������������������������������������������169
Figure 64. Constructed Al Buraimi �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170
Figure 65. Marked plots �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
Figure 66. Planned vs granted plots ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
Figure 67. Omani and expat population in Al Buraimi Governorate ������������������������ 172
Figure 68. Chronological division scheme ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 173
Figure 69. Expat on his way home �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174
Figure 70. Preffered living areas �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������176
Figure 71. Neighbourhoods in the outskirts ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Figure 72. Neighbourhoods in the city centre ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Figure 73. Neighbourhoods in the city centre 2 ������������������������������������������������������ 177
Figure 74. Built structure change ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 178
Figure 75. Public space alteration �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������179
Figure 76. Article 58 a)1 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
14 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 77. Article 58 a)2 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Figure 78. Recommendations. ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183
Figure 79. Location of heritage sites �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
Figure 80. Decay situation in Sa´ara. �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������196
Figure 81. Decay situation in Hamasa ���������������������������������������������������������������������196
Figure 82. Al Khandaq fort ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������197
Figure 83. Pottery in Nizwa ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������199
Figure 84. Basketry in Al Buraimi �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������199
Figure 85. Dry falaj in Sa´ara. ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������200
Figure 86. Interventions in Phase I �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������205
Figure 87. Interventions in Phase II ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 207
Figure 88. Night tour walking route ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 207
Figure 89. Interventions in Phase III, ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
Figure 90. Summary of the action plan ��������������������������������������������������������������������209
Figure 91. National Fort Route �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������210
Figure 92. Ruins in Hamasa ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 211
Figure 93. Capacity development process ���������������������������������������������������������������������222
Figure 94. Three levels of capacity development ������������������������������������������������������222
Figure 95. Interrelation of levels in capacity development ���������������������������������������223
Figure 96. Agriculture in As Sunainah ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 229
15 List of boxes
Box 1. Living conditions are changing rapidly �����������������������������������������������������������������������18
Box 2. Aim of the study �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Box 3. Unique geographical characteristics amongst the Arabian Peninsula ��������������������������27
Box 4. Particularities in inner country settlements. ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
Box 5. Diverse nature of challenges ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
Box 6. Land availability ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39
Box 7. Strengths ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Box 8. Weaknesses �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
Box 9. Opportunities ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Box 10. Threats ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Box 11. Rising problematic ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48
Box 12. Basic considerations for the instruments �����������������������������������������������������������������������65
Box 13. Parking ratio test �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99
Box 14. Land allocation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Box 15. Community survey on fresh water �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134
Box 16. Community survey on solid waste management ������������������������������������������������������ 138
Box 17. Community survey on wastewater management ������������������������������������������������������147
Box 18. Additional population ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Box 19. Social aspects of housing ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������164
Box 20. Responsible and sustainable tourism ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 187
Box 21. UNESCO World Heritage ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Box 22. People perceptions about Al Buraimi’s attractiveness ����������������������������������������������������� 190
Box 23. Tangible assets criteria ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Box 24. The Buraimi Oasis ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193
16 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Box 25. Intangible assets: criteria ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������194
Box 26. Further tangible assets examples: Falaj irrigation system ���������������������������������������196
Box 27. Tools for participation ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213
17 List of abbreviations and acronyms
AD Anno Domini, after Christ
APFO Adequate Public Facility Ordinance
BC Before Christ
B&B Bed & Breakfast
CDS City Development Strategy
COC Chamber of Commerce
Expats Expatriate
FYP Five-Year Development Plan
GDP Gross domestic product
HDMS Highway Design Manual Standards
MECA Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
MENA Middle east and North Africa
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
MOH Ministry of Housing
MOM Ministry of Municipalities
MOT Ministry of Tourism
MOTC Ministry of Transport and Communication
18 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
MRMWR Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
NCSI National Centre for Statistics and Information
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OCCI Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry
OIFC Omani Investment and Finance Company
ONSS Oman National Spatial Strategy
PAEW Public Authority for Electricity and Water
ROP Royal Oman Police
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
ST Sustainable Transportation
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats analysis
TOD Transport Oriented Development
UAE United Arabs Emirates
UDC Urban Development Charges
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlement Programme
UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization
WHO World Health Organization
19 Executive Summary
The “Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience” report, is the joint work of five recent graduates from the Master of Science degree in Urban Management Programme at the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. It is a study that compiles the most important findings of five theseses successfully submitted during February 2015 in Berlin, and that represent the academic research done in the Governorate of Al Buraimi during September 2014.
The current state of the Al Buraimi Governorate offers the perfect field for strategies regarding sustainability, resilience and transformation to be envisioned and formulated. Urban and rural trends portray an emerging society and issues that start being regarded as unsuitable for long- term development: cities are growing extendedly amongst faraway distances, traffic commuting and congestion are increasing, pollution and availability of natural resources is being hard to tackle, economic activities are changing, migration rates escalating, historical assets are being forgotten, etc.
Albeit these growing concerns, population in the Governorate is young and ready to transform, to grab the myriad opportunities that are waiting to be profited from: renewable energies are at Al Buraimi’s doorstep, better water and waste management practices have already started, an improvement of the transportation network can be achieved, the housing paradigm and curving of the urban sprawl can be redirected, and the management of heritage assets in the Governorate can fuel a revival in local identity.
These are the main sectors identified and analysed by the previous studies, and therefore propose strategic approaches. They are presented in the current report as separated chapters. Part 1 of this report comprises an overview of the historical context of Oman and Al Buraimi. Within this part, the current trends and challenges are described and a possible scenario for the year 2030 is presented.
20 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Part 2 of the report is made up of five sub-chapters, each one tackling a field of urban management that together make up a comprehensive analysis: Regional development and growth management; Sustainable transportation, Infrastructure, Housing and urban design, and finally Heritage management and responsible tourism.
After these chapters, Part 3 describes the next steps that are recommended for the Governorate to take action. This third part is made up of a description of the cross-cutting issues identified and that portray the wide spectrum of areas that need to be worked upon. They include issues such as inter-sectoral cooperation and participation. Moreover, the topic of capacity needs assessment and capacity development is explained in light of the recommendations made. This report ends by mentioning a final set of studies that are still needed for the presented strategies to start.
21 Part 1 Current trends and challenges Jesús Salcedo V
Contributors: Panagiotis Achamnos Ana Alcántara Pedro Becerra Florencia Carvajal Sonja Nebel The current chapter introduces the Governorate of Al Buraimi, Oman with a general historic overview, and the socio-political context that has shaped the region. From a general perspective within the urban and regional fields, current trends regarding economic activities, infrastructure, mobility, natural resources and heritage, are presented and explained. Likewise, the current challenges that the region faces are portrayed and then a SWOT analysis is shown. This chapter ends by introducing the general idea behind this report, about a possible and crucial change in development paradigm, and illustrates it by proposing a future scenario under the name „Al Buraimi Vision 2030“. Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Introduction
Rapid urbanization processes have generated Hand in hand with development, the availability considerable research interest in the fields of fossil fuels has facilitated this process. of urban management, urban sociology, and For instance, water scarcity has been solved geography amongst others. These are often through the desalination of seawater as well as consequences of transitions in an economy and its transportation from the coast to the inner examples around the world portray this. cities. Likewise, electricity sources are fossil fuel based and consumer demand for resources is In the Arabic countries of the Persian Gulf such a only increasing. Nonetheless, there are signs of process has been characterized the last 40 years, improvement; there are important achievements with particular economic situations and a fast in the waste water system and the collection of rate. In Oman, there has been a strong transition solid waste too. from rural and nomadic living conditions to a sedentary and urban environment; this has been promoted by the Omani government through a series of measures and policies that rely on fossil fuel availability, investment in education, Box 1. Living conditions are and the diversification of the economy. changing rapidly Al Buraimi, in northwest Oman, Oman has also restructured its administrative continues to grow and the shift zones and created new Governorates, such from economic activities related to as Al Buraimi; thus promoting urban growth agriculture, toward commerce and through the development of its administration, services, has seen improvements in the creation of employment in the government some aspects of the living conditions sector and the construction of housing. This of nationals, but as a consequence has brought about better living conditions to land use is very homogenous. the Omanis, as well as a distinct scattered and Besides this, migration rates are sparse urban fabric in almost every city in the escalating and the scarcity of natural Previous page: country, the consequence of a decade-old land resources is presenting a major Wadi landscape in Oman allocation policy. This is strongly accentuated in problem to future development of Source: (Salcedo, 2014) the Governorate of Al Buraimi. the region.
24 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Additionally, large infrastructure projects in the The current work is focused on a fieldwork Governorate of Al Buraimi and its surroundings analysis of the problems that are a direct are also opening up more opportunities, namely consequence of the urbanization process. the new University Campus, the highway to Problems that affect the Governorate in many Dubai and the future railway link/line/connection different sector, include: spatial structures, the between Sohar and Abu Dhabi. Therefore it is management of utilities, as well as those from essential to study the planning strategies that heritage issues, mobility issues, and finally the the government undertook, and the theories regional scale issues that are related to both the regarding urban economics and regional villages and the main city. This interrelation of development, under an urban-geography issues is associated with the spatial composition umbrella. These have to be contextualized with of the urban and rural areas; the use and the environmental, social and political aspects management of natural resources; the main of the Governorate. economical activities that the city is undertaking and an analysis of the long-term scenarios.
Figure 1. Main suq in Al Buraimi Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 25 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Box 2. Aim of the study This study aims to provide novel strategies for an improved regional development of Al Buraimi. This includes strategies related to regional development, tourism, housing, transport, and waste management. Therefore, obstacles and threats that the region faces are analysed and the myriad possibilities to overcome them are carefully selected in order to provide the local Government with a sound set of strategies related to each of these areas.
Figure 2. Abandoned agricultural plots in the city centre Source: (Salcedo, 2014) 26 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Rationale
Much has been discussed about strategies for There is the possibility that cities in Oman cities and their regions; taking into account the will continue with development as usual, as latest paradigms on sustainability, resilience, currently the energy sector is still proceeding and technological improvements. This has as normal. But the threshold between adopting not underlined all of the Arabic cities in the change early enough, and realizing that regional Persian Gulf. On the contrary, city branding, problems are going to be very hard to tackle, is sustainability marketing, and city marketing still a thin line that is more and more present have been used as a mean to increase wealth in Omani institutions and the general public. and profit of certain sectors but not as a real The current need is not necessarily to address framework or long-term strategy that could emergency issues in Oman, but to address the improve the living conditions of many. This growing concerns, and start to curve them all is exemplified from Kuwait to Doha and Abu before they become a real problem for most Dhabi. of the society. The issues related to the use of natural resources and growing concerns about Urbanization in Oman has fortunately been pollution, mobility and inequality, are certainly somehow dissonant to the rest of the Persian being discussed more and more frequently. Gulf Arabic states. Even though cities are Proof of this is the will of the government to growing very fast, and urbanization issues are provide a long-term strategy for the country, on the rise, the Omanis still have a particular regarding spatial growth, natural resources, and sense of spatial qualities; in large urban areas diversification of the economy, which is already as well as on the small architectural scale. The underway. cities in Oman are on the verge of keeping up with their neighbour’s modernization or falling Therefore, this study can help as the starting back and taking another path. This could be a point of novel strategies that can be applied to strategy that corresponds truly and uniquely the context of one Governorate, and if proven to its geographical, socio-economic and successful in the mid-term, could well be environmental context. replicated in other areas. The chance to propose, promote and improve is there, and this study takes this opportunity to its full potential.
27 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Urbanization background in Oman and Al Buraimi
Historical background of Oman
The socio-economic conditions of the Gulf areas of the economy. These were laid out in states are very different to other Middle East Development Plans that structured the means and North African Countries (MENA) mainly for directing oil revenues into productive because they were free of a direct colonial investment (Looney, 1990). The strategy was domination. There is a strong relationship to develop new sources of national income, to from the ruling families with traditional values develop infrastructure and national manpower and Bedouin tribal traditions and nomadic resources, and to improve the civil service. living, and finally the modern development that Looney (1990) criticizes the fact that the shaped these countries came at the same time economy of Oman was very diversified before as oil revenues were produced and scientific and the reliance on oil, and that since the 70’s this practical experience were on the rise. development of human capital directed many of the aforementioned diverse activities into During the 60’s Oman was characterized as government or oil based industry. having a series of uprisings against the Sultan’s rule in the region of Dhofar. This episode of One of the measures that the government Oman’s history marks the start of a new era took in order to develop the urban milieu was as a country, because the former Sultan’s son, to provide basic infrastructure and jobs in the Sultan Qaboos deposed his father and changed government in most of the country (Janzen, the way in which the country was managed. 1983). For the case of Dhofar this is very relevant, The former Sultan’s rule was characterized as as it was important for the government to make feudalistic and isolated, whereas Qaboos rule urban living attractive enough for nomadic was characterized by economic reforms and tribes to settle down, as the recent revolution modernization. was still a major concern.
The 70´s period marks the start of Sultan During these two decades, there was a decline Qaboos' rule, and it was branded by a series in the traditional caravan trade, and an increase of policies related to development of many in motorization rates as people settled in urban
28 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
areas. There was also an increase in dependence The relevance of this region is related to the of imported goods such as food, and a shift industrialisation and development process that from traditional dwellings into new “modern” the nations located here experienced due to the typologies. Additionally, Omani nationals vast amounts of oil sources. This region is the became more skilled from the 70´s until the world’s largest source of crude oil. Nations such 90´s, and the economy grew at a rapid pace. A as Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, consequence of this was the increased import of the UAE and a part of Oman are located here. low skilled workforce ever since. The Gulf is also a region where 90% of the Arabic urbanization processes in the population live in cities, making it the most Persian Gulf urbanized region in the world (Mohammad The Persian Gulf is a geographical region located and Sidaway, 2012). This process has been fast; in Western Asia between the Arabian Peninsula urbanisation started around the 60’s and 70’s to the southwest and Iran to the northeast. for most of these Arab Nations. Around the
Irak Afghanistan Iran
Kuwait Persian Gulf
Pakistan
Saudi Arabia UAE India Oman Red Sea
Arabian Sea
Eritrea Yemen Figure 3. Geographical location of Oman. The governorate of Al Somalia Buraimi is marked in red Ethiopia Sri Lanka colour. Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 29 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
50’s the main cities, located on the coast, were During the 70’s the process took a faster pace fortified town centres with an important fishing and the Gulf countries made better profits or pearl trade activities, and the population kept during the Arab-Israeli embargo until the 80’s. a close relationship with the nomadic groups During this period, old inner Arabic cities such as Bedouins in the inner land settlements and towns, most of them in desert areas, and oasis (Fox et al., 2006). experienced decreases in population growth, suffered the abandonment of town centres and The region shares more than urban typology and agricultural activities, and moved to larger cities commercial characteristics; it also shares Arabic where employment opportunities were better. as a common language, as well as traditions, religion, and ever since the oil economy started, Modernization process they also share a similar “oil political economy” Fox et. al. (2006) claims that the urbanization (Fox et al., 2006). This political organisation is period took another rhythm during the 80’s, characterized by the governance figure of the where attention was given to other types of Sheikh or ruler. The Sheikh has traditionally infrastructure such as universities, better road been the controller of the natural resource infrastructure, diversification of the economy, wealth, the facilitator of the urban realm, of and tourism. New job opportunities in the modern welfare as well as better life quality. service and industrial sector, opened up the This is also portrayed by the young history of doors to thousands of migrant workers. Parallel urbanization illustrated by the construction of to this, better living conditions that the local roads, housing, infrastructure such as hospitals, citizens were experiencing and the wish to schools, airports, etc. move to new housing settlements outside of the old city centres, made it possible for migrant Alongside this process, the fishermen and workers to move to the city centres and quickly farmers took positions in the newly created settle in smaller dwellings and most of the bureaucratic machines, merchant families time in overcrowded and poor conditions. In engaged in enterprises and trade, ruling sheikhs time, this process degraded the image of the took important positions in the governments, city centres to the eyes of the citizenry, relating and the oil industry expanded rapidly opening them to a poorer sector of the population and a up job opportunities for foreigners as well. decayed state.
30 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Inner city spatial-migration
Around the 90's some of the Gulf States decided live in housing compounds provided by the to change the decaying image of the city centres government. Many of these compounds were by constructing new housing settlements for the built by Oman and the UAE during the 80’s. migrant workers in peripheral locations ; often by demolishing old structures and making way As a consequence of migration from rural into for modern housing projects. These housing urban areas, economic and industrial growth, patterns vary a little from country to country. the Gulf cities are characterized by a distinctive Fox et al., (2006) has identified the following: in demographic profile. They have a numerically the higher classes, rich Sheikhs have built large small indigenous citizenry and a large number palace complexes on the coast, with smaller of low-wage immigrants. In Abu Dhabi for palaces located within an enclosing wall. This example, 75% of its inhabitants are foreign is namely related to the family structure, several workers, and of these only 1% are highly paid spouses as well as housing for the children. (Mohammad and Sidaway, 2012). In the case This structure can be found in the UAE coastal of the UAE migrant workers are referred to as cities as well as the inner cities such as Al Ain, temporary workers and their salaries are usually Al Buraimi’s neighbouring border city. The lower than the requirements they need to meet main rich class has a tendency to build villas, for their families to be permitted to join them. which can be described as palaces but smaller. The enclosing wall typology also occurs here. This rapid urbanization process mainly This high and middle class has been able to illustrated by cities like Dubai or Abu Dhabi, but build these new typologies because of the land also present in Doha, Kuwait, or Riyadh; has allocation policies, subsidized housing, and easy produced centres for trade, culture, finance and loans. The necessity for larger plots in order to tourism. The spatial change has been facilitated accommodate this typology explains why the by the revenues from the petrol industry, and wealthier portion of the population moved into this diversification of the economy can only be the peripheries of the town centre. compared to the urbanization process of cities such as Las Vegas or Los Angeles (Mohammad Finally, the lower strata of society, made up of a and Sidaway, 2012). Cities where segregated majority of migrant workers as well as nomadic patterns distinguish the class of the citizenry, tribes that recently settled in the cities would fragmentary development occurs along the main
31 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Figure 4. Hajar mountain range, Oman. Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 32 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 5. Urbanization process of an inner Oman oasis settlement: Nizwa Source: (Salcedo, 2015)
Box 3. Unique geographical characteristics amongst the Arabian Peninsula
One of the reasons why Oman has a distinct history and civilization from the rest of the Arabic Peninsula is due to the countries natural boundaries (Gangler and Gaube, 2012). Oman is bordered to Saudi Arabia by the Rub al-Khali, or “Empty Quarter; by the Rimal Bainuna to both Saudi Arabia and UAE; Rimal al-Ahqaf to Yemen, and the coast line bordered by the Straight of Hormuz, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The country is also divided by the Jabal Akhdar mountain range; marking different regions of desert planes, coastal planes, mountainous terrain and the more humid south. The arid interior of the country, where Al Buraimi lies, is divided by this mountain range from the coastal planes and the capital. In these regions people could only settle near a natural spring, wadi or by artificial systems such as the falaj.
33 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
transportation routes, and private transport Oman, which would differentiate between towns oriented growth is completely reliant on fossil or cities. The Supreme Committee for Town fuels. Planning would make three distinctions, namely regional centres;, main city, and tertiary centres. What distinguishes the Gulf cities rapid During this decade the biggest settlements in urbanization process from other similar terms of populations were concentrated along processes is the fact that no other region the north coastal plains and around the cities in the world has the same combination of that now make up the metropolitan Muscat. architecture, migratory patterns, government initiatives and city marketing. In conclusion, the There is little information about village seats of power for ruling families, the increase settlements of Oman during the 90’s, since of job opportunities, migration rates from the many villages in the northern part of Oman were desert settlements and from poorer emerging either difficult to consider separate from the economies into the cities, the inner city migration cities; or they were nomad Bedouin villages with to the periphery, and the private transportation seasonal migration between the coast and the reliance, are common characteristics of most interior. Gulf cities . They are the basis for the new modernity, culture and identity that the Gulf has Oman’s capital, Muscat has also experienced acquired; nonetheless in Oman it has managed a rapid urbanization process, as well as other to permeate differently into the cultural and Omani cities in the coast. A similar oil political spatial structure of its cities. economy, migrant workforce, and local citizenry wealth has shaped the capital, whereas private transport infrastructure has lead the direction History and urbanization in inner of growth. They are different to other Gulf cities Oman settlements in the way in which some of the old spatial structures can still be found in central areas, Oman shares most of the characteristics where building heights are homogenous, described earlier but differs to the rest of the and there are strict architectural rules at play Gulf States in many ways. During the 90’s there concerning design, which vows for traditional was still no definition for urban settlements in and Islamic historicist architecture (MOM).
34 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Box 4. Particularities in inner Furthermore, in Oman, inner towns can be subdivided into geographical regions, where country settlements. some of them are at the bases or in the The lack of a traditional trade in mountain ranges, and some of them are located fish or pearl did not make inland in the desert planes farther away from the towns particularly open to other mountains. In these inner settlements, all the cultures (Mohammad and Sidaway, development and urbanization characteristics 2012). Economic activities involved described above also had consequences. The trade between suqs, from camels lack of a natural topographical boundary as in and agricultural goods to slaves, mountainous inner settlements has provided and a semi nomadic culture shaped vast amounts of flat space for the described the towns such as Al-Jahra and Al urbanization processes to occur. This is why Ahmadi in Kuwait; Al Ain in UAE there is a greater contrast between inner and Al Buraimi and Nizwa, amongst settlements such as Al Buraimi which is located many others in Oman. on flat territory.
IRAN
Persian Gulf
Dubai
Gulf of Oman
Abu Dhabi Mahda Sohar
Al Buraimi Al Ain Al Buraimi Governorate UAE
Muscat Figure 6. Geographical As Sunainah location of Al Buraimi OMAN Governorate Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 35 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
History and urbanization in Al Buraimi
The history of the area known as the Buraimi where water was brought from the nearby Hajar Oasis is composed of various stages of mountains with the use of channels. Examples occupation by small groups that fought over of this type of oasis towns are frequent in Oman, the control of the villages in the oasis. This was where there is the availability of fresh ground mainly due to its geographical position linking water and fertile agriculture land. trading routes between the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. There is some evidence that describes the first settlements of the Buraimi Oasis in pre-Islamic The Buraimi Oasis covers an area of about 6km times by tribal migrations from North Africa. by 9km; where 9 settlements with historical Authors like Morton (2013) mention that there associations are found (Petersen, 2009). Life was the presence of a representative of the in these settlements was possible because Prophet Muhammad, who stopped at Tu Am of the aflaj system developed all over Oman, (the name given to the area before the name
Hili Oasis
Al Qattara Oasis Al Buraimi, Oman Al Jimi Oasis Al Buraimi Oasis Hamasa Al Ain, UAE Al Muwaiqih As ‘Sara Figure 7. Villages in the Al Mataradh Oasis Buraimi Oasis area. Many of the original oasis are still part of the urban Al Jimi Oasis fabric of both cities. The Al Ain Oasis blue dotted line shows the position of the aflaj system. Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 36 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Al Buraimi) in order to persuade the Sasanian and Sheikhs in the neighbouring Trucial Oman, government to convert to Islam. Eventually, as well as Saudis that started to incurse to this Sheikhs at Nizwa agreed to convert to Islam land around 1805. Founded on Wahhabism, (Petersen, 2009) and the Sasanians were different groups led by Saudis invaded and took expelled from the Oasis. over the control of the oasis. This led to several fights between them and forces amassed by the There is more information for the period Sultans of Oman, in order to regain control of between the sixth century A.D. and 1700 where the oasis. different groups sieged and controlled the area, expanding the few constructions present in the Some of the first descriptions of the village and oasis. The groups were very diverse; Abbasid its surroundings by western authors appear Caliphs of Baghdad, Ibadite and Sunni factions, around that time. Hammerton and S.B, Miles in Wali’s from neighbouring villages in Oman, Petersen (2009) described Al Buraimi as a large
Figure 8. View of an aflaj channel still ocassionally used for agriculture purposes in the centre of Al Buraimi Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 37 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
The “Buraimi dispute” town with a strategic fort. They confirmed that the surrounding villages had economic activities At those times, Saudi influence on the area was that ranged from manufacturing in pottery, very important, still Wahhabis were prominent weaving, ironworking, trappings, pottery trade, merchants and had control over slave-routes, farming of dates, alfalfa, oranges, mangoes and which flourished in two of the villages of the root vegetables. Oasis. The political situation at those times remained very delicate. Sheikhs would claim The Al Buraimi Oasis had twelve aflaj with an power over its village, and not recognizing average length of 7km. There were also two the power that the Sultan of Oman had over main forts known as Al Illah and Al Khandaq the area. This meant that power relied on the that comprise large rectangular structures. The support of tribe groups that each Sheikh would construction of this fort is attributed to the amass by his own means. Wahhabi’s between 1800 and 1818. The second fort, recognizable by its moat, is considered to be Regionally, the Iraq Petroleum company had older from around 1808 to 1813. Petersen (2009) already signed agreements with both the Sultan argues that this moat typology is rather strange of Oman and the Trucial Sheikhs in order to in Arabia and in post-medieval fortifications. explore the region around the Oasis, but without any clear representation of the Sultan, and with One of the authors that describes the area unstable rulings by the Sheikhs because of around the year 1959, is Wilfred Thessiger in disputes between the Al bu Falah of Abu Dhabi his book Arabian Sands (Thesiger and Stewart, and the bin Maktum of Dubai, the foreign 2008). He was in the Buraimi Oasis several investment in petrol explorations was not times making a four-day trip on camel from Abu accomplished. This feudal system was a chronic Dhabi. Thessiger mentions the existence of a fort problem until the Al Buraimi dispute that ended in Muwaiqih where his host, the Sheikh Zayid in the clear recognition of borders between, the resided. From there, he describes the existence Former UAE and the Sultanate of Oman. of enclosed spaces by mud walls, palm groves and the stunning landscape of Jebel Hafeet, a The events that preceded this dispute start with close by mountain, and the Omani mountains the Saudi’s last incursion in 1952 when they range further away. took over the village of Hamasa with armed
38 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
forces, violating territory from Abu Dhabi. Hamasa was estimated to have around 3,000 This event known as the Buraimi Dispute was people, supporting the Sheikhs Rashid, Obaid even discussed on the United Nations Security and Saqr, who under British pressure and fear Council because of British and U.S. involvement from further reprisals coming in from Muscat, with the three governments in dispute, Oman, left to Saudi Arabia. Trucial Oman and Saudi Arabia. The situation was delicate because the British had influence It is stated that during this short-term influence and some support from both Trucial Oman and of Saudis in Hamasa, the villagers also saw the Sultan of Oman, and the U.S. from Saudi better living standards with the investment that Arabia. the Saudis brought. They started to neglect their agricultural activities and thus began the path Arbitration broke down until 1955 and Britain towards decadence of the Buraimi Oasis and encouraged the expulsion of the Saudis from the its agriculture. During that time, the Sultan in area (Morton, 2013), ending up with the current Muscat spared no relief in helping the villages borders between Oman and UAE being drawn in the Buraimi Oasis to be redeveloped; the aflaj right across the Oasis. Ever since then the area system was left in an abandoned state and even known as the Buraimi Oasis is comprised of though the Wali of Buraimi and the British were nine different villages, Buraimi, As ´Sara and collaborating to invest in Buraimi, the sultan Hamasa today on Oman; and Al Ain, Muwaiqih. refused to cooperate financially with them Mataradh. Jimi, Qattara and Hilli on UAE. (Morton, 2013).
The Oasis after the conflict This is the starting point of the polarisation Around 1955 after the Saudis had been expelled in the economy of Al Ain in the UAE and Al from the Oasis, the situation for the inhabitants Buraimi in Oman. British investment came to Al was delicate. During the four years that Hamasa Ain in support with the Abu Dhabi Sheikh and was under the influence of the Saudis it had the aflaj was repaired and the suq became soon received money and had seen its market activities a thriving place for the local economy. develop. With the expulsion of the Saudis, even though the village itself was not destroyed, the economy was left shattered (Morton, 2013).
39 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Figure 9. Current state of As Sara, View of the centre of the neighbourhood in Al Buraimi Oasis. Source: (Salcedo, 2015) 40 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Current trends Car dependancy Linnear growth and shift in activities The transportation mode is car dependant due to The Governorate of Al Buraimi is distinguished affordability in prices of cars and oil. Moreover, by being the cross point between Oman and there is a car-oriented culture embedded in UAE. AL Buraimi serves as a commercial capital the society. This situation has led to high where business thrives with Al Ain, Abu Dhabi automobile accident rates and considerable and Dubai. Al Buraimi is also a fast-growing areas of land dedicated to car infrastructure. city; new housing areas are being laid out, as Therefore, walking distances or infrastructure well as commercial areas and governmental for non-motorized modes of transportation are offices. Besides this, recreational areas are being non-existent. designed and built too. Nonetheless, there is a trend in expansion that is affecting the urban Service provision is challenging development of the city and its villages. Al Buraimi is growing horizontally and not vertically. The people of Oman are used to Al Buraimi is growing in a linear fashion, mainly having their own land with their own house, thus along the highway route that connects the main growth is happening towards the outskirts of the city with the UAE and with the rest of Oman. city, where it is uncontrolled and very scattered, This is due to a strong car-oriented development without planned infrastructure for basic services. and to the current land allocation policy. The The trend is that these services arrive after the trend is that the city of Al Buraimi is becoming construction of houses, which creates a huge linear, such as Muscat and many others in the problem to the people trying to inhabit these country, growing along a transport route, and areas. For this reason, infrastructure provision not oriented towards employment, education or and specifically the key services face a lot of leisure locations. challenges.
The other trend analysed by this study is that the Finally, solid waste management processes shift from primary activities such as agriculture cannot cope with the rapid growth of the city in and stockbreeding, into governmental offices the absence of sustainable ways of solid waste and a small percentage of the private sector. treatment.
41 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
People are living farther and more Traditional culture is dissapearing disconnected from each other The corresponding increase in internal The tendency for housing and land allocation emigration for work has reduced the rate policy creates an urban tissue composed of of family cohabitation with the number of isolated single dwellings. The plots assigned inhabitants in a household decreasing. Besides for housing are always delivered farther away this, the introduction of novel home designs from the city centre, allowing houses to be built and building materials has displaced traditional disconnected from the city centre, its activities building techniques and materials; changing the or infrastructure systems. There is also a trend traditional aspect of the city towards a modern in oversized housing plots with unnecessary appearance. amounts of space between the designated plots. Additionaly, Hamasa was once a major market, The distance between dwellings prevents but nowadays is deteriorated due to neglect and people from bonding and cultivating a feeling of environmental degradation. The settlement is belonging, therefore restricting social cohesion. now largely uninhabited, offering little incentive Physically, housing has taken an expensive and to potential new residents. There is a tendency inefficient direction as a consequence of the toward abandonment of heritage and cultural city adopting typologies that do not cater to the assets, and the decay of the sense of identity local environmental conditions. Consequently, among the community. Besides this, new it results in high production, functional, and administrations in the Ministry of Heritage and maintenance costs for the city. the Ministry of Tourism do not propose actions in order to increase the attachment towards these assets. Sites as Hamasa are prone to disappear.
42 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 10. Lost oasis and heritage Source: (Salcedo, 2015)
Figure 11. A street in Sa ‘ara, Al Buraimi Source: (Carvajal, 2015)
43 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Current challenges
Curve and re-direct growth Review and reformulate mobility
The future challenge is to withstand this linear The national policy and the legal framework growth and try to curve it. By this, an effort need to be reviewed to overcome the challenge to concentrate growth on specific nodes is of car dependency. In addition, it is necessary to necessary. Precise areas in the city centre have create proximity through higher densities and to be made attractive for development to occur, mixed land uses. Thus, the land distribution as well as some foci in the peripheries have to policy and building codes might be reviewed. be detected in order to start a clustering process Another challenge is to raise public awareness for neighbourhood creation. on sustainable transportation to reduce car use. At the same time, the implementation of There are two important things that must occur. facilities for non-motorized transportation plays Firstly that growth is curved and drawn back an essential roll to minimize car domination. to shorter distances for activities to occur, and Issues such as inaccessibility, pollution, high with this: better practices and technologies for noise level, high congestion, among others, an adequate natural and man-made resource still do not represent an urgent challenge for management get implemented. The second is the city. Nevertheless, if the urban area keeps to prevent primary activities from disappearing, growing at the pace of the previous years and resulting in the Governorate eventually being the new developments continue with the same on the verge of resource scarcity. urban planning system, the city may face the aforementioned challenges in the short and medium term.
Box 5. Diverse nature of challenges In order to accomplish these regional challenges, the Governorate can focus on improving the following: building codes, natural resource management regulations, natural resource technologies, promote better land uses in the city centres and peripheries. Moreover, promote agriculture and livestock activities, within better water management practices and technologies.
44 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Cope with demand
The Municipality will be unable to cope with the demand of water and basic services, and the ever growing population and distances between every new household. The challenge is to address this as well as to tackle the growing Box 6. Land availability demands of solid waste management, and the The municipality faces the problem capacity for wastewater management. of not possessing vacant land for further plot allocation despite having Enhance housing and neighbourhoods most of its territory not yet built. This Another challenge is to enhance the involves the setting of reforms for constructions performance in order for them land delivery procedures. Therefore to have better energy saving and bioclimatic the challenge is to develop reforms standards. The opportunity lies in utilizing within the land delivery procedures land and energy for the development of the city and to distribute plots in areas environment as a whole. Housing’s contribution already in an urbanized state. for the improvement and functioning of urban growth is achieved when it is not seen as isolated constructions but as units within a larger functioning organism; the neighbourhood.
Re-awaken culture The future challenge is the revival of the the intangible heritage represents the death of abandoned settlement of Hamasa. Mud-brick a part of the community’s identity; therefore construction is a valuable vernacular technique there is a great urge to promote the importance in oasis settlements, and along with the physical of heritage assets among the young population. loss of the house structures, the knowledge of Finally, the challenge is to invest in capacity such building traditions is also in danger of building in order for community members to being lost to future generations. The loss of have improved future input in decision-making.
45 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
SWOT analysis Strengths
After presenting the development of the Geographical position and young Governorate, its current trends and challenges, population this study presents a SWOT analysis. It is an easy way to classify preliminary findings into There are two main strengths on the regional strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and scale. One of them is the geographical position; threats. It therefore identifies the strong and the Governorate lies on the Crossroads between weak points of the city and villages and helps to growing metropolitan areas, Sohar, Nizwa, Abu quickly show what can be exploited and profited Dhabi and Dubai. This is already fuelling the from, or what can harm the region. economy and business of the city, but it can still be exploited even more. The second strength In the case of threats and opportunities, a wider are the human resources; the Governorate has a scope for analysis is encountered as these two big young educated population that need to find are frequently external or the city may have no places to work and live in order not to go outside control over them. Threats can include factors of the region in search of better opportunities. related to national urban environment, political context, trade agreements, infrastructure, etc. Sustainability awareness The role of the analysis is to identify if they are There is an increasing awareness about contributing to the development or if they are environmental sustainability among the exposing the city to problems. government institutions. Additionally, the Governorate of Al Buraimi and ministries are On the other hand, the SWOT analysis serves seriously considering the improvement of as a guideline to propose alternative scenarios citizens’ quality of life. This can be seen in how for development. The use of scenarios is the local government is open to new ideas for helpful in order to present possible outcomes urban development, protecting the local identity, to stakeholders (Cities Alliance, 2011). Similarly, and cultural value, for instance. the study presents many options out of the SWOT analysis, in order for local authorities to work towards a collective decision and to gain ownership whilst choosing the option that they find more suitable.
46 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Investment in sustainable infrastructure Box 7. Strengths Geographical position and human The main strength is that the majority of resources population is connected to a water system; almost the 80 per cent. Besides this, the new Environmental sustainability wastewater treatment plant is another strong, awareness which is very modern even though it still does Water network connection not cover the entire city, but marks a big leap Wastewater improvement in the improvement of wastewater handling. Equality in tenure possibilities Additionally, residents’ eagerness to participate in recycling and waste separation projects is a Homogenous cityscape good strength on which to profit. Cultural identity Location of heritage assets Equality of tenure One of the main strengths is the intention to keep land and housing tenure possibilities equal among citizens. This is the main reason the lottery method was considered for distributing Pride through identity land. The main quality Hamasa possesses is the Another beneficial aspect is the propensity ability to give a sense of pride to the community; for a more distinctive architectural style or the mud brick-houses are part of the identity elements for the city making it consequently and belong to the cultural heritage assets of the more homogenous. Additionally, land remnant area, making the site unique. Its location is also availability can be used to link residences among beneficial; near to the Al Ain border in the U.A.E. each other if given an intentional public open and within the city. it is also next to the Fort Al space character. Hillah and Fort Khandaq.
47 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Weaknesses
Natural resource management
The main weaknesses found have to do with the lack of land and budget designated for the the management of natural resources, and establishment of recycling centres. mainly water. This can be seen in examples in both the city and villages. This is linked directly Inadequate housing design with the scarcity in the Al Buraimi city aflaj, and The current building regulations do not consider the depletion of groundwater reserves in many the surrounding environment. This leads to areas. Likewise, the availability of desalinated a lack of identity between neighbourhoods. water has prevented that a responsible water Another weakness is how the housing sector management culture exists. is addressing the climatic conditions with high energy consuming systems. Centralization, lack of participation and car-dominance The centralized governance structure, inadequate coordination, and the lack of Box 8. Weaknesses public participation are weaknesses of the Natural resource management transportation planning. This is portrayed by Lack in autonomy at the local level for the lack in autonomy at the local level to make transportation planning decisions on plans or strategies. Additionally, Car-oriented development car-oriented development and low prices of cars and fuel have lead to automobile dependence, Low percentage of wastewater reuse minimizing the chances of non-motorized Inadequate building regulations transportation. Finally, the transportation High energy consumption at a facilities have absorbed significant areas of land. household level
Inadequate wastewater reuse Few skilled human resources on the field of responsible tourism The percentage of wastewater reused is very low, and there is a lack of recycling processes. Lack of cooperation between There is a weakness in planning because of Ministries
48 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Lack of capacity building and Sunlight cooperation Al Buraimi has unlimited amounts of sunlight There is a weakness in terms of capacity that could be used to generate renewable energy building as there are little human resources that in many different ways. are skilled in the field of responsible tourism, as well as a weak tourism diffusion from both the Smart growth Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of Heritage, The Sultanate of Oman has enough financial also portrayed by their lack of cooperation in the resources from the oil industry, which matter. Finally, the lack of interest on a fraction could be invested in innovative sustainable of the community is also a weakness for the transportation. There is still time for smart development of Hamasa. growth by reformulating the current planning processes and switching into a more sustainable Opportunities mode of transportation.
Introspection of the economy Box 9. Opportunities The closing of the border with Al Ain can represents some negative issues, such as Al Investment in local know-how and Buraimi locals have more trouble profiting clusters from the opportunities Al Ain offers in terms of Investment in education commerce and education due to congestion at Investment in solar energy the check points and vice-versa. Nonetheless, Switch into sustainable transportation this new border has begun a slow but good process of introspection of economy into Al Creation of a water saving culture Buraimi. This is an opportunity to invest in Creation of a recycling culture businesses, local know how (i.e.: clusters) and Solar energy at a household level education; enhancing spaces inside the city so Creation of jobs in the tourism sector that businesses and more types of uses appear (i.e: worship, education, commerce). Re-introduction of vernacular building and art craft techniques
49 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Recycling and saving culture Threats
The residents’ willingness in saving water could High costs of development and be used to foster better water saving plans, as resource dependancy well as introducing recycling at all levels. The performance and lifetime of the current landfill This study claims that the land allocation policy, can also be improved. combined with the particular oil-economy in Oman and governmental strategy, has produced Learning from abroad the scattered urbanization process, and this is There is room for change in housing, as most the origin of most constraints, weaknesses and of the land stock remains un-built. There is also eventually threats. They include the high cost the possibility of learning from better practices of infrastructure and service delivery, as well as elsewhere, and use them as references for better resource dependency and scarcity. The rise in planning strategies. costs exists on two levels. First of all on a utilities level including water, wastewater, electricity, etc.; New economic activities and secondly on a typological level including By developing the area of Hamasa within roads, schools, clinics, commerce, etc. The responsible tourism criteria, new job growing dependency on basic natural or man- opportunities can be created. Additionally, made resources such as water or food is reintroducing vernacular building techniques increasing; therefore the risk for the Governorate and with them, a sense of identity amongst Al of having resource scarcity in the future if ever Buraimi locals. Finally, art craft production can the economy changes abruptly is very likely. also be re-introduced, such as basketry and pottery. Inequality in mobility and health risks Inequality and unfair accessibility for vulnerable groups are threats for community development and social cohesion. In addition, public health and security is permanently threatened by the car-oriented development. This mode entails ecological threats such as pollution, contamination, high levels of noise, and destruction of the local ecosystems.
50 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Growing water demand and waste Box 10. Threats
Issues associated with water demand include Rise in infrastructure and service costs the major drought periods caused by climate Resource scarcity change, and straining by the population. Inequality and unfair accessibility to Moreover, there is a general reluctance on behalf transport for vulnerable groups of the community to reuse treated water i.e.: for Costs of externalities attributed to car- the irrigation of the grass in the green spaces. oriented development Another threat is that the current landfill is very Increased water demand close to the residential area and it does not fulfil Reluctance to reuse treated water the technical requirements, posing a threat for Landfill threat to public health and the the environment and the health provision of the environment area. Disintegration of the urban structure Scarce land stock because of the land allocation policy Loss of intangible and cultural assets There is a lack of vacant land within Al Buraimi to supply the housing demand for the following lottery applicants. Talks with the neighbouring wilayat of Mahdah have already begun to negotiate the use of their land. The further disintegration of the city and its residential areas affects social cohesion and enlarges many of the urban issues aforementioned i.e.: costs.
Loss of intangible assets The lack of interest from the community, and the loss of attachment to heritage and cultural assets. Besides this, political factors affect the creation of awareness campaigns promoting the importance of the site. This can lead to a permanent loss of such assets.
51 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Al Buraimi 2030; a vision for a resilient future quality and are grown with sustainable practices. The Governorate of Al Buraimi can be the place Products that come from neighbouring Mahda where inner land settlements revive an Omani and As Sunainah are more valued than products culture that has stagnated over the last 40 that come from other regions or countries, based yearsVision 2030 on their responsible and organic production practices. New neighbourhood units and housing typologies occur on a small but condensed On a municipal level, Al Buraimi has a strong level, where small day-to-day activities can occur control on how to deliver services. This is within footsteps of each household. People can done according to urban growth management walk through cool, shaded pedestrian streets instruments, where growth is fostered in and head to the mosque, store, school, coffee clustered units and not in a linear or concentric shop, etc. without having the need to use their manner. This means that the Governorate cars. Neighbourhoods also allow people to constantly monitors the growth patterns of interact on a daily basis with their neighbours; its city and villages and delivers utilities and social cohesion is constantly increasing. services to places where more units are built together; likewise, it taxes the development On a household level, Al Buraimi produces of land in areas outside of “adequate public more than half the electricity needed with the facility ordinances” (APFO) and promotes the use of solar panels, and the remaining fraction development of land inside them with the use of of electricity provided to the Governorate is used building incentives. This is mainly governed with for purposes other than housing. People have a a renewed building code and building permits. water conservation mind-set and everything is recycled to the last drop. There is also a growing Development in Al Buraimi is also encouraged trend in people growing small amounts of fruit to occur rapidly in some areas. The city centre and vegetables in their own households. and the oasis are places coveted for the development of housing and commerce, and In the villages, agriculture remains a strong the living conditions here are preferable for economy, and the products from local farms are residents that want to experience the benefits of sold locally at Al Buraimi as they have the best shorter commutes and mixed-use typologies.
52 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Al Buraimi works as a hub for business and city . This system is based on recycling, and a commerce between cities in Oman as Sohar and sewage network that has a high percentage of Nizwa, and cities in the UAE; providing places reused treated wastewater. Al Buraimi residents for conferences, meetings, as well as all types are aware of the importance of adopting more of leisure and commercial activities surrounding environmentally friendly practices towards the the central Oasis and reclaimed heritage zone. use, reuse and conservation of water, as well as Al Buraimi and its villages are now proof that the separating and recycling their solid waste. Omani way of living is unique and can be in line with best practices towards the environment. Neighbourhoods are recognized by their harmonized appearance, which reinforces The city has also adopted smart growth the community’s identity. They are also strategies, minimizing land occupation for car interconnected with thoroughfares, for residents facilities, and reducing automobile dependency to access the different vicinities. Moreover, whilst prioritizing pedestrians. In addition, neighbourhoods are thriving with pleasant residents are made aware of the importance resting squares and areas to pause from the of adopting environmentally friendly practices. heat and daily stress. Al Buraimi is a city that is Furthermore, public transportation is used as an example in the rest of Oman, due to implemented and functioning throughout the its innovations with bioclimatic and high energy city with the aim of providing a sustainable savings in buildings. choice of transport for everyone. Finally, the revitalization of Hamasa has Additionally, the city has minimized the use been accomplished and the involvement of of non-renewable resources, the impacts on the community towards the tourism sectors the natural environment and protects the local has been acknowledged. Training and skill biodiversity whilst fostering the use of renewable development became key elements in order to resources. Furthermore, the city and region has revive the oasis settlement of Hamasa, so as to managed to secure safe access to fresh water for become a national tourist attraction. all the residents through an adequate network,. It has also managed to introduce a solid waste management network that covers the entire
53 Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
The need for a paradigm shift
Omani development in inner settlements has and the traditional way of living is now mere been shaped by a distinctive trade and caravan history. Omani modern life is also shaped by commerce; by an amazing water system and the consequences of the land allocation policy, agricultural activities related to it, and within which has allowed equal opportunities of tenure architectural typologies of great value to to arise between all Omani nationals. Omani heritage. This shaped cities such as Al Buraimi that relied on commercial routes from This study makes the claim that Al Buraimi has the Omani coastal towns into the UAE shores. the opportunity to shift from this paradigm of Towns developed around the Oasis that were development that Omani culture has undergone fed by the aflaj, and in turn fed the inhabitants during the last 40 years, and start to direct it with produce and cooler temperatures. toward long-term strategies. This can be framed within the well being of the majority, an efficient This has been distorted during the last 50 years. use of natural resources and conservation of the A shift from semi-nomadic activities into a ecosystem, a shift in household typologies, in sedentary modernization, facilitated by a rich better technologies related to service provision, oil industry and the creation of employment in in better transportation modes, in better the governmental sector, has occurred rapidly economic opportunities in the regional level and the reconnection to lost heritage and culture.
Box 11. Rising problematic Many issues that are arising in Al Buraimi are common to other places in the world. They have to do with rapid growth of urban areas, the shift from primary activities into the service and governmental sector, a growing migratory profile as well as a growing young population, a strong car oriented development, a reliance on external natural and man-made resources, the lost of identity and heritage, the reliance on non-renewable sources of energy. Finally , an ever growing distance between housing units that has an overall effect of spreading all the aforementioned problems into long distances for them to be tackled. Besides this, rising living costs are a reality: portrayed by electricity, water, fuel, construction costs; time spent commuting and increasing health problems.
54 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 12. View of the scattered neighbourhoods Source: (Salcedo, 2015)
55 Part 2.1 Regional development & growth management Jesús Salcedo V. The following study presumes that if A set of criteria that can improve the spatial development continues in the current manner, living conditions is presented. It is theoretically disparities amongst social groups will grow framed under the urban growth management rapidly and the region will be reliant on external field. Additionally, The study proposes a set of resources; moving further apart from any recommendations in the shape of instruments aspiring resilience thus always having the risk for urban growth management, as well as maps of resource scarcity, worse living conditions that illustrate how can they be applied in the and disparities, as well as a deteriorating quality short, medium and long term. The purpose of life. The following chapter sheds light on of the recommendations is to redirect the the process that has resulted in Al Buraimi Governorate’s development strategy toward Governorate’s urban and regional state. In improving and profiting from its assets, to order to do so, a geographical and socio- improve its use of natural resources and public economical analysis is presented, as well as a space, as well as the policies that will curve spatial overview of the urbanization process in the ever growing sprawl, by shifting into a new the Governorate. The major advantages and set of criteria regarding urban and regional disadvantages regarding spatial development development. are drawn and with them, a strategy is framed. Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Assesment of the current state
Taking into account that the problematic of maximums of 48 C. Likewise rainfall has been the Governorate has been presented, the very irregular and scarce during the last five following study starts with a brief analysis of years. From 2002 to 2006 the lowest amount different geographical, economic, social and recorded was 36mm of rainfall, and from spatial factors that affect the Governorate as a 2007 to 2012 the lowest recorded was 12mm. region. Afterwards it explains the strategy and Moreover, averages for these two periods are instruments recommended. 67mm and 38.6mm. In terms of weather and water resources Al Buraimi is one of the hottest Climate, Temperature and rainfall and underprivileged in Oman. According to the statistics, the maximum temperatures recorded for Al Buraimi since Water Resources 2002 have risen considerably. In other terms, Historically the Buraimi Oasis was a source of the last 5 years have been the hottest; reaching many products that were cultivated thanks to
Figure 13. Maximum and minimum temperatures in Al Buraimi Governorate. Source: NCSI, modified by author Previous page: Agriculture in Hafeet, Al Buraimi Governorate Source: (NCSI, modified by author).
58 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 14. Average rainfall in Al Buraimi Governorate Source: (NCSI, modified by author)
the aflaj system, its use being spread all around if most of the responsibility of drying up the the country. The aflaj allowed ground water ground water is due to the extraction by wells. from nearby mountains to be transported as far Decline in agricultural activities as the agricultural lands in the Buraimi Oasis villages, where mainly date palm was cultivated. The rapid urbanization and its direct increase on Nowadays, the two main oases that are still in the the demand for water is not the only cause of Omani side are a mere glimpse of the splendour the abandoned state of Al Buraimi’s agriculture. that the aflaj system allowed to flourish. Around The process which the country undertook since 10 years ago, the water flow from the aflaj system the 1970’s to improve the industry and provide was almost exhausted do to a rapid increase better employment for Omanis as well as in water use in the surroundings. The fast fostering the sedentariness of many nomads urbanization of Al Buraimi and Al Ain used most (Janzen, 1983, p.292) is also the reason why a of the ground water available until the point of diversification of employment was introduced. drying up the source of the aflaj (MOM, MECA). Later on, activities that resulted more attractive It is still uncertain to the Al-Buraimi government in terms of revenues and man labour started
59 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
to replace agriculture. This is portrayed in through evaporation and overuse. This could be contemporary Al Buraimi by the fact that only a sustained with investment in better engineering few landowners still use their plots in the Oasis technologies for irrigation and transportation of to grow products. Many of them have seen an water. opportunity in migrant workers to rent these lands and allowing the renters to utilize the land Increase in desalinated water for their own self-production. production The authorities have acknowledged the water Water scarcity in the agricultural sector scarcity problem, and the country knows that One of the reasons for the rapid decline in there is a lot to do in terms of management, agricultural activities is the drastic change in and improvement of agricultural practices. rainfall seasons (MOA, 2014). Another reason Desalination plants produce around 77% of the is the job opportunities that have been created water used in domestic purposes in Muscat in other sectors, namely government offices, (Abdel-Rahman and Abdel-Magid, 1993). In that have displaced a lot of people from time- comparison, there has been a decrease of 37% consuming and less profitable agricultural in the production of water in Al Buraimi from activities. These urban activities are more 1,094 M. Gallons in 2010, to 679 Mn. Gallons secure and profitable: the Omani government in 2012 (NCSI). This is due to the opening offers numerous job opportunities in all of the desalinization plant in Sohar, in the sectors. Furthermore, land use change was still Governorate of Al Batinah (North and South), possible until recently, when the Ministry of which now covers most of the supply of water to Agriculture placed a halt on land use changes Al Buraimi. To understand the water production from agriculture to other uses. This means that required for both Governorates, Al Batinah and agricultural land in the Governorate can no Al Buraimi, we need to look at this figure closely. longer be transformed into housing, commercial In Al Batinah, there is an increase of 22% in the lots, etc. production, from 21,480 Mn. Gallons in 2010 to 26,396 Mn. Gallons in 2012. This Governorate Authors such as Abdel Rahmnn and Omezzine is the one with the biggest production of water, (1996) describe problems that the traditional exceeding the production of Muscat (14,937 aflaj system has on contemporary agriculture. Mn. Gallons in 2012) by far. The supply for Al During irrigation a lot of water is wasted Buraimi is included in this numbers.
60 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 15. Production of desalinated water in different Governorates. Sohar produces all the desalinated water that gets sent to Al Buraimi Governorate Source: (NCSI, modified by author)
Energy
Oman privatized its energy sector as early as The household sector consumes more than 1999. This has encouraged a lot of growth in 50 percent of the country’s total electricity (Al- the sector (Al-Badi et al., 2009). Today 80% Badi et al., 2009), whereas the industrial sector of Oman’s GDP is comprised of gas and oil is growing every year. These are the two main revenues. The whole country relies on electricity consuming sectors. Part of the problem related generated by gas, but meeting the ever-growing to the energy sector, is that the pricing system demand from the household and industry doesn’t reflect the true cost it takes to generate sectors will be a task hard to deal with. This is electricity. Energy is heavily subsidized (Al-Badi the main reason why there is a lot of potential in et al., 2009), for household, industry and for studying the energy sector and its future shift to agriculture, and this does not provide incentives renewable sources. to save energy at a household level.
61 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Figure 16. Omani population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 Source: NCSI and Author, 2014
Figure 17. Expat population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 Source: NCSI and Author, 2014
62 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Population
Population has been increasing during the part in the coast and activities taking part in previous years, mainly due to the creation the inner settlements. Until 1970 the economy of the Governorate and the increase in of the country was characterized by this duality, employment in the government sector. There where the ports traded dynamically with each was a population growth of 22.8% from 72,917 other and those of other countries (Speece, people in 2010 to 89,564 in 2012. If we look at 1989); then with second category ports, and the data in terms of nationals and expatriates small settlements; and only then would they there are some interesting findings. There is connect through the rough country’s topography an increase in nationals of 6.93% from 43,026 with established trade routes into the inner in 2010 to 46,004 in 2012; and an increase of settlements. These were places where caravan expatriates of 45.73% from 29,891 in 2010 to trade occurred, and only if the demand for trade 43,560 in 2012. Most of the expatriates come and the population were large enough, bazaars from India, Pakistan, North Africa, Indonesia and suqs would be established as permanent and the Philippines. This means that as of 2012 structures. expatriates make up 48% of the population in Al Buraimi Governorate. This same growth Trade in Al Buraimi has been contrasting in the two villages of the S.B. Miles in (Speece, 1989) described the Governorate. Omani growth in As Sunainah has market activities in Al Buraimi in 1877 as “one been 7.19%, but expats have decreased by 86%. of the small markets. It had no proper bazaar; In Mahda, Omani growth has been 6,92% as in trade was done almost entirely by barter at an Al Buraimi; but expats have decreased by 69%. open-air market”. Today, the Al Buraimi suq is This means that there are more employment only a remnant of any splendour that it could opportunities for expats in the city of Al Buraimi. have actually had in recent years. The area of Hamassa at the middle of the 20th century had Trade and clusters the main buildings that hosted different types Oman’s economy can be regarded as a shift of commerce, (Phillips, 1972) and slave trade from traditional trade and feudalism into continued well beyond the 1950s. oil industries, governmental sector, and entrepreneurship. Moreover, the economy in the Today in there is amongst smaller activities country can be separated as the activities taking like the construction sector and the quarries,
63 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
an interesting economic activity, which this a spatial link between these same types of study uses to portray one of the particular commerce, to foster the exchange of knowledge, characteristics of the city. In the central parts of networks, workforce, commercial links, etc. the city there is a series of business dedicated exclusively to the selling of ready-made clothing Spatial analysis or the tailoring of clothing, mostly for women. The governorate of Al Buraimi was created in One of the key arguments to promote clusters 2006 from a part of the Ad Dhahirah region. is that “there is an increasing importance of This governorate is located in northeast Oman, knowledge-creating processes for competitive bordering with the UAE to the west andnorth, advantage in global economies” (Cumbers the Al Batinah region to the east, and the Ad and Mackinnon, 2004, p.962). For the case of Dhahirah to the south. The governorate is made Al Buraimi, there is a potential in promoting up of three Wilayats; Al Buraimi, Mahda and
Figure 18. Mens tailoring and readymade clothes. Clothing cluster in Al Buraimi. Source: (Author, 2015) 64 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Sunainah. The city of Al Buraimi is the capital of and layout new areas where development will the governorate, and it lies directly on the border expand and then distribute the land. There is no with the UAE, adjacent to the city of Al Ain on obligation to build on the plots, people have the the other side of this international border. choice of using these plots to build housing, to sell, rent or trade them. In consequence, there is Land allocation policy a large amount of plots that get distributed but The main factor that has shaped the spatial that undergo no development. structure of cities in Oman is the land allocation policy that was implemented in 1984. The Regarding infrastructure, the plots are normally conditions in which people receive the plots are serviced with electricity during the first year. very basic. Most of the time plots are allocated Road infrastructure is not necessarily provided; in areas of the city where no development this decision is made according to the budget has occurred yet, because the Ministries plan allocations of the Ministry of Transport and
Figure 19. Spatial charachetristics in Al Buraimi D A: Minimum development E took place at the sand dunes B: Oasis F B C: As’ Sara D: Al Khadra A C E: New park and sports complex Al Buraimi F: Main east-west axis Al ain G: large extensions of G allocated land Source: (CNES / Astrium, CNES/ Spot Image, Digital Globe, modified by author., 2014) 65 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Communication (MOTC) which are different in laid out for the city. During that time housing and time with the expansion plans of the Ministry of economic activities were mainly concentrated to Municipalities, from which water, sewage and the south of the Oasis, still thriving with palm waste handling is provided. Another secondary groves. Housing settlements could be found factor that affects the willingness to build on the between the Oasis and the southern border plots or not, is the preference for Omani’s to with Al Ain. This border was just a political live close to their relatives. Thus, once land is one, but there was no control from either of allocated they also try to buy and sell in order to the countries, meaning that locals could cross group themselves and build close to each other. between Al Buraimi and Al Ain at any time. Nonetheless, the main roads that used to cross This policy, along with its consequences in from each side to another are the same north- terms of services, gave its spatial characteristics south axis that still exists and where the border to the urban growth of cities like Al Buraimi. checkpoints are now situated. During the 1990s the policy was modified and the standard plot size was raised. Ever since, Another distinctive feature of the space between the areas distributed vary between 600m² to Al Ain and Al Buraimi is the sand dunes situated 900m²; with obvious consequences to the between the Oasis and the western border. rapid scattered sprawl of the cities in Oman. Regional Planning Committee laid out housing Moreover, there was a turn in the events when plots during the 80’s. In this plan, there is also the scattered sprawl reached unprecedented the designation of residential areas around the scales, because as of 2008 women are also old city of Hamasa, but fortunately not all the eligible to a plot (MOH, 2014). This doubled plots were built upon. Today the former villages the demand of applications, and thus the of Buraimi, As ´Sara and Hamasa are now a part land allocated for housing extended farther of the urban fabric of the whole city, which still and farther away from the city centres, around uses its names to define the neighbourhoods. 10km of linear expansion during the last 8 years (MOM, 2014; MOH, 2014). On the city’s land use plans today (MOH), we can observe that most of the residential areas Big plans, unexpected changes that were planned around As’ Sarah and Al The most interesting changes in Al Buraimi’s Khadra were built upon, in comparison to the urbanization process are related to housing. urban scattered patterns that extend from As’ Between 1984 and 1986 expansion plans were Sarah far into the west of the city limits. 66 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 20. Satelite view of Al Buraimi’s Source: (CNES / Astrium, CNES/ Spot Image, Digital Globe, modified by author.)
Figure 21. Current land use plan Same scattered development as in satelite image, showing all the roads and different type of buildings foreseen in the expansion plans. White solids represent existing structures Source: (MOH/ Author, 2015) modified by author. 67 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
There are two reasons why this happened: the Strikingly, both Hafeet and As Sunainah have land allocation policy, and the large amounts of heritage values that are not being taken care of. plots destined for governmental offices when In Hafeet, the Ministry of Heritage has identified Al Buraimi was made a Governorate in 2006. many pre-historic graves but they remain These plots account for a big proportion of land, unknown to most Omanis, as well as their is spreading out new residential areas farther into not a profit being acquired from their historic the west, where not much has been built yet. potential.
The villages Regional and common problematic The villages such as Mahda, Sunainah or Hafeet Omani lifestyle is becoming more and more have similar spatial structures. Many plots resource dependant; consequence of having in the villages are larger as many of them are wealth from the petrol sector and imported functioning as agricultural lands with houses labour. This lifestyle is portrayed by the built inside. This older land pattern is mixed with simplicity which Omanis can build houses that the land allocation policy where smaller plots, are detached from any urban tissue, because nonetheless between 400-900m2 big, have there is always the possibility of commuting via been allocated for the construction of housing. private vehicles. These new plots are nearer to the highways that link the towns and villages to bigger cities e.g..: The setting of areas for strategic Al Buraimi, Ibris, Nizwa. development and growth management The analysis shows that Al Buraimi has the One of the striking features of Hafeet or As means to provide subsidized resources and Sunainah is the fact that spatial structures are services on an almost individual basis, such as: not as scattered as in the city of Al Buraimi. In water, electricity, etc.; but these living conditions the villages a better, denser and more compact are getting farther away from what a city and structure seems to have prevailed. This is due region should pursue in terms of resilient to the fact that most land allocated has been development. inside the city of Al Buraimi, and not the villages, and also because population growth in the The need to supply individual services for villages has remained either constant or slightly each household has negative economic decreasing. consequences. Nonetheless, the principal
68 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
problem lies in the concept of the land allocation certain areas of the city that have constraints policy, because it is not necessarily attaining the and disadvantages on which to act. They are in objective that it had at its conception; to provide turn, linked to some of the opportunities and Omanis with land for housing and therefore strengths analysed. Therefore, they enhance, better living conditions. The policy is only improve, and turn threats and disadvantages addressing land tenure issues in a way in which into opportunities and strengths for the future. everyone obtains the right to a portion of land, Within the Governorate, three areas with a plot that is unattached from the living urban particular characteristics can be specified: fabric and that comes with a series of terms and conditions that make attaining better living Strategic area 1: City centre conditions more difficult. The strategic area comprises the centre of Al Buraimi along the clothing cluster, with The conclusions of this analysis, as well as the old suq and oasis on one end, and the the SWOT analysis presented on the previous governmental district and both Hamasa and chapter, opens up the possibility of combining Sa’ara on the other. The disadvantages here
Figure 22. Strategic area 1. City centre and 2. Outskirts. Source: (Author, 2015) 69 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
are related to the abandonment of agricultural spatial development are the most striking. Most land, and congestion due to work places and of the issues analysed in the SWOT are present car ownership. But it also represents one of the in this area. lively areas of the city, with plenty of work places, combined with commerce and residential areas, Strategic area 3: As Sunainah highger density and smaller commuting times. Land is on the verge of being abandoned for better opportunities in the city, and the public Strategic area 2: The outskirts facilities such as markets, schools, and places The outskirts of the city or the area where of work are scarce. Future scattered housing scattered development is the least dense. Where and growth are also a threat to the small rural housing units are located far away from one structures of the villages, thus here another another and the service of public infrastructure set of criteria towards strategic development is scarce. Here, the consequences of the type of can be made. In order to produce a set of
Figure 23. Strategic area 2. As Sunainah Source: (Author, 2015) 70 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
recommendations and finally a set of criteria for the development of these 3 strategic areas, a policy and instrument review regarding urban growth management has to be presented; as well as the specific instruments and policies reviewed have to be contextualized.
Instrument and policy analysis for Al Buraimi Governorate’s regional Box 12. Basic considerations for growth management the instruments All of the options that are proposed here In the following section the main tools and are valid instruments for the city of Al instruments that are used to manage urban Buraimi and the villages, framed within growth and its pertinence to the context of Al three strategic areas. Nonetheless it is Buraimi are explained. Also, a conclusion that the responsibility of the policy maker will shed light on the establishment of a set of to decide which one of these options criteria for further urban growth is presented. suits the citizens better, and to decide through consensus, with the municipal authorities, on which ones to develop This chapter describes briefly the general further and finally implement. The situation of the three strategic areas, taking main objectives to have in mind when into account that all of the urban issues are choosing these instruments are to know already discussed and described in the SWOT the direction, quality and pace of growth analysis, and then mentions which of the urban that Al Buraimi wants. growth management instruments are the most pertinent to each area. Graphic images are presented for each of the three strategic areas, that portray an example of how could these instruments be framed at an urban and rural scale. In other words, this study identifies all the potential places where the set of instruments can be implemented within the strategic areas and thus presents it in the shape of maps. 71 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Figure 24. Strategic area 1. City centre satelite image Highest density and most diverse plot use in city centre Source: (CNES / Astrium, CNES/ Spot Image, Digital Globe, modified by author., 2014) The city centre of Al Buraimi
The main problems analysed include plots that this area is attractive for new constructions, are left unused, development mainly along the therefore regulatory instruments can play a highway, lack of quality and quantity of places big role here, promoting the construction of for gathering, increasing congestion in the main projects according to a new set of sustainable avenues, etc. This is why a set of instruments criteria. Additionally, the municipality should can be very rewarding in terms of making plots offer the opportunity for mixed use buildings to more attractive for development, improving the appear along certain areas, as well as for new quality of urban fabric by starting “punctual” architectural typologies to be tested. renewal projects, regulating the sprawl of certain commerce or office space in some areas, There are many empty plots that need be to be as well as fostering the growth of it in others. made more attractive by allowing new typologies The instrument that identifies “areas with and uses to exist. This is why the mix-use, urban potential use” can tackle this. Likewise, building regulations, district specialization and
72 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 25. Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban growth management instruments Source: (Author, 2015)
Existing building urban design potential instruments are relevant for this strategic area. In the short term, it is Un-built plot expected to see new projects come in the way Existing street of the current urban fabric, but slowly a change Un-built street in paradigm is expected to occur, when citizens New building regulations and typologies have the chance to experience the benefits of better urban conditions. They are expected Mixed-use to occur in many ways: less commuting to Specialized commercial district places of leisure, worship, commerce, study; Plots with urban design potential and connectivity better building conditions and reduced costs Adequate Public Facility Ordinances in electricity for air conditioning; better urban space after urban interventions occur; and Specialized agriculture district lastly a thriving district with commerce, culture, Short time allowed for plots to develop habitation and office space condensed in a Medium time allowed for plots to develop better and optimal way. Extenden time allowed for plots to develop
73 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Figure 26. Strategic area 1. City centre: Specialized clothing cluster Source: (Author, 2015)
The main instrument for this to occur in the long The real shift in paradigm will occur when land term will be the time allowed for plots to develop. in the city centre of Al Buraimi becomes more If made possible, plot owners that don’t have attractive for projects to be built. any intention to develop the land, can be offered another plot in an area that is not affected by this The Municipality should always keep in mind policy. Bids for projects in available plots within that when making decision over a set of projects the time frame policy can then be reviewed by for a given plot, the project that ensures the best the authorities and then choose the projects that use of sustainable construction methods, and fulfil the new development criteria proposed by that ensures better urban quality for its users this study. The time frame considered for this and its surroundings, should always be chosen, policy is the following: short term developments are proposed as lasting 2 years; a medium term Regarding APFOs in the city centre, new projects 5 years, and a longer term 10 years. This is why that want to be developed here will have to pay a this instrument will start transforming the city in higher price than the projects that are developed the mid- and long-term. in city areas where the distribution of services is still not existent. 74 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 28. Strategic area 1. City centre: Time allowed for plots to develop Source: (Author, 2015)
Figure 27. Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban design intervention potential Pedestrian connectivity, shadowed spaces, etc. Source: (Author, 2015) 75 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Figure 29. Strategic area 2. Outskirts satelite image: Lowest densities and lack of services. Source: CNES / Astrium, CNES/ Spot Image, Digital Globe, modified by author. The outskirts of Al Buraimi:
what is the minimum amount of households The main need in areas that have a low density that could be served with this instrument. and scattered sprawl is to curve this growth and Interventions such as these can add value to try to cluster housing units with one another. In the plots and fostering the clustering of more the short term, the main instruments that play housing units. These instruments can only work role are the land allocation cap and a possible if they are placed under Adequate Public Facility land allocation moratorium, explained in detail Ordinances (APFO) and they can only be made in the following section. in the long term. Their goal is to eventually allow people to be less reliant on door-to-door In the mid-term, this study recommends the water, sewage and solid waste services, and need for very small and punctual public urban thus reducing the costs for the municipality. space interventions to occur between small In the long term, and after a thorough survey housing clusters and places of worship, schools, that analyses the availability of services per etc. Basic indicators can be surveyed to see neighbourhood area, an APFO can take place.
76 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 30. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban growth management instruments Source: (Author, 2015)
Existing building This instrument can transform the scattered areas of Al Buraimi in the long term, because Un-built plot after the APFO are functioning, development Existing street that takes place outside the designated areas Un-built street will have to pay for the adequate fees necessary New building regulations and typologies for the provision of services in new areas. Frequently, extra fees will induce developers and Mixed-use construction to occur within the APFOs. Specialized commercial district
Plots with urban design potential and connectivity The designation of mixed use areas and the fostering of new typologies will play a secondary Adequate Public Facility Ordinances role in this strategic area. Specialized agriculture district
Short time allowed for plots to develop
Medium time allowed for plots to develop
Extenden time allowed for plots to develop
77 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Figure 31. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: New typology implementation Source: (Author, 2015)
Figure 32. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban design intervention potential: pedestrian connectivity, shadowed spaces, etc. Source: (Author, 2015) 78 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 33. Scattered housing in the outskirts of Al Buraimi Source: (Author, 2015) 79 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Figure 34. Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: satelite image Source: CNES / Astrium, CNES/ Spot Image, Digital Globe, modified by author. As Sunainah
with the cooperation of the MOA and the MOM The village of As Sunainah is characterized by a in two ways. One is establishing parameters for very small demographic growth and a slow shift agricultural plots to be inside the specialized of primary activities. The inhabitants face similar district, this means that they will have to comply problems as the outskirts of Al Buraimi, namely to a set of criteria regarding better practices in being too far away from places to shop, study terms of produce and use of natural resources. and work. Likewise, farmers should never stop receiving aid in terms of capacity building, the introduction of The difference with the city, is that there are new technologies. The second is that with the possibilities to improve the agricultural sector aid of the Chamber of Commerce, farmers that and thus allow more people to stay in the village produce goods in the specialized districts can and have a good quality of life. This is why the receive aid for their transportation and be sold main challenge is to curve the abandonment of at a specified place and time, on a regular basis agriculture lands. This activity can be fostered in the city of Al Buraimi.
80 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 35. Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: urban growth management instruments Source: (Author, 2015) Existing building Small scale urban interventions are also reccomended, mainly to promote connectivity Un-built plot between plots and places of study, leisure and Existing street worship. This can help in promoting a stronger Un-built street community, which will always be useful if most New building regulations and typologies of the inhabitants are dealing with the same economic activity. Mixed-use Specialized commercial district In the long term, the municipality should focus Plots with urban design potential and connectivity on providing adequate services and facilities. Adequate Public Facility Ordinances Likewise, the Municipality should prevent the settling of new scattered neighbourhoods with Specialized agriculture district the creation of APFO, so that new development Short time allowed for plots to develop outside of it will also bear the infrastructure Medium time allowed for plots to develop implementation charges. Extenden time allowed for plots to develop
81 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Selected instruments for urban instrument as it does not solve the issues related growth management to urban growth in the long term. Nonetheless it should be maintained, reviewed and monitored in order to define if the cap should allow more Short-term plots, or constrain more plots in the future. The following selected instruments can take place as soon as possible in order to gain time Middle term for the mid- and long-term instruments to be In the mid-term there are many instruments that defined. They can be implemented during the can start to be designed. They can be divided first two years of the implementation of the into two different categories: incentive type and whole set. control type instruments. The mid-term for the instruments to work is defined by a time frame Development moratorium and land starting at 2 years until 10 years. allocation cap One of the most drastic approaches available In the case of the incentive instruments, it is is a development moratorium. The distribution important to promote the land market of plots of plots further away from the centre of Al that are located in these centres. Additionally, Buraimi should be paused; likewise for the control type instruments will prevent bad villages. A moratorium for this policy is difficult practices from continuing and gradually shift to implement, but can buy time, which is much towards a resilient and sustainable growth needed for the next instruments to be developed paradigm. properly. Parallel to this policy, the Ministry of Housing needs to establish a development cap New typology implementation that can decide on the pace that the city wants Varied uses can be allowed to appear in the city. to have regarding number of plots allocated They can combine housing with commercial within each new period. This development cap and office space; what typically is a mix-used can be promoted as a way to give only optimal typology. Even though this typology exists in land for development and not to continue giving some parts of the city, there is a potential in away land far away from the strategic areas designing a very novel and contextualised and infrastructure expansion plans. The land typology that caters to both the needs of a allocation cap can be regarded as a short-term growing population, authorities, and fosters
82 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
better urban development. Here is where of electricity and water heating) should be the instrument plays a major role in a shift of supported. Likewise, the surface of windows in paradigm; as it has to offer the opportunity for buildings and quality of glass has to be carefully new typologies to be created. The typologies are reviewed so that buildings are better insulated. not going to be defined in this study, as it is not in the scope. Nonetheless, this study claims Urban design interventions: that if mixed uses are promoted via the waiving There should be small-scale urban public or exemptions of taxes, or even through low space interventions, that can create adequate interest loans for the projects that go along this shaded spaces in clustered neighbourhoods. development direction; then slowly but certainly This is thought in order to promote the use of the areas around the strategic centres will start endemic tree species, grey water use for their to change. The Municipalities role in the matter maintenance, and the creation of connectivity is to make sure that this novel typologies are between neighbourhoods in a small scale. This promoted and fostered. instrument is represented in the figures as a large amount of space with the potential to be Additionally regarding a new typology, an transformed. This should be seen as an identifier increase in heights is important. An average of such space and not as an urban design tool height of 5 or 6 storeys should be pursued as is that directs where and how this intervention already evident with some of the buildings in the should occur. centre . Single storey or two storey projects have to be discouraged in the city centre. The role of the Municipality is to identify the best small plots and spatial remnants between them, Building standards: to start up a project that generates better public Better building materials should include urban space, in both Al Buraimi and the villages. construction materials that are produced nearby, insulate better against the extreme Time allowed for plots to develop: temperatures and thus allow savings in cooling There has to be a shift in the way in which and electricity. Additionally better technologies land is allocated without any responsibility for in the construction industry and for building development. It is understandable that the installations (e.g.: solar energy production Municipality cannot impose new regulations on a household scale for both production on a national policy, but they can also provide
83 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
new incentives for the owners who do develop plot is actually being developed and used, or if it their plots in a determined time frame. This is genuinely abandoned. will give another boost for the people who do have the means and desire to develop plots, and Urban design control measures: will diminish the amounts of plots that remain New projects should provide some open space undeveloped and unused. This scarred urban but always at the backside of the plots; these tissue should be prevented as much as possible. areas are the ones that eventually can be used Likewise, plots that remain undeveloped should for car parking. They should never be on the be taxed in a very careful way, meaning that a set front side of the street as it normally occurs; of criteria for what a “developed plot” is, should conditions and specifications for car parking be established first. Another alternative is that spaces have to be reviewed and changed. This taxation for unused plots is implemented, and also means that alignment regulations have it can be higher in city centre plots than in to be carefully reviewed by the corresponding peripheral plots. Ministries, namely MOH and MOM.
If the creation of a fee for plots that are not This instrument is not necessarily a growth being used is not attractive for the Municipality, instrument but it is one that this study identifies this study also proposes that plots only be as necessary to complement and guide the allowed to remain unused for a maximum time previous ones. period. After which they should be transferred to other users with proposals for them. In Tighter building regulations this scenario, the original owner should get Urban growth should be encouraged but another plot allocated in an area of the city always within a new set of criteria, the following where this specific instrument is not in play. instrument is also a counterpart of the incentive This instrument considers three phases: by type regulations, as it will discourage some short time to develop a plot (up to 2 years), development to occur, but will foster more medium time (up to 5 years), and a maximum sustainable projects taking place. of 10 years for extended time. Plots outside the area designated by this instrument will have a The gradual setting of regulations that standard tenure. It is important to stress the discourage bad practices in terms of materials need for a set of criteria that can determine if a and renewable energy for housing, commerce
84 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
and industry, include a more expensive building issues. Agriculture should also be fostered with permit for any project that does not consider the better technologies and practices in order to new building standards. have more efficient water management.
This way, the waivers and tax exemptions for Clusters of commerce should be encouraged the projects that are built accordingly to the further. Incentives in certain areas can be new standards can be financed by the projects exclusively for commerce dedicated to the that are not. This type of instrument cannot be clothing industry for example; or for retail, offices, applied to the already built projects in the city, etc. This can also make small neighbourhoods but the incentives should be available for them in attractive as well as social capital is encouraged the case of refurbishment, retrofitting, building through a public policy. extensions, etc. Eventually, these standards can be turned into regulations so that all projects APFO’s comply them. Adequate Public Facilities Ordinances (APFO) can help in creating an environment for the Long-term measures right implementation of development projects. The following long-term measures can be put A thorough study that can provide the right in place after two or three years of the first indicators for the number of plots of each implementation of instruments, but they will type in different areas; namely the strategic be able to show benefits after the fifth year of development areas and the outer parts of the its implementation and can be elongated as city, has to be made. Demographical surveys necessary as possible. need to occur in order to do this properly. Data needed includes detailed demographical growth District specialization per area in the Governorate. A link between the agriculture producers of the region and the market vendor could be Combined with the MOH and the MOM established, through the promotion of space and development plans, a set of APFO has to be financial aid for such market process to occur. It implemented to direct further growth in the is important to bear in mind that any investment long term. This will change the land market in Al in this type of subsidiarity means that the region Buraimi drastically, but in the long term, urban can become more resilient towards certain growth will be directed towards more specific
85 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
goals, instead of uncontrolled results derived A survey will be needed to obtain the necessary from master planning. APFO can include the indicators for an APFO to take place; done by amount of households in areas that are already MOM, MOH, MOA and MOTC. served by public sewage and waste-management networks, as well as areas that are served by the Building standards in the long-term water network. This will make it unattractive for If a new code of building regulations for the developers to build outside of the areas that are Governorate of Al Buraimi is done, then in the not going to be served with adequate public long term it will be possible to stop projects facilities yet. that don’t take advantage of renewable energy resources, or thermic insulation for example. This instrument can also be applied to the Incentives can be paired with fees so that in areas where urban development is highly the long term there is always a reason to build scattered. There can be an APFO that promotes accordingly to new standards. Rural areas in the clustering of living units in the same Al Buraimi could benefit greatly from such area in order to receive basic infrastructure. measures, if ever in the long term the capacity This strategy could foster that plots that are of ground water is even scarcer, it will be of scattered and undeveloped acquire different much help if the urban areas manage their water values according to the possibility of clustering consumption in a better way. together. Also, people can be encouraged to organize themselves in a community of clusters, Action plan for regional in order to have sets of houses developed in a certain area. The goal would be to cluster development through growth development as much as possible in order management for the basic services to be provided by the municipality in the future, and cut costs in water The adjacent table shows the selected distribution, or wastewater and solid waste instruments and differentiates them briefly management. by type, name, short description, authority in charge and measures needed for the instrument to be implemented in the appropriate time frame.
86 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Urban growth management instruments and necessary procedures in time phases for AL Buraimi Governorate
Authority in Type Name Brief description Measures needed charge
Short pause needed to plan Development Temporary halt in land control carefully the implementation of the MOM moratorium allocation process. next instruments Short term Restrict the number of plots that Analysis of maximum number Land allocation control get laidout and distributed in the MOM + MOH of appropriate plots that can cap next stages be allocated per term. New mixed use typologies, New typology incentive increase in heights, setbacks, MOM Building permit incentives. implementation building standards Better and adequate building New building Building code with new incentive materials, technologies and MOM+MOH standards incentives. practices according to criteria Regulation of un-built space in plots; tighter regulations favouring Building code regulations and New building urban design and pedestrian regulation MOM+MOH penalties, controlled by standards friendly setbacks; deprioritize building permits. parking lots, and prioritize mixed Mid term use street level. Plots allocated in certain areas have a time frame for a project to Temporary ownership of be developed there. Failure to Time allowed for allocated plot until project is control comply with a project leads to the MOM plots to develop aproved, as well as a new re- plot being re-allocated. Original allocation scheme is needed. owner gets a new plot in an area without a time frame. Foster the creation of shadowed public spaces that allow Survey to identify the initial Urban design connectivity, with the use of MOM+MOTC small scale projects, and a call design interventions endemic species and greywater. for proposals. Waivers and financial contributions for startups, Foster and facilitate the creation of District commercialization of goods incentive certain enterprise and economic MOA+COC specialization from farms into the city, as activities. well as capacity building and better technology. Provision of services from municipality based on a long term Survey and studies needed in MOT+MOM+ control APFO plan according to clustering of order to specify which areas MOH built units and denser will the APFO cover. Long term development Gradually implement obligatory building standards in order to stop Building regulation incentives for good practices and MOM+MOH Building permit regulation. standards only continue with penalties for un- wanted building practices. Incentives for projects that Resource Better wastewater reuse, solid take advantage on sustainable MOM+MOH+ Figure 36. Action plan regulation management waste management, and technology as well as higher MOA standards sustainable energy use building permit costs for for growth management projects that do not. Source: Author, 2015 87 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Flexibility and adaptation of instruments in the mid and long-term
The main thing to have in mind regarding development and can leave people without these sets of instruments, is the fact that they adequate infrastructure and services, as well are not permanent and static, but flexible and as potential bad living conditions in the long adjustable. This means that in the medium term, term. The consequences of scattered urbanism instruments that rely on specific boundaries explained earlier should always be kept on mind. have to be small-scale and site specific. Regarding the mid-term instruments, there is a With the use of monitoring, the urban possibility that the citizenry is reluctant to new management growth instruments can adapt to typologies. The introduction of this novel type of the growing conditions of the city and villages, building regulations will be slow to be adopted and thus go along development in a periodical from the demand side. Nonetheless, the policy and careful way. These instruments should makers have to make sure that the possibility never be regarded as master planning or zoning for this type of development is there, namely measures, but as directive, preventive and through the creation and implementation of new repelling measures for identified urban growth sets of regulations that allow such a typology to patterns. establish.
Alternatives and complications for this The Municipality has to keep in mind that set of instruments long terms measures are intended for the well- First of all, for the short term instruments, being of the vast majority as well as for the an allocation cap will be unpopular for the environment; therefore new enterprises that future generations that are waiting for plots. want to be involved in the production of more The negative implications of this instrument adequate building materials and solar energy should be regarded in the following terms: the technology have to be considered in the further municipality should not only allocate plots, development of Al Buraimi. but also ensure that plots allocated can lead to better living conditions. This means that the municipality has the responsibility from stopping the distribution of plots that hinder
88 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Conclusions
Al Buraimi can lead the way towards a more In the long-term, the living conditions can be resilient society in economic, social and enhanced if the shift in the current development environmental terms. It is recognized that paradigm occurs. This implies that management “governments must implement policies to of services are improved, better land tenure ensure that the benefits of urban growth opportunities as well as housing conditions are are shared equitably and sustainably” (UN ensured, reducing living costs for the people Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and the municipality. Likewise, better spatial 2014). Likewise, a resilient development qualities can be ensured if a typological shift implies that the city creates better employment occurs, where the cities condense and provide opportunities as well as an improved resource more spaces for encounter, leisure, worship, and waste management, in addition to study and employment. This is what is meant by transportation, equality and governance. a shift in paradigm in the criteria that drives the development of Omani cities.
Figure 37. View of Al Buraimi‘s scattered urbanism Growth continues to extend farther and farther away into the city limits. Source: (Author, 2014) 89 Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
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93 Part 2.2 Sustainable transportation Pedro Becerra Rodríguez The city of Al Buraimi, located in the northwest factors; firstly, the national transportation of the Sultanate of Oman, has experienced policy and legal framework are focused on rapid urban growth characterized by patchy roads development. Secondly, prices of cars and unsustainable development over the last and oil are relatively affordable in the Sultanate, years. As a result of this process, the city is and there is a car culture based on foreign facing challenges in different dimensions of automobile models. Furthermore, the current the urban structure. One of these problems is strong top down approach does not facilitate transportation, which is automobile dependent the instruments necessary to implement a and road based. Additionally, Al Buraimi sustainable mode of transportation. A more presents segregated land use patterns, low balanced transportation system, achieved via densities, reduced travel choices, considerable a more holistically coordinated and inclusive occupation of land for car facilities and high planning approach would provide many accidents rates, amongst other issues. Thus benefits to the city. This chapter has the aim the increasing transportation needs may lead to of analyzing the current transportation system social, environmental and economic problems. in Al Buraimi. Afterwards, this study intends to Additionally, the transportation planning provide proposals which are based on criteria process is characterized by a lack of coordination and concepts to adapt toward a more balanced/ among institutions and shortage of vision. sustainable transportation system in Al Buraimi. Car dependency can be attributed to different Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Assessment of the current state of transportation and mobility
The affordable prices of oil and cars in addition workers, who use the service provided by their to the road based transportation policy of Oman, schools and companies. Meanwhile, only 2% has led to automobile dependency in Al Buraimi. and 1% of the residents commute by walking or As a result, the vast majority of residents use biking respectively. The information on choice of cars to travel. It is estimated that 90% of citizens transportation in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the move by private car, whereas 5% travel by taxi, graph below. which is the only complementary means of transport available for the citizens. Furthermore, Low costs for car based mobility 2% of the residents travel by private bus; this Considering indicators such as residents’ number only includes certain students and income per month and prices of cars and oil, it is
Choice of transportation mode in Al Buraimi Source: (Author, 2014 (based on community questionnaires) Previous page: Main street in Al Buraimi Source: (Salcedo, 2014) 96 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
evident that private transportation in Al Buraimi According to the National Center for Statistics is affordable for residents. For instance, in the and Information (2014), the Oman Government automobiles’ market, new cars are available Development Expenditure for roads was 384.9 from 500 Omani Rials. Additionally, prices of Millions in O.R. in 2011. This expenditure fuel are very low due to the fact the Sultanate decreased slightly to 373.3 Millions of O.R. in of Oman is an oil producing country. The price 2012. Afterwards, it increased again and the cost for one litre of oil is normally 0.12 O.R. (NCSI, was 424.3 Millions of O.R. in 2013. Furthermore, 2014). Meanwhile, the average minimum wage according to the Department of the Ministry of in Oman is 325 O.R. per month (Zawya, 2013). Transport and Communications in Al Buraimi Additionally, the costs of car insurances and (2014), the budget allocated for maintenance maintenance are not expensive. of the highways and regional roads is 100.000 O.R. per year. Thereby, the information on road High investment into improved road expenditure shows a significant amount of the network development budget invested on car-based Over the last 3 years, there has been a transportation infrastructure. considerable increase in road building in the Governorate of Al Buraimi. This is attributed Road-related transport services in Al to the urban growth of the city and new Buraimi infrastructure built for regional linkages. The few available services provided are private According to the National Center of Statistics transport such as taxis, school buses, and buses and Information of Oman (2014), only 15 for workers. The operation of taxis is controlled kilometers of roads were built in 2011. However, and regulated by the Royal Oman Police. There in 2012 the road length increased sharply and 103 are no taxi companies in charge of the service kilometers of new roads were laid. Afterwards, and there is no informal transport. Moreover, the 113 kilometers of new roads were laid in 2013 bus service for public schools is managed by the in Al Buraimi. The total expenditure in roads local government. In contrast, the bus service in Oman can provide an overall idea of the for private schools, Buraimi University, and economic costs attributed to the infrastructure workers is managed directly by the educational for road-based developments in the Sultanate. institutions or by the companies.
97 Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Environmental impacts Furthermore, the National Oman Transportation Company provides public bus services to travel According to the World Bank (2014), the from Al Buraimi to Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa. carbon dioxide emissions in Oman increased The NOTC is the only transportation company significantly over a period of only 20 years, in the Sultanate and operates throughout the measuring such emissions from 1990 to 2010. country. However, the service does not match The number of metric tons in 1990 was 6.3 the demand of regional linkages in Al Buraimi. per capita, which rose to 20.4 per capita by the
Figure 38. Built roads in Al Buraimi Road executed lengths in the Governorate of Al Buraimi per Year Source: (National Center of Statistics and Information, 2014)
Figure 39. Carbon dioxide emissions in Oman Source, (World Bank, 2014 modified by author)
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Commercial activities year of 2010. Furthermore, the total number of The commercial activities such as shops, thousand metric tons produced in the Sultanate restaurants, markets, and other services of Oman in the year of 1990 was 11386, whereas generate considerable demand for mobility in Al in 2010, the production of thousand metric tons Buraimi. These activities are located in the main grew up 57202.The increase in carbon emissions secondary and distributor roads of the city, where has negative impacts on the environment, density is higher. It is important to mention that affects air quality and contributes to global these commercial points are located close to the warming. international border with Al Ain (U.A.E).
Road safety - accidents Residents from Al Ain frequently cross the The most urgent problem that transportation border to go to Al Buraimi where they can find presents for Al Buraimi is the high rate of more affordable prices of goods and services, accidents. According to the Royal Oman Police increasing the flow of traffic. The crossing points (2014), in the year 2011 the city had 318 non of the international border between Al Buraimi serious accidents, 310 injuries and 27 deaths. In and Al Ain are critical points of traffic flow. The 2012, Al Buraimi had 315 non serious accidents, information collected indicates that 27% of 360 injuries and 32 deaths. Furthermore, in Omani residents in Al Buraimi cross the border the year 2013 the city recorded 325 non serious daily, 23% cross the border more than once per traffic accidents, 381 injuries, and 42 deaths due week, 13% once per week, 16 % more than once mostly to high speeds and drivers misbehaviour. per month, 14% once per month, and 7% never The situation has not been effectively controlled cross. and the accident rates have increased slightly over the previous years. Leisure activities influence mobility in Al Buraimi as well. The Mobility creating factors facilities for sports are the Buraimi Sports This refers to the aspects which characterize Club and the Sports Complex, which attracts mobility in the city of Al Buraimi. It is important significant numbers of people. Additionally, the to understand the aspects that influence why, Buraimi Park, which is the only public green area where, and how individuals in Al Buraimi for recreation in the city, is another point where commute to their destinations. people commute frequently during the evenings.
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Figure 40. Mobility creating factors Points that create mobility and concentrate more demand of accessibility in Al Buraimi Source: (Ministry of Housing, 2014 Modified by: Author)
Health and education activities: Mosques:
Facilities such as hospitals, medical centers Moreover, the mosques in Al Buraimi are and education facilities such as schools and the essential points for the residents. The largest Buraimi University generate high demands of mosque is the Masjid Sultan Qaboos, which is mobility. located in front of the main roundabout of Al Buraimi. There are many mosques located in Additionally, there are 27 public schools and 8 different parts of Al Buraimi and easy to reach by private schools in Al Buraimi. According to the foot from the residential areas. National Center for Statistics and Information (2014), it is estimated that there were 8,918 students in Al Buraimi in 2013. As previously mentioned, the schools and the Buraimi University provide bus transportation service for the students.
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Transportation planning procedure
The Supreme Council for Planning produces a roads reconstruction are usually considered planning framework for the organization of the because of poor safety conditions, congestion, physical development in the Sultanate of Oman. and infrastructure failure (MOTC, 2013). Within this framework, the Ministry of Housing Furthermore, the development of new areas develops Regional Plans for all regions of the requires building more roads and transportation country (MOTC, 2013). Based on these Regional facilities. The Department of the Ministry of Plans, the Supreme Council for Planning Transportation and Communications in Al designs Town Structure Plans. Such plans are Buraimi and the Office of the Technical Affairs the base for development, which includes the of the Municipality have to coordinate the new transportation infrastructure. In the case of Al road developments, concerning the existing Buraimi, the implementing agencies are: and proposed services which could be affected. Therefore, they need the information from the (1) The Department of the Ministry of agencies in charge of public services such as the Transportation and Communications in Al Public Authority for Electricity and Water, oil and Buraimi, responsible for the highways and gas companies, telecommunication companies, regional roads, and waste water companies, amongst others. The Ministry of Housing allocates residential plots (2) the Buraimi Municipality, which is the branch of land to the Omani nationals. At the time that of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities the land is allocated, there is no transportation and Water Resources, and has the Office for or public service infrastructure. Thus, after a Technical Affairs regarding to the local road considerable area has been developed then network. the roads and service infrastructure are built. There is no connection between land use and The Ministry of Transport and Communications transportation planning because they are the determines the priorities and schemes, thus responsibility of separated ministries, which find works such as roads improvements and it difficult to coordinate these two components.
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Transportation legal framework
The Omani legislation contains 4 regulations have been established by a Technical Committee, related to transportation: which had representation from the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, the Royal Oman highway design manual Police, the Supreme Council for Planning, the standards Muscat Municipality, the Municipality of Dhofar, This manual provides broad guidelines for and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and the responsibilities of particular authorities Water Resources (MOTC, 2013). This regulation and organizations involved in transportation. has been developed based on previous legal This document does not only include frameworks for transportation design and design standards, but also planning and implementation. The standards were meant implementation procedures. These standards for the design of highways, arterial, secondary,
Figure 41. Transporta- tion planning procedure Source: (Author, 2014 based on the planning procedure stated in the Oman Highway Design Standards) 102 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
distributor, and access routes, which in other and standards for the development in the urban words, means the hierarchy of national and and rural areas. They also set standards for local roads. This regulation establishes some road networks and accessibility (MoH, 2014). technical codes that must be followed in the Furthermore, the guidelines determine the design and implementation stages. Additionally, land uses permitted along the highways and it states the planning procedures for national the distances between the roads and buildings. and regional strategies, according to the Oman Moreover, the master plans must establish Planning Guidelines (SCTP, 2010). the limits of the projected areas which will be urbanized, the projected roads, and protection Omani environmental regulations areas. It also complements some of the This set of laws was created by the Ministry of standards that have been established by the Environment and Climate Affairs in order to Oman Highway Design Manual. The guidelines prevent pollution, environmental degradation, are linked to the building codes and state the chemicals hazards, and damage to the number of required parking lots per project, ecosystems in the Sultanate of Oman (MOECA, depending on the built area, land use, and 2013). The law is mainly addressed to the density. Finally, they determine the minimum industrial activities which handle hazardous distances between residential areas and service chemicals. It includes the control of emissions facilities. and noise levels, which indirectly refers to transportation activities as well. Through Development control plan framework this regulation, the Ministry of Environment The DCPF is a document which contains and Climate Affairs issues permissions guidelines and standards for the development for all activities that represent a risk to the of integrated tourism projects. Consequently, environment. The planning process also states the framework encompasses standards of that all new roads projects need a license which transportation facilities for accessibility to certifies that they comply with the environmental tourism complexes. They define the number requirements. of parking lots, the type of roads and streets to access, and traffic impact assessments. Oman planning guidelines Additionally, the standards recommend The guidelines were issued by the Ministry of implementing facilities such as sidewalks Housing; they established planning definitions and bikeways in the tourist areas, and the preservation of the local landscape. 103 Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Urban space for mobility The secondary route to Mahdha functions as a Roads network main entrance to the industrial area of the city and other facilities such as the waste treatment According to the Highway Design Manual of the plant and the dumping site. The facilities for Ministry of Transport and Communications, the waste are located approximately 10 kilometers roads network in Oman is structured in different away from this route. This road is for trucks levels depending on the accessibility, speed, and heavy traffic due to the activities located in distance, and traffic flows. As a result, it is this area. Moreover, it is also the access to the possible to categorize roads in Al Buraimi with Buraimi Park and the residential areas in the the national standards hierarchy. Al Buraimi has west of the city. According to the MOTC (2014), a national route, which is the only highway in there is a project plan for the dualization of the the city, which connects it with Sohar-Muscat road to Mahdha, which would increase the traffic and Ibri-Nizwa. This national highway is linked flow. On the other hand, the secondary roads to two secondary routes in Al Buraimi, which that connect the highway with the international connect it with the wilayat of Mahdha and the border concentrate the most important two international border crossing points. commercial areas of the city alongside them. Facilities such as restaurants, shops, the souk The highway in Al Buraimi, which is a national (market), hotels, retailers, and other businesses route that connects the city with the highways are located along the secondary routes. The to Sohar and Ibri, presents high traffic flows traffic is usually congested during the peak and a speed limit of 120km/hour. Moreover, hours, thus increasing likelihood of accidents. there are green areas between the highway and the local roads located alongside. These are the Parking lots only green spaces provided for pedestrians in Car dependency in Al Buraimi entails the Al Buraimi and are designed with the purpose demand for significant urban areas for parking of creating a barrier between the highway lots. The transportation mode has favoured corridor and sidewalks. The highway fulfils all cars instead of the pedestrians, thus, it is more the standards included in the regulation for common to find parking places than sidewalks national roads; it has a high quality and good or green areas. It is possible to find either performance in regard to traffic flow and low formal or informal parking lots; the city has built congestion. considerable areas for car facilities. However,
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Box 13. Parking ratio test This study considered a specific area of four blocks in Al Buraimi, in order to measure the area and percentage of land used for parking lots. The analysis indicated that 15% of the areas were used for parking lots and 25% were empty plots, which were also occupied by cars. It also showed that densities are very low and land is not being used efficiently. Only 60% of the selected area is built up.
Figure 42. Sample area in Al Buraimi Selected area for analysis of land occupation for parking lots Source: (Wikimapia, 2014 Modified by: Author) 105 Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Figure 43. Map of roads network in Al Buraimi Road network hierarchy according to the Highway Design Manual criteria of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications Source: (MOH, 2014 Modified by: Author) Sidewalks it seems that the demand for parking is higher than the supply of available places to park. It is Many areas have been developed without common to find empty plots of land which have considering pedestrians facilities, others have not being built on within the city, these places either poor quality of sidewalks, reduced space are usually used as parking lots when all the for walking, or only segments of pavement. other facilities are occupied. Therefore, there is Moreover, the city has not built facilities for the a lack of regulation to avoid the occupation of mobility of elderly people, children, and people these plots of land by cars. Areas which could with special needs. The building codes are not be used as public spaces with possibilities enforced to maintain the distance between for community interaction, enjoyment, and buildings and roads, there is lack of spatial cohesion are being wasted to accommodate the justice in the distribution of urban spaces in the high number of vehicles. Furthermore, parking city because there is no equity for accessibility. in Al Buraimi is free, lacking of regulation and Additionally, prioritizing cars discourages control which affects traffic congestion. options for non-motorized transportation.
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Goals
The outcomes of the survey performed within The aim of this study is to propose this study show that approximately 15% of the recommendations. Its purpose includes the residents never walk, whereas 65% of them walk evaluation of the transportation planning below than 2 hours per week; 15% walk between structure. Moreover, in order to fulfill the 2 and 4 hours per week, while only 5% walk above mentioned it is important to include the more than 4 hours per week. following sub objectives:
Development of new roads ○○ To analyze the mobility patterns in Al- New internal roads have been developed over Buraimi by identifying the factors which the last years in disperse/patchy developed influence urban and regional transportation. areas of Al Buraimi. The city has spent significant amounts of financial resources on roads located ○○ To evaluate the existing transport facilities in the outskirts. The new infrastructure entails and mobility behavior . high economic costs and it does not compensate for the low benefits that it represents. The ○○ To review the current transportation laws, decision makers are not considering a balanced regulations, strategies, planning procedures, development and are sacrificing significant areas and how they are implemented in practice in Al of land. This is not sustainable in terms of the Buraimi environment and economy because it destroys the local ecosystem, investing high amounts of ○○ To identify the problems and challenges money without meeting the needs of the city. that the current transportation system entails Therefore, the budget for development could be and propose ideas on how to switch to a more invested in a more effective manner. sustainable mode of transportation.
○○ To establish criteria on sustainable transportation in order to address the dimensions of rapid uncontrolled growth.
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Recomendations for all ministries to keep all the necessary The analysis has provided a broad panorama information readily available. The planning of transportation in Al Buraimi, identifying the procedure suggests the coordination among key issues and challenges. Thus, with the aim of ministries; however, in practice it does not classifying the proposals, this section is divided function holistically and it is also necessary to into governance/institutional and technical create management tools for a more efficient recommendations. implementation stage. Therefore, the Ministry of Housing in Al Buraimi, which is the responsible Governance / Institutional for land use administration, should integrate recommendations the land use plan with the responsible for local transportation network in Al Buraimi in order to Integration and coordination in the ensure more compact development. planning procedure
In order to contribute to a more effective Additionally, it is not appropriate that the planning procedure, it is essential to integrate Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water and coordinate activities among the ministries Resources is the responsible for the local road and government institutions. Thus, the Ministry network in Al Buraimi. There is a disconnection of Transportation and Communications, the with the Ministry of Transportation and Ministry of Housing, and the Ministry of Communications at the local level and this Regional Municipalities and Water Resources is one of the reasons for the failure in the should function using a holistic approach. By implementation of transportation regulations. coordinating activities, urban development would be implemented in a more balanced Changing the land distribution system and sustainable manner. Consequently, it is The national land distribution policy should be needed to establish efficient mechanisms and reformulated with the aim of using the land instruments for the integration of development more efficiently and create higher proximity. The activities. This means that plans and decisions current system of allocating lands randomly has on housing, transportation, infrastructure, led to patchy developments, wasted land, and public services, and environment should be urban fragmentation. The process of distribution taken as an integrative process. Moreover, it should also enforce the construction on the plot includes establishing a common database of land and the simultaneous development
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of urban facilities and services for those plots. ○○ Walkable Communities: Al Buraimi This process should encourage a compact should provide the facilities for non-motorized urbanization, by ensuring useful occupation of transportation (biking and walking) which land. It is important to consider mechanisms encourage people to adopt a healthier life style. that compel people who receive plots by draw to build on them. Therefore, by refocusing the Review of laws and regulations land allocation on people who are genuinely The overall national policy on transportation determined and financially able to build, the should be reviewed and reformulated in order urban areas would have higher densities, better to convert to a more transit oriented policy. access to services, and an improved quality of Afterwards, the Oman Highway Design Manual public spaces. Standards, the building codes, and the Omani Environmental Regulations should be modified Integration of land use and in order to adjust to the needs of sustainable transportation planning development. The integration of land use and transportation planning is a key recommendation in order ○○ Review of the Oman Highway Design to reduce the need for new roads, and Manual Standards: As mentioned, the national build infrastructure more efficiently. The policy on road based transportation should Ministry of Housing should tie land use be reconsidered. Therefore the standards administration policies with transportation should be developed in more depth for the planning, coordinating the planning process by local transportation network, defining codes establishing strategies addressed to achieving that minimize car dependency by providing this holistic approach. In addition to the facilities for walking and biking. The regulation integration of planning activities, two strategies should also establish clear responsibilities for are proposed: the implementation of the local network and more efficient mechanisms for monitoring and ○○ Nodal Development: Al Buraimi should enforcement. concentrate high densities and mixed land uses in strategic points of the city, as mentioned in ○○ Review of the building codes: As a part 2.1. complement to the review of the Oman Highway Design Manual Standards, the building codes
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should support the allocation of the urban receive a driving license should be established spaces for pedestrians. Therefore, the codes in Al Buraimi. Only people who demonstrate should consider the minimum distance between responsibility, ability, and good driving behaviour buildings and local roads and the obligation in the tests should be allowed to possess a to build sidewalks. They should also regulate driving license. the number of parking lots and reduce the occupation of public spaces by cars. ○○ Review of the Omani Environmental Regulations: This law should encompass ○○ Introduction of parking fee: This proposal the impacts of roads and transportation might work with the aim of regulating the use infrastructure on the environment. It is currently of public spaces for parking lots. It would also focused on emissions and the roads building contribute to reduce car use due to the fact that process; nevertheless the regulation is not it is currently free to park anywhere in the city. relevant in terms of protecting the ecosystems. This initiative has been implemented in Muscat, Moreover, the law should limit the range of where there was a limitation of parking lots the extensions of lands that are meant to in the city centre. Thereby, priced parking was be developed, in order to integrate all the successfully established to reduce the demand environmental issues. Additionally, with the aim of parking lots, discouraging car use, and of supporting environmental preservation, it is reducing traffic. highly recommended to establish a branch of the Environment Society of Oman in the city. ○○ Regulations to reduce car use: The affordability of cars generates a challenging Monitoring and enforcement perspective in minimizing automobile It is essential to establish more efficient dependency. Therefore, in order to reduce car use and effective instruments and mechanisms and accidents rates, other actions beyond speed to implement at the local level in order to controls and cameras might be considered. The comply with the national laws and regulations. Royal Oman Police is currently doing awareness Therefore, strict enforcement, controls, and campaigns to encourage consciousness about inspections are needed in order to follow the driving behaviour. Nevertheless, this action legal framework. By increasing monitoring and should be complemented by adopting more inspections, compliance will also increase. thorough driving tests and procedures to Thus, the implementation process will follow the
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guidelines, standards and codes stated in the the responsibilities among the different actors transportation legislation. The proposal is that involved. for all new transportation projects in Al Buraimi, inspections by the Central Government and the The first step of decentralization was made in Governorate should be made during the different 2011 through the creation of the municipalities in stages of the project execution. Consequently, the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, the next step the transportation implementation agencies is that the National level considers distributing are forced to know the legal framework and additional administrative, political, and fiscal operate according to it. In the case of inspectors autonomy to the regional and local levels with a finding an abnormality or non conformity, long term projection. the implementation agency should be made responsible to take the corrective actions. The process must be gradual in order to not disrupt the current governmental structure. For Decentralization instance, the Governorate of Al Buraimi should More autonomy, in the Governorate of Al have the autonomy to decide on regional new Buraimi to decide on transportation plans and roads and linkages according to the priorities in projects in their city-region, is needed. The local terms of transportation of goods, tourism and government has more knowledge regarding residents mobility. the actual needs, priorities, problems, and challenges of its city-region than the Central The Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play Government of Muscat. an essential role in strengthening the power in the regional and local level in transportation The process of decentralization may take a long planning and decisions. Consequently, when time, nevertheless, efforts have to be made the process takes place, the levels of public and there should be more flexibility for the engagement and involvement will increase as governorates and municipalities in decision well. Decentralization is a key tool to promote making. In the process of decentralization, it urban sustainable development by focusing is essential to have political acceptance from more closely in the local community. the Central Government to transfer certain powers to the different levels. Additionally, the transportation legal framework should define
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Public involvement This is a long process which could be started by involving the schools and university students, In order to initiate a more integrative and holistic with activities such as student proposals and planning approach in Al Buraimi, it is important competitions regarding transportation. In to increase the level of public engagement in the efforts to involve all groups of society, the planning and sustainability. Therefore, residents Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play a in Al Buraimi should get progressively more key role in attracting the residents to participate. involved in urban planning procedures. The As a result, new ideas, concepts, and proposals residents are a key player in identifying the real can arise from the citizens according to their needs and priorities of the community and they needs. should have the right to express opinions, ideas, and criticisms on the city’s transportation. Thus, Furthermore, the process should integrate the the decisions would be more inclusive, and expatriate residents, which count for around effective, in terms of benefiting the public. 50% of the total population in Al Buraimi. The immigrants are part of the city and need to be
Figure 44. New road in Al Buraimi Patchy developed area with a new road for the accessibility of only few housing units. The urbanization does not follow a coherent process. Source: (Author, 2014) 112 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
included and participate in planning as well. ○○ Public and political acceptability: The aim They also have needs for urban and regional of reducing car dependency depends on public mobility which represents transportation support. Therefore, the community should be demand. According to the community surveys, aware of sustainability and the negative impacts the non-nationals are the most disadvantaged of the current car based mode of Al Buraimi. group in the city. Consequently, the process Firstly, the concepts of sustainability should should not marginalize any group and should be be clearly conveyed to the residents through fair and equal by providing the same conditions campaigns and programs. Secondly, creating for everyone. awareness, consciousness, and education through campaigns can encourage people to Public / political acceptability and adopt more sustainable practices. adaptability It is also necessary to establish a process which ○○ The campaigns can be carried out in includes the following: cooperation with the media, schools, the Buraimi University College, the Royal Police of
Sidewalk in Al Buraimi There is not space for pedestrians and there is an insufficient distance between the buildings and the road. There is no possibility to walk in an exclusive space. Source: (Author, 2014) 113 Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Oman, the Ministry of Environment and Climate it will be necessary to change institutions, Affairs, and the Environment Society of Oman. administration, and governance. This is the Meanwhile public support for change will lead most challenging aspect in the adaptation of to political acceptability because this is the main sustainable transportation as it does not only way to influence political thinking (Banister et depend on the local government of Al Buraimi, al., 2007). but also on the Central Government in Muscat, due to the strong centralized structure of the Adaptability: Once public and political Sultanate. Nevertheless, restructuring the acceptability has been achieved, the institutions and reviewing governance is needed implementation of a more sustainable as part of the process. transportation mode in Al Buraimi needs a complementary process of adaptability. This Technical recommendations encompasses both residents and government. On the one hand, the citizens need time and This part is focused on the technical proposals guidance to adapt to walking or biking. It is which would complement the governance challenging to persuade people to stop using recommendations. Additionally, in order to private cars when they offer comfortable contextualize the technical recommendations transportation at affordable prices. Nevertheless, in Al Buraimi, it is necessary to consider the this process of change of behaviour is based weather conditions, the local identity, and the on campaigns and educational programs for local customs. These features will determine, raising consciousness. Thus, people need technically, how to design and implement the to learn how to use the facilities for non- facilities and infrastructure. motorized transportation, and how to respect the reallocation of sidewalks and public spaces Facilities for walking and biking to pedestrians. It is important to emphasize the Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for non- benefits that this shift represents for individuals motorized transportation such as walking and and the community in terms of health, biking. This effort aims to improve the local accessibility, environment, etc. environment and it is focused on a small scale. Moreover, it would improve the public health, On the other hand, the government of Al air quality, security, and overall spatial justice. Buraimi needs adaptation as well because Therefore, the following points are proposed:
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○○ Pedestrian facilities: It is challenging to Additionally, a pilot project of renting bikes propose pedestrianization due to the weather could be implemented. In many places of the conditions and car based culture of the society. world, renting bikes has been successfully Nevertheless, efforts have to be made in order adopted. Al Buraimi might set up this mode as to provide quality public spaces to the residents, an experiment at first, in the case that it works, supported by the transportation and building it can be set up permanently. Al Buraimi would regulations and guidelines. become a pioneer as it would be the first city in the Sultanate of Oman to implement bikeways. The benefits of the process of pedestrianization in Al Buraimi is that it would definitely improve Landscaping the accessibility conditions of the community, Landscaping should be considered in order including the most disadvantage groups such to provide shade, road noise attenuation, as people with special needs, children, elderly separation between the car lanes and pedestrian people, and immigrants as well. As a result, paths, improvement of air quality, and better the city would be more inclusive for all society urban space aesthetics. Additionally, it would groups. On the other hand, taking into account be an opportunity to recover the local identity that Al Buraimi has high temperatures over through restoring the native species of plants. the year and this condition might discourage Considering that the governorate is a dry place walking, it is important to provide sidewalks with scarce water resources, the proposal and public spaces that are sheltered from direct focuses on the use of trees requiring less sunlight. As a result, it is proposed to consider water which have a significant surface area to landscaping in planning and urban design. provide shadows. According to the Environment Society of Oman (2010), there is a group of ○○ Biking facilities: The network of bike lanes native trees proposed in order to conserve the could be distributed along the main routes. It is traditional cultural landscapes. As a result, the important to point out that the Omani society proposed species from this group which meet is not used to biking. Nevertheless, there is a the functional needs for sidewalks are: Ghaf significant number of immigrants who do not (Proposis cineraria), Sidr (Ziziphus spina-christi) own a car and require mobility. and Sherish/Naim (Azadirachta indica).
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Furthermore, in case there are sidewalks which Meanwhile, the local government should are not suitable for trees or plants (i.e. due to educate the residents on how and why to use space constrains), another solution to provide the public transportation system through shade is through the installation of pergolas. campaigns and programs. Furthermore, This is a traditional Omani architectural element considering that Oman has traditionally strict which could be used for this purpose in addition rules in the relation between men and women, to the identity value that it contains. it is also proposed to provide separated areas in the buses for each gender. Thus, people would Al Buraimi’s own public bus system feel more comfortable when using the service. The pilot experiment proposed is the The implementation of the public transport implementation of buses with a dedicated lane. system could create conflicts with the current They should have specific stops strategically taxi service. As mentioned before taxis are the located in the places with higher volume of only available service for local journeys, and people. Additionally, they should operate on the drivers would lose revenues in the event of main distributor routes of the city. having competition. Consequently, the proposal
Figure 45. Public transportation plan Source, Author, 2014 116 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
is to integrate the public transportation network Transit oriented development with the taxi service. Thus, taxis could be rethought as semi public, sharing the bus stops The TOD model could be implemented and lines. as a model for integration of land use and transportation. According to experts, the The aim of the pilot plan is to integrate the concept of this model is to concentrate mixed different modes of transportation without land uses, dense areas, and pedestrian friendly excluding or compromising the existing services. developments around the main roads to provide In addition, the network could be linked with walking, biking, and alternatives to the use of biking by installing bicycle parking racks at the private cars. Thus, TOD would be potentially bus stops. suitable in the case of Al Buraimi, considering that the city has concentration of activities and On the other hand, it would be important to densities at certain points. coordinate activities between the government and the public sector through partnerships in The current activity centers were indicated in the order to manage the operation of the bus service. analysis of local mobility creating factors. As a Thus small and medium enterprises would have result, if these strategic points are focused on the opportunity to develop businesses with creating nuclei by increasing densities and mixed services that are efficient for the city and support land use, in addition to the provision of facilities the local economy. Another important aspect to for non-motorized and public transportation, be considered in the implementation stage is the Al Buraimi could adapt and implement this service pricing. They make private transportation concept. Therefore, the development process very affordable for people. Therefore, efforts would be more sustainable by creating a more have to be made in order to provide the public compact city. It should be seen as a tool to transportation service with affordable prices as slow down sprawl and reduce car dependency. well. The key point is to create awareness in the Moreover, in these nuclei strategically located citizens on the importance to reduce car use in the city, the bus stops proposed in the public and the benefits of using the public transport transportation system should be placed. network in terms of efficiency and cost.
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Figure 46. Transit oriented development TOD concept Source: (Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, 2013 Modified by: Author, 2014)
On the other hand, it is essential to set a public spaces, and public transportation. planning strategy to implement TOD model Consequently, the TOD model implementation which responds to the local priorities. The would bring better living conditions to the strategy contains key principles that must city residents by creating green corridors and be fulfilled to guarantee the implementation more accessibility. The concept of TOD is success: (1) Make full use of urban land, (2) Plan schematically visualized in the graph above. with communities, (3) Encourage public over private transport, (4) Strengthen local sense of An area that can be considered to start a TOD is place, and (5) Develop strategies to create local where the market (souk) is located and includes jobs. commercial corridors, hotels, restaurants and retailers, in addition to heritage sites which will Thus, it is also relevant to include the concept potentially become tourist attractions. of “complete neighbourhood”, which provides choices for housing and employment, as well Another site is the area located in the main as retailers, schools, medical centres, worship, roundabout which contains the main Mosque,
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Figure 47. Activity centers Potential Activity Centers in Al Buraimi for TOD Implementation Source: (Wikimapia, 2014 Modified by: Author, 2014) bus terminal, Governorate office, commercial area contains the Buraimi Park, the Buraimi Sport areas, health care facilities, among others. This Complex, the Buraimi Hospital, the Buraimi is a point of the city with density and potential to Hotel, shops, among others. Therefore, it could become a node in the TOD model. The proposal be developed as an activity centre by integrating is to densify these two areas, providing facilities more varied land uses and increasing densities, for walking and biking, integrating residential as well as linking it with public transportation. use within the area of influence, as well as limiting the occupation of public spaces for Additionally, these three potential activity centres parking lots, and using the node centres for the might be connected by the pilot project of public bus stops. transportation. The bus routes should operate in the densest areas of Al Buraimi where there is Furthermore, there is a third area which has low more compact development. At the same time, density, but is strategically located considering the public service operation should operate the proximity of different land uses such as mainly along the main distributor routes and commercial, residential, and recreational. This partly on the highway.
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Improvement of regional public transportation
The implementation of TOD is envisioned in The current interregional public transportation the medium term if the planning structure system is not operating efficiently and needs is reformulated and actions are taken in the urgent updating. Therefore, the proposal is short term. On the other hand, considering the to improve the regional linkages by increasing projected growth of urbanization in Al Buraimi, coverage, frequencies, and punctuality through which has been planned by the Ministry of the operation of new updated buses which also Housing, it is proposed to include activity provide better conditions for the passengers. centres in the new developed areas. The nodes should be located along the main distributor The Oman National Transport Company should route, which according to the master plan, is improve the quality and quantity of the bus fleet proposed to be built when the area has been operating in the region. Moreover, it is advisable urbanized. to improve the bus terminal facilities due to its size not being appropriate for high volume of passengers. There are no waiting spaces and the process of tickets purchase is not functional.
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Action / management plan : proposed governance actions
Figure 48. Action management plan Governance/Institutional Recommendations Source: (Author 2014)
Proposed technical actions
Figure 49. Technical recommendations The action plans for the implementation of the governance and technical proposals are illustrated in the following page. Source: (Author, 2014) 121 Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Figure 50. Rounda- bout sign Source: (Carvajal, 2015) Conclusions
Sustainable transportation is not about radically and political acceptance for a new mode of stopping car use, it is about reducing car planning and transportation. Moreover, political dependency through the implementation of will in the different levels of the government mixed land use, higher densities, proximity, could make the difference to overcome the lack accessibility, public transportation, non- of integration, coordination, and inadequate motorized transportation, and alternative energy planning. The community needs time to adapt usage. Thus, Al Buraimi should adopt a holistic to the new ideas, and the role of the government transportation approach that provides access to is essential in guiding the citizens in this process citizens minimizing the social, environmental, through campaigns and programs. These ideas and economic impacts. However, it needs could be applied to other urban areas of the reformulation of governance, planning Sultanate of Oman in the event of successful procedure, and the legal framework in order implementation in Al Buraimi, which could to establish the basis for its implementation. become the first city in the country to adopt a In addition, it is necessary to achieve public new approach to transportation.
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References Hillman, M. (1993). Children, Transport and the Banister, D. (2008). The Sustainable Mobility Quality of Life. Paradigm. Transport Policy, 15(2), 73–80. Hutton, B. (2013). Planning Sustainable Banister, D., Pucher, J., Lee-Gosselin, M. & Transport.pdf. Lee, M. (2007). Making Sustainable Transport Politically and Publicly Acceptable: Lessons Institute for Transportation and Development from the EU, USA and Canada. Institutions and Policy (2013) TOD Sustainable Transport: Regulatory Reform in Advanced Economies, Cheltenham, England: Kenworthy, J. R. & Laube, F. B. (1996). Edward Elgar Publishing, 17–50. Automobile Dependence in Cities: An International Comparison of Urban Transport Cervero, R., Bertolini, L., Curtis, C., Renne, and Land Use Patterns with Implications J. & Newman, P. (2009). Transit Oriented for Sustainability. Environmental Impact Development Making It Happen.pdf. Assessment Review, 16(4), 279–308.
Cohn, M. (2009) Four Attributes of the Ideal Laing, R., Tait, E. & Gray, D. (2012). Public Pilot Project. Mountain Goat Software. Engagement and Participation in Sustainable Transport Issues. Environment Society of Oman. (2010). Omani Native Trees Species Litman, T. (2000). Reinventing Transportation. Victoria Transportation Policy Institute. Fausold, C. J. (1996). The Economic Value of Retrieved November 6, 2014 Open Space.pdf. Litman, T. (2002). The Costs of Automobile Handy, S.L. & Niemeier, D. (1997) Measuring Dependency. Victoria Transportation Policy accessibility: an exploration of issues and Institute alternatives. Environment and Planning A vol. 29. Litman, T. (2008). Well Measured. Developing indicators for comprehensive and sustainable transport planning. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. 123 Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
McEldowney, M., Ryley, T., Scott, M. & Smyth, Scott, M., McEldowney, M. & Ryley, T. (2005). A. (2005). Integrating Land-Use Planning Urban Form Reducing Demand of Car Travel. and Transportation in Belfast: A New Policy pdf. Agenda for Sustainable Development? Journal of Environmental Planning and management, Statistical Year Book. (2014). 2-Population.pdf. 48(4), 507–526. UN Habitat. (2013). Planning and Design for Mega, V., Pedersen, J. & Fondation européenne Sustainable Urban Mobility. Global Report on
pour l’amélioration des conditions de vie et de Human Settlements. pdf travail. (1998). Urban Sustainability Indicators. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of Weerakoon, R. & Kumar, A. (2013). the European Communities. Sustainability in Post Disaster Road Infrastructure Recovery Projects and Asset Mobility Management Measures. (2013). C05_ Management, in: 4th International Conference Experience Public Transport.pdf. on Structural Engineering and Construction Management. MOECA. (2013). Omani Environmental Regulations.pdf.
Newman, P. & Kenworthy, J. (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press.
Schiller, P. L., Brun, E. C. and Kenworthy, J. R. (2010), An Introduction to Sustainable Transport: Policy, Planning and Implementation, Earthscan, London.pdf.
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125 Part 2.3 Infrastructure Development Panagiotis Achamnos There are a lot of factors that have contributed increased vertical urban density, as the city to the current situation in the city of Al Buraimi, grew towards the outskirts, the basic services Oman. Infrastructure provision faces a lot have not been unable to reach the new areas of challenges in the area, serving to support of the city in a reasonable time. This happened the rationale for this research, which focuses because of the time needed for planning and the on the three key services: fresh water supply, expenses, which are higher due to the scattered solid waste management, and wastewater development of the city. As a result, the main treatment. These play an important role towards fresh water network covers only around 80 the sustainable growth of a city. The land percent of the city, the sewage system covers distribution system in Oman played a major role only a 30 to 35 percent of the city and is located in contributing to this scattered development of basically in the city centre. Regarding the solid the city, and as a consequence to the challenges waste management of the city, the rapid growth and subsequential problems in providing basic of the city has consequently led to the rapid services to inhabitants in a timely manner. growth in the amount of solid waste. Thus, it Because of the fast growth of the city, which becomes more and more difficult for the city’s happened as horizontal urban sprawl and not solid waste management authorities to cope. Part 2.3 Infrastructure
Assesment of the current state of infrastructure
Taking into consideration the rapid growth ○○ Increasing demand for plots to allocated of the city in the last years and the weather (RD 81/84 and RD 125/2008) conditions, we can understand the risks that the basic infrastructure faces, especially the fresh ○○ Lacking coordination between institutions water supply, solid waste management, and in charge wastewater management and treatment. These are: An interview with the director of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources ○○ Services arrive after the inhabitation of in Al Buraimi complements and adds more the areas in the outskirts. Because of that rapid information. The central government wants growth and the exploitation of the city, the to preserve the local architecture character services that are currently available cannot cope and personality. There is a minor committee and serve in the same way they used to with a searching for new ideas to build in a more much lower population. environmentally friendly way .
○○ An increase in solid waste that the city In the last four years, 5000 building permits produces, and at the same time that the solid were granted from the municipality, 80 per cent waste department is not capable of managing. of them for residential houses and villas, and The city services lack in personnel and in almost 170 kilometres were added to the city’s facilities. length. In the next five years it is expected that the whole of Al Buraimi will be full. In 2014 ○○ The wastewater management of the city alone, 800 building permits were granted. faces the same problem, as the amount of daily Another point is that people working in UAE, wastewater that has to be treated rises every in Al-Ain, prefer to live in Al Buraimi because it year. has a lower cost of living. There is also the case that a lot of the population from the country is Previous page: ○○ The fresh water supply faces the same moving to Al Buraimi. It is developing rapidly, Water delivery in Al Buraimi challenges, as it has to serve every year more more than any other city in Oman. Source: (Salcedo, 2014) and more people.
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Box 14. Land allocation The land law, Royal Decree No. 81/84, states that every Omani citizen has the right to be granted a residential plot through a public lottery, a public draw, which is carried out by the Ministry of Housing. Up until 2008, only men were granted residential land through that drawing throughout the whole Sultanate. With Royal Decree No. 125/2008, the previous Royal Decree was amended, allowing women to also participate in the lottery and receive the rights to a residential plot. This new Decree also stated that each participant in the public lottery should not be less than 23 years old, or less than 21 years old if he/she is married (Al Gharibi, 2013). These plots are between 600 square meters and 1000 square meters and when granted there are no basic services available. There is not an entire framework where all the departments can take decisions together and this is the main problem: a fragmentation of responsibilities. After the people get the plots, they can apply for the basic services, but usually it takes two to three years for the services to arrive. The distribution of land is so rapid that at the moment there is a lack of vacant land in Al Buraimi to distribute to people. But the main problem remains; the basic infrastructure has (yet) to join the planning (MoH, personal communication, September 22, 2014).
There is a five-year plan for every project-plan perspective in a long-term plan rather than in in Oman, including infrastructure projects. The the short-term. Specifically for infrastructure, municipality applies for the amount of money there are short-term plans, for one year, but they need for basic services in a five-year plan there are also some five-year plans to apply in and usually only 20-50 per cent is granted from the government, like the sewage system plan. the central government. They are now looking Only 30-35 per cent of the city is connected to to clarify what and how many services will be the sewage system, the rest of the city uses needed in the future in order to change their septic tanks.
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Solid waste management
Currently, there are negotiations with a private different areas of the city. It does not allow the company. This was arranged by the central people to have the facilities and the leisure parks government and sent to Al Buraimi, to take they need, but also restrains the promotion charge of the whole solid waste management of of the business sector, as investors are not the city, as the municipality cannot cope with the attracted to the area (Chambers of Commerce, growth of the city. The municipality will just focus personal communication, September 29, 2014). on the supervision of the whole management. The Public Authority for Electricity and Water The attempts of the municipality to inform people (PAEW) is responsible for the distribution of through campaigns in schools, universities, fresh water in the city. After 2008, the city of worship sites, newspapers, television, and by Al Buraimi has been supplied with desalinated the distribution of three different colours of water coming from the city of Sohar while plastic bags to the people (in order for them the water from underground resources and to recycle), seems to have had no significant wells is used only in special occasions and result .There is no recycling taking place in circumstances. PAEW continues to follow the the city (MRMWR, personal communication, Government’s policy of reducing reliance on September 23, 2014). groundwater for drinking water, and the plans continue to envisage increasing reliance on Moreover, the fresh water supply - arguably the large-scale desalination as the main source most important basic service for a city and its of drinking water in Oman. The authority is inhabitants - is facing a lot of risks. First of all, also focusing on the reduction of water losses there are the weather conditions and the amount (leakages, theft, etc.) and as a result to reduce of rainfall, as previously mentioned, which the subsidy that is needed (Annual Report, have a negative impact in the water resources Public Authority for Electricity and Water, 2013). of the area. Secondly, the rapid growth of the The fact is that the access to drinking water and population and the increase on the demand of sanitation has increased in the whole country in water make the situation more problematic. the last 20 years, and the investment in these facilities played a vital role in the reduction of One of the main issues is the shortage of water the child mortality rate in Oman, with a decrease in Al Buraimi. That issue causes problems in of 37.9 per cent between 1990 and 2010.
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In total, the three basic services are facing waste of water in addition to finding more ways challenges and inefficiencies that first arise to maximize the present water resources so as from the management and the administration. to increase its availability. There are some administrative obstacles, the management is highly centralized and there is a In the Sultanate of Oman there are different lack in planning within regions. The authorities resources of water, but they vary depending on inside the governorate do not coordinate with a the region of the country that is being referred vision and strong urban planning management to. First of all, there is surface water — water is absent. from rain and from the mountains that flows through the rivers that are called ‘wadis.’ Due Another side effect of the lack of infrastructure, to the low precipitation that can be affected by which was mentioned in our meeting with the some factors such as storms and low pressures, Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs, the availability of surface water is declining is that there are some industrial activities very and there is a phenomenon of having more close to residential areas. Despite the ministry’s wadis and aflaj throughout the country dry up. attempts to relocate them into the industrial Secondly, there is groundwater. The ground zone, far enough from the residential areas, aquifers can be characterized as renewable or this is not possible because of that lack of basic non-renewable, depending on whether they services. People are difficult to be convinced to can be fed through rainfall or not. Due to little shift somewhere where no basic infrastructure rainfall, the groundwater resources are declining is available (MECA, personal communication, throughout the country and the government September 28, 2014). is trying to minimize the use of underground water as much as possible, as will be analysed Fresh Water Supply below. And thirdly, there are the water springs Water is not only a vital element for our life where the water flows naturally from the ground but also a resource and foundation for a lot to the surface. of different development fields. Nowadays, all around the world, countries and people are From the sources to the people facing the challenge of water shortages, as well Besides these sources, there are different water as its ensuing limitations, and are looking for systems in order to acquire and transport water. different means and solutions to reduce the There is an ancient method, called Al Zajirah,
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which operates by elevating groundwater. There provide water for their farms, their products, and is also the famous Aflaj system, channels that their animals. That aflaj, which is going through transfer and transport water, the reservoirs, the Sa’ara village in Al Buraimi, has been dry for which are storage systems of rainwater, and around 30 years. Peoples perception regarding the different types of dams (recharge, surface the reasons why the aflaj is dry, are very diverse. storage, flood protection, etc.). Furthermore, Religion is common to get mixed with water there are the water desalination plants where the issues. In a climate situation as Oman’s, where salt from the seawater is removed and the water it is mountainous and arid, the water is received product can be used as fresh water through underground or below dry riverbeds, which in specific processing. The desalination plants Oman are called “wadis”. have been exploited over the last few years in Oman and they are basically providing the Water in the aflaj was carried in open channels majority of fresh water. The wastewater stations and was distributed to the community firstly are only used to provide treated water for to the mosque and for drinking, and secondly irrigation purposes (MRMWR, Water Resources for washing and irrigation purposes. The in Sultanate of Oman, 2013). management was so carefully made, that there were no epidemics recorded in the whole Arab Water in Al Buraimi through the years Region (Ragette F., 2012, Traditional Domestic Before the connection to the desalination plant Architecture of the Arab Region, American from the city of Sohar, which we will analyse at a University of Sharjah, Third, unrevised edition). later stage of the study, the city of Al Buraimi was supplied with water from wells, underground According to Parry (1998), despite the research, water, and water coming from the aflaj (water no one can be sure about the origins of the aflaj canals that are used in the whole region for in Oman and how old the oldest channels are. more than 3000 years, for human settlements However, the aflaj in Yemen may show that those and irrigation purposes). More than a thousand in Oman came from necessity and not from years ago the people of the Sa’ara village in outside involvement. In addition, the mining Al Buraimi brought water from more than 30 industry in Oman during the third millennium kilometres away, from springs in the mountains BC required a readily available supply of water, that belong to Oman, making a channel from which could be achieved by a system such as the mountains to their settlements in order to the aflaj.
132 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 51. Thaqbah well Source: (Author, 2014)
Figure 52. Production from wells, Al Buraimi Source: (Annual report 2013, PAEW)
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Water management
The water management in Al Buraimi, as The third and last section of the department well as in the rest of the country, is divided deals with the dams and the aflaj, underground into two sections: The management of the or on the surface. Regarding the dams, the water resources, which is overseen by the studies that the department fulfils serve to water resources department of the MRMWR, establish if a new one is needed or not. At the and the distribution of the water, which is moment, there are about six dams in the area, the responsibility of the Public Authority for five of them are recharging ones and one serves Electricity and Water (PAEW). as storage (above the surface).
The department of the water resources has three The main challenge of the department is to different sections. The first section handles the “protect the underground water and save it, monitoring and the studies that are concerned as population and demand are growing fast” with the natural water resources, such as (Water Resources Department, MRMWR, the wadis, aflaj, wells, rainfall, etc. There are personal communication, October 1, 2014). monthly or quarterly measurements and reports regarding this monitoring. Extraction, desalinization and distribution The second section deals with the provision of In the whole governorate of Al Buraimi, there permits regarding the wells in order to protect are around 7000 wells, private and public, in the sources, in accordance with the laws and farms. There is no allowance to have a well in regulations of the Sultanate. These permits have a house, only under specific conditions and to do with different demands from the people; circumstances. The department is responsible such as calls for cleaning a well, making an to grant any permit only after it has conducted existing one deeper, or even digging a new one. a study, as mentioned above, regarding such For any project of that kind, public or private, a request. Nevertheless, there are some a study work is needed from that section of occasions during which people proceed with the department in order to proceed and for the construction of their own well without the the approval of the request. This section aims permission of the department, but for these to investigate whether the project affects the cases there are fees according to the laws for the ground and the surface water, and if the project act of illegally digging a well. itself is safe from potential floods. 134 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Minimum water recharge
The second authority, the PAEW, is responsible In the last 15 to 20 years there has for the distribution of water. PAEW works in been a dry period in the area and cooperation with the department of water because of this there has not been resources regarding underground and surface adequate recharging of the dams, water and its use. ground and underground water, as the precipitation has been low. Before 2008, the area of Al Buraimi was served Something that is obvious from the by groundwater and wells. As the population was rain gates and the measurements increasing and simultaneously the groundwater of rainfall from the department. In level was declining. The government could not addition to this situation, there is depend any more on groundwater resources for also the lack of awareness on the the area, and as a result they proceeded with the part of people who do not care about connection of the city to the desalination plant of water resources (Water Resources the city of Sohar, which is the closest coastal city Department, MRMWR, personal to Al Buraimi. In the desalination plant in Sohar a communication, October 1, 2014). process called “Multiple Stage Flash Distillation” is used. A most recently developed process for Local water network reliable and efficient water desalination is called “reverse osmosis”, or R.O., but that type is not The network distribution in Al Buraimi increased yet used in Sohar. From Sohar the desalinated over the last few years as a result of the water is transported to Al Buraimi through pipes, improvement and the extension of the water pump stations, and transmission connections. network system, but also due to the growth of the After the reduction in the use of water from the population. Another fact that is more important wells, it can be said that nowadays the level of is the increase of the production from wells that the groundwater in Al Buraimi is stable except was very significant for the last year, as it has during the dry seasons, when that level drops. increased by 34 per cent. This demonstrates that In addition, the groundwater from the wells is the government’s general policy for reducing being used nowadays only in emergency cases reliance on groundwater for the supplies of and in cases of high demand (PAEW, personal drinking water and general use, in most cases, communication, October 1, 2014). wells that go to support small isolated networks
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or tanker filling stations in areas that are not yet (Source: Annual report 2013, Public Authority for connected to the main networks is working. Electricity and Water).
Another objective of the Public Authority for Nowadays, the main water connection covers Electricity and Water is to ensure the best quality around 80 per cent of the city, whereas private of water is provided to the people. PAEW’s water tankers serve the remaining 20 per cent. The quality teams are monitoring, controlling, and price for the water through the main connection improving the water quality by conducting a with the pipeline is 0.002 O.R./ litres for up daily sample program that takes place to check to 5000 litres, and 0.0025 O.R./ litres for any the quality of the water. For that purpose there amount above 5000 litres. The average usage is a lab in Al Buraimi’s department of PAEW at the moment in the city of Al Buraimi is formed from a special team to accomplish this approximately 150 litres/person. objective. In 2013, there were 1780 samples collected in Al Buraimi governorate and they Disconnected households and water were checked through these monitoring storage controls. By the installation of more sampling On the other hand, for the houses and the points and the employment of more personnel, residential areas that are not being served the PAEW managed to increase the number of through the main water connection system, samples by more than seven per cent between there are two ways that they can be supplied 2012 and 2013. For Al Buraimi, the water quality with fresh water. The first way is through the compliance of the samples was 96 per cent. In private sector, through private tankers that addition, the number of employees increased by take fresh water from the PAEW and sell it to almost 30 per cent between 2012 and 2013, and people. There are two levels of pricing for these in the Al Buraimi branch there are currently 85 tankers: below 650 litres is 0.001 O.R./ litres Omanis and no non-Omanis. One fact worth and above 650 litres is 0.003 O.R./ litres. The mentioning is that in the whole company, there second way, which is applied for houses that are are 1340 male and only 166 female employees. far away from the city centre as well as for the Another important element is the training villages around the city of Al Buraimi, is the free courses that the company delivers in order to distribution of water with contracted tankers of recruit more personnel every year. In Al Buraimi, the PAEW. The PAEW do not supply the whole around 200 people were trained in 2013 amount of water that people need, but the
136 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
agency helps them financially by supporting houses without a connection to the main system them with a basic amount of water. Their main need more capacity and as a result they use roof source of fresh water is the private tankers. tanks that hold between 600 and 800 litres. The PAEW informs people to clean their tanks, but it Furthermore, people use roof tanks to store is up to their own volition to observe that advice fresh water. It is not only the houses that are and also it is their decision to select the capacity not connected to the main water network do and the size of the tank they will have. this, but also the ones that are being served from the network. The reason behind that is Moreover, there is no limitation on the amount that people, even if they have water through of water that people can use on a daily basis, the main connection, store some water for however the PAEW is trying to inform them not emergency reasons, in the cases of shortages to waste water and rather to save it. of water during the dry season, or even if there are some problems with the network. Usually Regarding the areas that are not connected to the households have a period of 24 hours that the main water network yet, there is a committee requires around 300 litres of water reserves. The and some criteria that should be met in order
Figure 53. Total water distribution in Al Buraimi Source: (Annual report 2013, PAEW) 137 Part 2.3 Infrastructure
to decide which area is going to be connected the pollution of the water. These campaigns to the main network. The procedure nowadays and programs should be carried out through is that after the completion of construction every available means in order to target the on a house, the owner applies for the water whole population, people of all ages and gender. service and in a short period of time the water Programs and activities should be implemented connection is provided. The houses that are in schools and universities to inform students, far away from the main network have to wait but also outside schools through youth clubs between one and three years for the urban or student workshops and camps. In addition, planning, and ultimately the connection to reach advertisements, reports, information, and tips their area. Nevertheless, in the case that there must be provided on a daily basis via television, are any illegal connections to the main system radio, newspapers, and the Internet, means of after any inspection from the PAEW, there are information relay that people use every day. fees, but these happen very rarely (PAEW, personal communication, October 1, 2014). Technological improvement The second step is to inform the population about high efficiency appliances and equipment, Strategies for sustainable modern techniques and technology, which of development in water management course match the Omani context and have a lot of positive effects on saving water. In the survey Education, Awareness, Campaigns that was made during the field work in Al Buraimi, For the development of the city, the protection as was mentioned in the previous chapter, only of natural water resources, and in order to 24 per cent of the people that were questioned cope with the increasing demand of fresh water already have high efficiency facilities installed supply as a consequence of the rapidly growing in their households, 42 per cent have not, and population, the understanding and cooperation 34 per cent are planning to have such installed. of the inhabitants of the city is essential. These results show that half the population is not familiar with high efficiency facilities but also The first step towards that goal is to carry out that quite a big portion is planning to install different campaigns and programs for the such in the near future. There are different high inhabitants according to different water issues efficiency appliances, but only some of them such as water use, the overuse of water, and can be applied to the Omani households. There
138 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 54. Water saving campaign adds Source: (www.paew.gov. om) are high efficiency toilets with “stop buttons,” household. A suggestion might be to establish or others called 6/3 l-flush toilets that have two some initiatives from the government and the flush buttons in order to use half of the amount authorities in order to help people to afford to of the water for liquid waste flushes versus solid install this equipment. waste flushes. There are also shower heads that can reduce water usage by up to 70 per The last step should be the monitoring and cent. The instalment of sink faucet aerators evaluation of all the activities, programs, and can reduce water consumption from the tap by initiatives, and to identify if they were successful, about 30 to 50 per cent. These examples show their problems, and the ways that they can the percentages of water that can be saved in be improved. These activities for the public every household with the instalment of this awareness are activities and programs that are equipment. Despite the fact that this equipment not made for one time. This process is a long is more expensive than standard equipment, and difficult one in order to bring the expected the cost can be offset in the long-term by the results in society and to change the inhabitants’ reduction in water service charges in every behaviour in the long run.
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Box 15. Community survey on fresh water Regarding the questions that were targeting the fresh water supply sector the answers were varied. 63% did not know the amount of water they use daily in their household. Furthermore, 16% replied that the current availability of water is more than enough, 76% that it is enough, whereas only 7% responded that the availability is low or very low. On the other hand, 23% of the respondents recognise the price of the water supply as very expensive, 56% as expensive, 18% as being a fair price and only 3% as cheap. From these responses it is clearly observed that the majority (almost 79%) of the people believe that the price of the water is expensive. Moreover, to the question if they try to save water, 93% answered yes whereas only 7% answered no. From them, almost 25% are already using high efficiency facilities, such as high efficiency toilets, in their house whereas 42% are not using such and 33% is planning to install such systems in the future. These answers show that people try to save water but some of them are not familiar with more efficient ways to do such or even that they do not have the means to do it.
Planning-Training
It is very important to establish knowledge circumstances that affect the water demand about water demand in a city and how this and supply, such as the climate change. The city water demand is going to change in the future. should be prepared beforehand to deal with any The planning for a sustainable water supply is changes and increases in water demand. needed from the authorities responsible for the water distribution including resources and Even though there is no limitation in the studies of the water demand change in the water supply for households, there should be future; 5, 10, and 15 years ahead. Studies must differentiation based on the different amounts be conducted about the increase or decrease of water each household consumes. A more of population and the expected development of complex pricing system is needed that will the city, new residential areas, and other relevant take into consideration the number of people
140 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
in every household, and not only the water Lastly, the Aflaj in Oman represent an important consumption. In the current system, the first source of water supply to a major part of the rural level is capped at 5000 litres but it does not take population. The losses from the aflaj systems as into consideration if the household consists of they dry up include losses in agricultural income, four or fifteen people. In a situation like this, the increases in domestic water expenditures price levels should be based on the litres per per household, and capital losses related to person in the household and not per household. changes in house and land values. Although It also makes more sense if considered the aflaj in Oman persisted for hundreds of years, differentiation of the households, as we can find the flow measurements in the last few years households of two persons and households of show a huge decline. A survey undertaken in 20. 1996 by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources (MRMWR) reported more Furthermore, the country should support than 1000 aflaj have dried up. For that reason, programs for the training of people for water the Omani government, through the MRMWR, management. The Public Authority of Electricity supported 669 projects of Aflaj reparation and and Water has such programs with a number of maintenance (Zekri et al., 2012). annual participants, but more focus in capacity building is needed. As an example, a very Solid waste management successful training program that was carried out in Egypt can be applied in the whole MENA The solid waste management in the city region, including Oman. It is called Training of Al Buraimi is under the authority of the of Trainers Program in Interdisciplinary Water municipality. There is a special department in Management (TOTWAT) and it is a European the municipality that deals with the collection Union-funded project under the umbrella of and the disposal of solid waste. At the same the TEMPUS Programme. Five partners carried time, people that work in the department of out this project: the Cairo University (Egypt), solid waste management mentioned that the the Alfayounm University (Egypt), the National department has been waiting for the transfer of Water Research Centre (Egypt), the RWTH management to a private company since 2008. Aachen University (Germany) and the Institute Despite that fact, they all agreed that this needs of Advanced Studies (Austria). This project has to be done as the department does not have the development of a TOT as a main objective. adequate personnel and equipment to cope with
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the growth of the city, and as a result with the not yet decided, but according to the regulations management of solid waste. The contradiction it should be three kilometres away from the here is that from first glance the city seems residential areas, or if it is less, it should be a very clean. The main streets, the sidewalks, the natural area in between, like a mountain, so that green spaces with lawns, everything is clean, the air does not bring the smell to the residential something that shows not only that the people area. are eager to keep the city clean, but also that the people working on the street cleaning are The authorities did not consider the future efficient enough at their job. So the question development of the city. As a result, the dump arises about the main problems with this service nowadays is located less than one kilometre remain and depend on the actual management from the residential area (MECA, personal of the service, as will be analysed below. communication, September 28, 2014). This issue causes a lot of problems for the residential Al Buraimi landfill areas, such as air pollution and hygiene issues. There are in total six dumps in the governorate Strategies for Sustainable Development of Al Buraimi, five small ones in the villages around the city and a big one that receives In the city of Al Buraimi, solid waste management the solid waste of the city. The small ones are is inefficient and faces a lot of challenges. The between 2000 and 12,000 square meters, and public waste bins are inadequate, there is no the big one is 248,888 square meters. This waste separation; there is a total absence of dump that serves the city of Al Buraimi is in a recycling or reuse of materials, and the landfill very bad condition. is very close to the residential area causing environmental and hygiene problems. In The plan in the future for this dump is that it tackling this issue, there is a need to look into will be used as a collecting point for solid waste the options of reduction, reuse, and recycling. before it reaches its final destination, which will be a new dump further from the city. At Some early steps are likely to include the the moment, the Ministry of Environment and extension of the collection to the whole city and Climate Affairs, which is responsible for granting phasing out open dumps. An ISWM approach the permits for the new dumps, is preparing the is likely to include a focus on improving the permission for that new dump. The actual site is existing recycling rates and on taking measures
142 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
to bring waste growth under control. This is on the importance of reducing and recycling particularly important, as every ton of waste waste towards a healthy environment (Coker reduced, reused, or recycled is a ton of waste for et al., 2010). As the survey of the current study which the city does not have to pay for transport showed, the residents of Al Buraimi are willing to and safe disposal (UN-Habitat, 2010). participate in projects regarding the separation of their household waste and in recycling in general. As a result, the first attempt made by Strategies for sustainable the local government should be focused on development in solid waste campaigns and educational projects in schools, management universities, and public spaces in order to raise the public awareness about the importance of Short-term approach: awareness waste separation and recycling. At this point it is essential to mention that the role of women The first and major step towards effective solid should not be overlooked. According to a survey waste management is the public awareness by the United Nation’s Children’s Emergency
Figure 55. Landfill Source: (Author, 2014) 143 Part 2.3 Infrastructure
Box 16. Community survey on solid waste management A survey was carried out with questions that directly referred to the solid waste management of the city. Almost 95% of the people said that an improvement in the solid waste management is needed for their city. 56% responded positively that they know and understand the meaning of composting. In the next question regarding recycling, the 80% answered that they know this term. In addition to that question, people were questioned if they would be willing to separate their solid waste in order to help a recycling program to work. Almost the 72% said “yes” whereas the 14% answered negatively. Furthermore, people were asked if they would be willing to pay for the pickup of these recycling materials from their houses and the 49% responded positively. Moreover, almost the 60% of the people would like to participate in a program to compost food. The final question was if people would participate in a program to return the plastic bottles to the stores if they were paid for every bottle that they would return. Almost the 78% answered positively.
Medium-term approach Fund (UNICEF), development projects that did not involve women failed to accomplish their Besides people’s eagerness to accept future objectives. plans regarding the improvement of solid waste management of the city and their participation On the same level, the prevention and the to it, the adequate equipment and vehicles minimization of solid waste is the most efficient must be provided. According to Nilsson (2011), way of reducing the impacts on the environment, the collection and the transport of waste from as even the most efficient recycling of waste uses the source to the treatment or disposal site resources and has impacts on the environment involve a lot of different equipment: bins and (Salhofer et al., 2010). For that reason, the containers, collection vehicles, routes, and an campaigns in raising public awareness should efficient schedule for collection. Moreover, an also focus on informing the people about the adequate numbers of bins should be distributed importance of reducing the waste they produce. throughout the whole city, according to the
144 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
needs of each specific area. Where the area has recycling. These spots could be outside or near higher density, a greater number of bins must from the supermarkets or the shopping mall or be provided to cover the residents’ needs. In even in some central areas in the city. addition, those bins that will be distributed in the city must be differentiated. There should be Moreover, the municipality can provide people bins only for paper, bins for plastic, and bins for with different waste bags so that people can general waste. be more motivated to separate their waste and dispose of it in the appropriate bin. Furthermore, bins or containers for the collection of glass should be provided. Here, Secondly, alongside with this equipment, there is the option that these bins are not appropriate and adequate waste collection provided to the whole city, but larger containers vehicles should be provided in order to collect can be placed in specific spots so that people all the waste from the city. These vehicles should could visit often and dispose of their glass for be differentiated according to the waste they will
Figure 56. School children educated in recycling programmes (Source: UN-Habitat, 2010) 145 Part 2.3 Infrastructure
collect, for plastic, paper, glass, and common In addition, for a new landfill there are planning, waste. Also, there could be different vehicles siting, and design procedures that should be regarding their size, small pick-up trucks, taken into consideration; these are complex medium and big, in order to serve different processes involving environmental issues and parts of the city. In addition, the important technical features (Raga and Cossu, 2011). factors in the whole collection management are the frequency of collection of solid waste, the However, except for good siting and design, a route planning for the vehicles, and the crew successful landfill requires effective operation size and truck capacity, as mentioned above. and monitoring throughout its lifetime in order The frequency of collection will be planned for it to work properly. Technical equipment and according to the needs of the city and each area. monitoring of the performance of the landfill are required in order that a landfill be characterized In order for that system to be successful the as successful and environmentally safe (Berge participation of the people is required. Even et al., 2011). In addition, in the planning and if this equipment and the vehicles exist and designing of a landfill it is very important to operate in a very sufficient way, nothing will understand the environmental impacts that change and improve if people do not separate must be avoided, and that a modern landfill is their waste and do not use the equipment that is able to avoid these impacts (Christensen et al., provided to do so appropriately. 2011).
Long-term approach As a result, a new landfill is highly necessary for As was previously mentioned in the analysis the planning and the design of the city, and at above, the existing landfill of the city is facing the same time the safe termination of the use problems. It is very close to the residential area of the current one. The current landfill, after and the authorities are planning to close it down the termination of its use, can be used as a and open a new one that will adhere to all the collection and storing place for all the recyclable regulations. It is very important to mention here waste that the city will produce and dispose of, that the management of a landfill does not stop before the planning and the creation of different after the termination of waste acceptance, but it recycling facilities that will accept the recyclable needs some provisions regarding the aftermath waste and will treat them accordingly. This is the before it can be retired (Scharff, 2011). next step for the improvement of solid waste
146 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
management. New facilities are required that be done in more than one step and during the will receive and process the recyclable materials. different stages of the new plans. It could also be It is clear that in order to create these recycling done after the full operation of the new facilities centres adequate funding is needed from the and of the whole network. Anyhow, new laws government. But this is a necessary step towards and regulations are essential for the function the improvement of the solid waste management of any new system or for any improvement in for the city. Nilsson and Christensen (2011) give current state of solid waste management. the examples of a collection centre in Herning and one in Copenhagen (both in Denmark), Wastewater management where the amount of residential waste that is being landfilled after treatment, is less than The wastewater collection in the city of Al 4 percent. As a result, the life of the landfill is Buraimi is done in two different ways. There extended and also the monitoring and operating is the current sewage system network, which costs are reduced. In which case, funding that is covers approximately the 30-35 per cent of the needed here will be covered in the long-term by city, and the septic tanks that are used in the the positive effects of the new management and rest of the city. The sewage system network is the new facilities. connected directly to the wastewater treatment plant, whereas the wastewater from the septic These examples show how efficient recycling tanks is collected and carried to the treatment centres can be and the positive effects that plant by privately owned trucks. The plans for the have come from an environmental point of sewage network and its increase of connections view, as well as from an economic one and for throughout the city are considered to be big- unemployment or creating job opportunities. scale plans, a five-year plan (MRMWR, personal communication, September 23, 2014). On the An additional step for the improvement of other hand, any plans or proposals to increase solid waste management concerns the laws this network, conflicts with the fact that the city and the regulations. This step falls between a is very scattered and of very low density. The medium- and a long-term plan, and the need government is reluctant to allocate the amount for the current laws and regulations review, of money that is needed for this development reformulation of the policies, as well as their (MECA, personal communication, September enforcement is essential. This procedure can 28, 2014).
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Sewage Treatment Plant
The current sewage network consists of 3000 that delivered it directly to the irrigation sites. lines that are connected to the main network, The sites though that receive this treated water and 5300 household pipes that are connected are only trees alongside the streets or in the park, to these lines. This covers 35%of the city. The but not public spaces with grass that people new treatment plant, which is not far from the use. These green spaces with grass are irrigated city (approximately one kilometre), can receive with fresh water. There is no clear reason of up to 3000 cubic meters of wastewater per day. why this is happening, as the certificates from Out of this amount of wastewater, the treatment the laboratories specify that the treated water is plant is capable of producing around 400 to 500 classified, as mentioned above, as Group A and cubic meters per day of clean water, which can is completely safe and odourless. The reason be used for irrigation purposes. Trucks from the might be cultural, as people do not accept treatment plant distribute this treated water to sitting on grass that is being irrigated with the irrigation sites. The only direct connection treated wastewater (Wastewater department of from the treatment plant through a pipeline goes MRMWR, personal communication, October 2, out to the big city park. This sewage treatment 2014). plant (STP) consists of two lift stations, one pump station, and the actual site of the plant Furthermore, further away from the city, there is (Wastewater department of MRMWR, personal a former treatment plant, which receives daily communication, October 2, 2014). around 2000 M3 but delivers only around 50 M3/ day of treated wastewater and not in the same Inside this treatment plant is also a quality as the new treatment plant does. Hence, microbiology laboratory where the wastewater there are plans at the moment to increase the and the treated water are tested throughout the capacity of the new treatment plant in order whole procedure. The laboratory is adequately to be able to receive also the wastewater that equipped. The results from the Microbiology the old plant receives daily. As a result the old Laboratory and the Water Quality Laboratory plant that is of lower standards will not be specify that the samples of treated wastewater needed anymore and it will be finally closed. are classified into Group A and therefore the Nevertheless, there are currently construction treated wastewater can be used for irrigation works taking place in the new plant in order to purposes. For the time being, this treated water increase its capacity (Wastewater department of is carried out of the treatment plant with trucks MRMWR, personal communication, 2014). 148 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 57. Treatment plant Source: (Author, 2014) Septic Tanks month, but it depends how often they have to The areas of the city that are not yet connected discharge their septic tank. They pay that amount to the main sewage system are serviced with to private trucks that collect the wastewater from soak away pits and septic tanks. There are their septic tanks and carry it to the wastewater specific guidelines for the construction of these treatment plant. septic tanks in the regulations mentioned below, including information on: the dimensions, For the houses that are connected to the acceptable construction materials, and sewage system the charges are different. For connection with the houses. the residential areas the fee is 0.154 O.R./m3 and an additional fee of 2 O.R. per month. For Service Fees the governmental buildings and the commercial The amount of money that people pay for this areas the fees are 0,193 O.R./m3 and 0.231 O.R./ service is different. For the households of the m3 respectively. Also for the commercial areas residential areas without connection to the the standard monthly fee is 5 O.R. These fees sewage system, the ones that use septic tanks, are almost equal to 35 percent of the fees for the the fee is between 12 and 15 Omani Rials per drinking water supply. People pay their bills in 149 Part 2.3 Infrastructure
the Omani Investment and Finance Company Moreover, a strong advantage of the city of Al (OIFC) as they also do for their water bills Buraimi is the new wastewater treatment plant. (Wastewater department of MRMWR, personal It is considered to be a modern treatment plant communication, October 2, 2014). that can treat wastewater and produce clean water of good quality. The authorities at the moment are working towards the expansion Strategies for sustainable of the new treatment plant in order to stop development in wastewater using the old one, and to eventually close it management down. It is clear that these are long-term goals, but it is something that has to be planned Inadequate provision of water and sanitation and it is important that the procedures for its affects hundreds of millions of people in small implementation to begin as soon as possible. urban centres. It is often assumed that it is more difficult to support good provision of Secondly, the issue that must be assessed is water and sanitation in small urban centres than the potential reuse of the treated wastewater in large cities due to weaker local governments, from the treatment plant. The primary problems fewer economies of scale for infrastructure associated with reusing insufficiently treated and management, and less capacity to pay. wastewater are the inherent health risks from Nevertheless, safe access for everyone is needed wastewater containing bacteria and viruses to ensure the safe disposal of human excreta and (Sammis et al., 2001). The regulatory practices adequate wastewater treatment management. and the necessary institutional framework The health and timesaving benefits that come on both national and local levels need to be from good provision for water and sanitation reviewed (Raschid-Sally et al., 2001). In the case are well known through different examples from of Al Buraimi, the treated wastewater, even if it around the world (McGregor, 2005). is considered to be of good quality according to laboratories that check it daily, it is being used It is essential for the government and the local only for irrigation purposes of urban greenery. authorities to extend the main network across the city so that every area and every new block of An action plan from the government must be houses is capable of connecting to that network carried out, including regulations and criteria in the coming years. for the water reuse and the implementation
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of policies so that the treated wastewater can gardens, and cleaning house. Furthermore, if be used in more activities. This is happening we take into consideration the huge amount of nowadays worldwide because of the scarcity of fresh water that is being used for agricultural fresh water and it will be used even more in the purposes, it is crucial to use treated wastewater future. for agriculture. However, as already mentioned, policies must be established and technologies In addition, the authorities need to carry out improved in the treatment plant in order for the surveys and campaigns in order to inform treated wastewater to be reused. the people about the quality of the treated wastewater and the opportunities to use it Some suggestions this study makes, is to for different activities without causing any consider new technologies. There is an approach health or environmental problems. The treated commonly known as EcoSan, an abbreviation for wastewater can be used for everyday activities ecological sanitation, which is characterized by a such as car washing, irrigation of household desire to "close the loop." The basic philosophy
The sewage network in Al Buraimi Source: (Ministry of Housing, Oman) 151 Part 2.3 Infrastructure
of ecological sanitation is to recycle all the to install greywater treatment systems in new nutrients in human excreta. A consequence of houses, new apartment complexes, and public this is that the various ‘streams’ of excreta and buildings, such as mosques and schools, where wastewater should not be mixed as they differ existing plumbing may be easily modified to greatly in their volumes and nutrient loads. For separate greywater from blackwater. that reason, the ‘yellow water’ (urine), ‘black water’ (faeces and toilet flush waters) and ‘grey Lastly, the government and the authorities must water’ (wastewater from sinks and showers or proceed with a plan for the expansion of the baths) should be kept separated to facilitate current sewage network for the rest of the city. nutrient and water treatment and re-use. A plan that will be for the forthcoming years, it EcoSan can be either on-site or off-site, and it will be time -intensive and of high expense, but can even be partially on-site and partially off-site. also an achievement that has to be carried out TThe separation of “yellow” and “brown” water in the long term , as it will change the whole minimizes the consumption of valuable drinking development of the city. water and treats the separated wastewaters at a low cost. These can subsequently be used for Conclusions soil amelioration, as fertilizer or as service or irrigation water. There is also the potential for In this study different aspects and factors the re-utilization of nutrients, trace elements, of unsustainable management of the basic water, and energy, the conservation of resources services of the city have been analysed. The and basically having the material-flow cycle proposals and the recommendations that have instead of disposal (Werner et al., 2004). been suggested and explained in this study are divided into short-, medium-, and long-term Moreover, greywater has been used worldwide in approaches. By implementing them, either on a order to promote sustainable development and technical or management level, the coordination resource conservation without compromising of these basic services of the city will move public health and environmental quality. Despite towards greater sustainability. There will be an several environmental and financial benefits improvement of the health provisions of the city that can be identified by the use of greywater. and a decrease in the negative effects on the However, it would be very beneficial to the environment. At the same time there would be Omani context, if society could be persuaded some positive effects in the financial status of
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Box 17. Community survey on wastewater management In the questions that were focused to the wastewater management sector almost the 90% of the answers pointed out that an improvement in the whole system and in the management of the wastewater is needed. Furthermore, in the question regarding in what way do residents discharge their wastewater, almost 25% answered through the main sewage network, the 21% answered through a septic tank and the remaining 54% did not give an answer or answered by “Do not know”. In addition to this and likely related is the response that the 56% of the people questioned did not know how much money they spend on their wastewater disposal. Less than the half answered with an average of 25 Omani Rials per month. The conclusions that can be made from the survey is that maybe people are not familiar with the way their households dispose the wastewater but they have a basic knowledge and an opinion that the whole system needs to be improved.
the city in the long-term, as well as employment Environment and Development. It will become a benefits. sustainable city as Haughton and Hunter (1994) described as “one in which its people endeavour In addition, by investing in further research in to improve their natural, built, and cultural order to find more solutions (especially technical environments.” ones), the city will manage to reach a point where it can be considered as a sustainable developing A report from the Secretary-General’s High- city. By applying these changes, the city will Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post- “meet its needs without compromising the 2015 Development Agenda (United Nations, ability of future generations to meet their own 2013), discussed the current millennium needs,” as defined by the World Commission on development goals, known as MDGs, and the
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changes that are likely to take place through and the current landfill causes a lot of problems 2030. The recommendations of the current in the environment and for the health of the study are working towards the direction of the residents. This service is the most challenging of post-2015 targets regarding the access to water all in moving towards sustainable development. and sanitation that are: a) to provide universal access to safe drinking water at home and in Finally, the most important tools in a schools, b) to end open defecation and ensure development scheme are those employed in universal access to sanitation at school and the monitoring of the process, the collection work, and increase access to sanitation at home, of data and their evaluation. The need to c) to bring freshwater withdrawals in line with improve access to reliable territorial data was supply, and d) to recycle or treat all municipal identified during the fieldwork in the city of Al and industrial wastewater prior to discharge Buraimi, an improvement that would help in (United Nations, 2013). the development of strategies to implement the recommendations of the current thesis After the analysis of these three basic services, it and also of any future research. At the same was revealed that the most challenging is solid time, it would help to monitor and evaluate the waste management. The fresh water supply is at results and impacts of these implementations. a very strong level as the scarcity of water in the Moreover, monitoring of the SWOT analysis is whole MENA region is a problem from many valuable in order to identify whether the goals years ago and the government has focused are being met or not. For these reasons, the already on this issue. The sewage network current mechanism that already exists in the city already exists, and plans for its extension in of Al Buraimi, and in the whole country, should order to cover more parts of the city are already be improved in order to obtain local and reliable being discussed. In addition, there is a new data, and also to monitor and evaluate any wastewater treatment plant with high technology future implementation. but also facing the challenge of not being able to receive all the wastewater in the near future of a rapidly growing city. In contrast to this, there is the solid waste management area that lacks any sustainable improvements or developments. Recycling projects and centres are totally absent
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159 Part 2.4 Housing & urban design Florencia Carvajal Housing is a complex process responding The findings point out a mixed typology of to site and local specific conditions. A housing schemes and planning processes focus is laid on social, cultural, regulatory overlapping and creating a fragmented and institutional factors framing changes urban space following the dynamics of the physical structure. In order to give of growth. The proposed measures to time and spatial context to these categories, improve the process of housing will focus development has been analysed during on an open space recovery program that a period of the previous 40-50 years would allow for more livability within identifying the transitional social, economic already consolidated and new emerging and regulatory processes that contributed residential areas and on urban design as an to the present situation. Dynamics of intermediate discipline to be introduced as growth are reflected in the “structure plans” new planning instrument between ‘structure prepared to fulfill the increasing demand of plan’ and ‘krookie’. residential land. Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design
Assessment of the current state of housing
Introduction
This chapter summarizes Oman’s structural The first land law (Royal Decree No. 5/80), changes, which influenced the housing sector announced that all land belonged to the state, during the period of 1970 to 2014. There is a unless possession was proven as owned or focus on changes in contextual elements as inherited (by providing documents stating on regulatory and social aspects which have otherwise from the local sheikh or legal courts) resulted from the mechanisms the Sultanate prior to the first of January, 1970. The land law adopted to establish a nation-wide government Royal Decree No 81/84 announced the right of to guide and control urban issues in Oman. every male Omani citizen to have a residential plot granted from the government to him. Land regulation and allocation The discovery of oil and natural gas in the The strategy of land allotment required the 1960’s marked the economic growth process, creation of the Department of Lands in 1975. that went along with infrastructure expansion, This was to manage the new progressive mainly improving the road network and it was urban policies, along with the execution of the starting point for urbanisation. The year operations for urban development purposes of 1970 had set the most crucial turning point being established in the first Royal Decree, No. in the history of Oman, considered as the 26/1975. These operations went from planning beginning of the ‘modern Omani state’. This to preparing, coordinating, distributing, defining, implied the intention to establish basic rights registering and settling all land issues. The Land and duties in an equitable manner. It required Affairs Committee was formed to regulate the adjusting the accustomed tribal management claiming of lands. Its members were appointed of the territory to a single centralized national sheikhs from the Department of Lands for every government. Since 1970 providing land tenure province (wilayat). to the Omanis has been considered crucial to
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Equal tenure rights for women The drawing system was proposed to achieve transparency and fairness between the people, An important event in Oman, which determined in relation to the location within the city where a change of pace for the planned expansion the plot was granted. To mark out the future of cities was women being given the right to allotted plots for development, the MOH must land in 2008 via Royal Decree No.(125/2008), first survey, identify, measure, and record with issued the 16th of November. Considering a specific nomenclature in the land record the percentage of population, which women document. Further steps needed to finish with represented in the country in 2012, twice as a physical house were not described as the much plots were required to accomplish the responsibility of the MOH. Neither was the equality decree. In addition, the sites to be relationship to other infrastructure or basic granted have increased to a minimum area of services needed for the plot. During that initial 600sqm; almost double the initial area. The time of implementation, after the lottery, the reason for this increase was due to the high people received a temporary contract which demand from the citizens requiring larger areas would be switched to an ownership certificate to cope with their bigger internal living space, only after developing the site, as mentioned by the authority Head of Urban Planning section in Al Buraimi, MOH. Priority is only given to the house as a legal unit for every male Omani to manage the family and Land allocation procedure perpetuate the societal system. The haphazard The process of land distribution began granting results of the lottery sent the male Omanis to benefits to a single plot of land (in the vicinity possess land in remote areas of the city being of the place of birth or work), to male Omani separated from their initial family. With the nationals after they had reached 21 years of progression of land allocation throughout the age. The time necessary to wait for the draw to country during the following years, in 1990 happen could not be determined, hence it was a strategic development effort with a 2020 strongly related to the number of applications. planning vision came forward.
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Urban planning instruments – Action plan of 1984 structure plans compared The intention of the action plan was to provide The zoning distribution which was once a broad view of the spatial organization of the traditionally handled by the local tribes in city's development, without presenting details. response to its contextual needs is now in the responsibility of the Supreme Committee for The initial zoning categories were: residential, Town Planning based in Muscat. Historical commerce, industry, roads, services and data available from the MOH helps overview individual projects. Health and education were the development and planning of designated established in the five year development plans housing areas in Al Buraimi during the years of mentioned earlier. The existing settlements are 1984 to 2014. encompassed by short, medium and long time planned roads combined with the electricity network. Fortunately, there are no plans for road building within the former villages of Hamasa, Buraimi or Saara.
Figure 58. Action plan 1984 Source: (Ministry of Housing 1984) 164 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
An offset from the border is also set in this of blocks they will contain, nor how they will be plan, almost 2km at the furthest point, and the distributed within the city. intention is to fill the buffer space with housing. The scale of this is not aligned with the existing The first land draw came into force in 1984 settlements, but rather to the scale of the granting the Omanis plots ranging in size proposed new highways that will intersect the from 320 to 350 square meters. According to city. Commerce is set along the planned road this year’s plan, the average number of plots connecting with Al Ain, across almost all Al designated for future housing in the long term is Buraimi. 2600, located at the mentioned buffer area. The short term plan's housing plots were already In this plan, the intersection of highways is complete in design but not yet constructed. The marked as hierarchy points in the city and the medium term plan proposes 574 housing plots. classification of blocks in the structure plan They corresponded mainly to the New Saara is not set. Areas indicating future residential neighborhood. character have not assigned in detail the number
Figure 59. Structure plan 1985 Source: (Ministry of Housing 1985) 165 Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design
Figure 60. Expansion plan 1986-1996 Source: (Ministry of Housing 1985) Structure plan of 1985 repeat Al Buraimi’s main road pattern from the In relation to the previous map, the structure previous year's action plan at the immediate plan of 1985 provides more detailed smaller scale, especially for the New Saara area. information on how the city will be structured with its corresponding operations. However, This structure plan does not intend to design all specifications are not provided in the plan due elements until its completion. 8 neighbourhoods to its focus and purpose. A specific grid can are identified and 2830 plots will be introduced; already be recognized dividing the spaces the totalling 95 hectares of expansion. Most of main road infrastructure had left. Within those them are intended for the area between the areas the streets correspond to a medium road international border and the main highway. hierarchy being less wide. Still, the plan does Several others are intended to settle within the not manage to establish roads at the dwelling inner borders of the initial villages of the city, level, even though ‘Neighbourhood centres’ are at the north of the Oasis. New consolidated proposed; 6 in total. Regardless of this, they are service structures supply the residential needs not detailed further. There is also a tendency to of New Saara and Al Khadara. The outline of the
166 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 61. Expansion plan 1987-1990 Source: (Ministry of Housing 1985) service areas correspond to the roads, whenever of the plans show the set development they are attached to them. When not, the shape prioritizing displacement within the city still remains geometrical; however the reference by motorized vehicles, and not dividing or they follow are not easily distinguishable. The distributing the terrain for a pedestrian scale. layout does not intend to specify inner block The pattern of further expansion of the grid space or even neighbourhoods. The priority is eastwards establishes subdivisions within to determine the road network. This defines the designated neighbourhood areas. They continue limits of the future buildable area needing buffer appearing disconnected among each other in zones or open spaces as sidewalks or setbacks. between areas for other uses, and all together disconnected from the main hierarchy of roads. Expansion plan 1986- 1996 & 1987- An area of temporary housing is established 1990 at the north of Al Khadra and more expansion The figures shown correspond to the previous towards the east; two major areas designated official planning which determines the structure for residential growth. Yet there is no intention of Al Buraimi nowadays. The performance to set a clear network, distributing from the
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main roads to the new subdivisions or existing The management of territory for the Governorate neighbourhood centres areas. occurs within the national level. This is organized by the Supreme Committee for Planning. Within The arrangement of plots is noticeable this framework the MOH structures regional however, there is no clarity on whether they plans for the SCP to draw Town Structure Plans, are contained in a block or not. Areas to be which will be implemented in Al Buraimi by two extensions of the city are shown by surrounding lateral partners at the local level: the Ministry of new infrastructure networks. They have started Transport and Communications and Ministry of to be occupied with construction works which Regional Municipalities and Water Resources, disregard any potential future expansion or MRMWR. design of secondary/ internal access roads or public spaces to serve the area. Regarding road design: the main road connection and town access strategy prevents On an individual scale, foreign influence over direct traffic contact with residential or quiet the residential buildings is observed on Al areas. Towns and core areas are connected Buraimi’s architecture. Also, privacy and security inside by internal and secondary roads with no characteristics remain a constant need. physical link to upper road levels typologies.
Figure 62. Road hierarchy and town access according to structural plan Source: (Ministry of Transport and Communications, 2014) Interpretation: Author, 2015. 168 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 63. Current Al Buraimi map used for planning This map is used by different Ministry branches in Al Buraimi that are responsible for development and planning. Source: (Ministry of Housing, Modified by author, 2014) 169 Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design
Figure 64. Construct- ed Al Buraimi Latest built situation Source: (Ministry of Housing 2014/ Author, 2014) Finding: Dual reality – dual dynamics The second reality refers to the designed areas of develoment made up of marked plots that have not been granted yet or have been allocated but not yet The development of the city, triggered mainly by developed. This reality is driven by demand and land policies in Oman and guided by the main supply policy following the land law. road network, generated ambitious perspective plans of vast lands, marked with plots and As it is visible in the figures on the previous functions even before the need for them had page and above, there is fragmentation between appeared. the pace of development and that of planning.
Al Buraimi city shape is based on two realities. Zoning planning of the country was designated The first refers to the current city and its as responsibility of the Supreme Committee occupied area, driven by the needs and priorities for Town Planning. The new land management of the individual plot owners. It is up to them to bodies have been under the supervision of decide about when to built up their lands. the Consultative Council (Majlis al- Shura)
170 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 65. Marked plots Latest situation of planned territory Source: (Ministry of Housing 2014/ Author, 2014)
Figure 66. Planned vs granted plots Plots For residential use only Source: (National Center for Statistics and Information, 2014/ Author, 2015)
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Emerging socio-spatial disparities
since 1991, when it was created to serve as a The border closing in 2014 was a governmental channel of information between the Omanis strategy to force Al Buraimi’s own development and the governmental ministries. Their role instead of depending on Al Ain’s. One month is to review works on social, environmental before Buraimi obtained its autonomy from the and economic broad development projects, Ad Dhahirah Region by becoming a governorate, with residential land designation being a part two checkpoints were implemented and the of this. This council operates centrally from border was relocated 8 km to the east, around Muscat. All the established departments and Hilli, within the new governorate. One of the ministries are under the authority of the Sultan. first major shifts this caused was from people The Department of Lands continued evolving in interested in acquiring land for dwelling scope and name until becoming the MOH in purposes in Al Khadra (next to the border). They 1985. were now looking at areas like New Saara to
Figure 67. Omani and expat population in Al Buraimi Governorate Source: (National Center for Statistics and Information, 2014/ Author, 2014)
172 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 68. Chronologi- cal division scheme Marked in squares: Al Khadra and Al Guraifa Source: (Author, 2015)
the east. The new limitations for movement to Al Ain created the conditions for the citizens to start considering relocation to the new planned schemes of previous years.
Expat population The expatriates are segregated in the city, living adjacent to or at the rear of the commerce areas where they are employed. In Al Buraimi commercial clusters are located mainly within the centre. Despite the lack of specific data that would indicate the provenance of the expatriates, during the on-site research, it was noticed that the great majority of the work force of the city does not come from GCC nationals.
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Figure 69. Expat on his way home Source: (Author, 2015) 174 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
They mostly come from the Indian subcontinent, the traditional quarters; hence the areas have as well as other central Asian countries and been left by the Omani owners who moved Middle Eastern. This creates a gap among the to better-off new constructions with modern standards of dwelling conditions in the city, improvements as electricity, water and drainage. and it is reflected in the immediate areas in The expatriates split the costs of rent which which they settle. Besides this, foreigners are result in overcrowding. This has the potential to not allowed to buy land freely in Oman. As lead to slum like conditions, influencing the way a result of this, the only option for them is to in which the city operates. rent; either houses or empty terrain. However, groups tend to share the accommodation in
Box 18. Social aspects of housing The MOH also includes a department in charge of social housing. There are four ways the government addresses the need for the physical housing structure, besides granting a plot of land to people. The first is by providing capital for people to build on their own, with supervision of the MOH. Second, the Department manages the process and dispenses the final product. Third, the Department purchases the desired dwelling to provide and fourth, an interest free loan (30,000 Omani Riyals) is awarded to the applicant. All the options for aid apply for low-income nationals, defined to this day as someone earning more than 300 but less than 500 Omani Riyals a month. This is verified after the application is submitted. Information from the local authority of the Department states in total there are between 200 - 300 applications each year for these options. The process takes a year and the construction of the dwellings usually takes 8 months.
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Finding: Change in urban morphology
The growth of Al Buraimi until 1990 had not No subdivision of land on a smaller scale is boosted accordingly to the proposed plans in found from the plots among each other. Or order to require such extensive highways for city from these to blocks, to neighbourhoods and delimitation causing a morphological turning to its extensions which would fill the spaces point. As a consequence of the land allocation enclosed by roads connecting the city with the system, the built areas begin to appear unevenly country. Also gaps in the city morphology began among the city. The loose scheme of plots to appear as soon as the first proposed action generates empty and large spaces whose plan. Large gaps of unused land contradict the functions are undefined and interrupt the initial settlement’s morphological structure. continuous urban layout. Noticeable contrasts The notion of periphery is set thoughtlessly exist between the compactness of the initial but as a consequence of surrounding the initial settlements and the loose sprawl setting the settlements with roads. norm of the current settlements
Figure 70. Preffered living areas Source: (Ministry of Housing 2014/ Author, 2015) 176 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 71. Neighbour- hoods in the outskirts Figure 72. Neighbour- hoods in the city centre Figure 73. Neighbour- hoods in the city centre 2 Source: (Author, 2014) 177 Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design
When comparing morphological structure in compactness of the old housing structure the traditional pre-oil settlements (before 1970) and the city generated a better relationship of and the ones from then onwards until today it social, cultural and physical functions. Despite becomes obvious that the former city and its legal instruments to attend the physical growth, elements derived from traditional, local culture the legislation did not provide an efficient and resource availability. Al Buraimi presented a organization for the use of land. The mentioned tribal administrative organization as happened order has grown due to the traffic engineering in the rest of Oman. Regarding economic setting, the guide for new planned areas and performance it presented a thriving landscape prescribes setbacks, sidewalks and other open influenced by the productive assets the existing areas, which were not part of the traditional falaj provided, tightly related to it’s location at morphology. the border of Oman and UAE. This granted potential growth and diversity to the inhabitants As the consequence of applying new urban and contributed to the uniqueness of its scenery. models, new open area elements have been established without proper contextualization. The traditional disposition of circulation space The initial open areas for residential use were in the initial phase appeared random or organic within the dwellings enforcing a private character. but they contributed to a functional, structural Currently there are open spaces scattered and visual integrity that the city followed. The among the new city neighborhoods to simulate
Figure 74. Built structure change Constructions are appearing further away from the city core due to the lottery method used for designating plots. A B Source: (Author, 2014) 178 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
these gathering spaces. However they lack the are mismanaged. From the planning of the city, privacy of having one clan or family surrounding public spaces are not thought as beneficial to it. Also the spaces are in a broader sense, the surrounding plots. Open spaces considered open, not being tightly enclosed by dwellings. public result from a lack of correlation between Therefore there is no appropriation of space the plot and the position given in a block. Urban due to the deprived relation to these spaces design and a new form of compactness on the and their surroundings. As consequence of the neighborhood and city quarter level can bridge citizens organizing their own open area within the gap between the ‘endless city ‘ and the their plot and being able to control its security; individual family to find a livable place to stay. these new open areas become redundant. The current city has lost its own identity and does no longer respond to local potentials. The dynamic of growth and the huge number of families to be settled ask for new ways and instruments of C D guiding the built environment. A
Initially, open spaces in between the city served B as arteries and gathering areas in spite of the strong need for privacy. Currently public spaces
Figure 75. Public space alteration The figure above shows the location of all four maps on these pages. C D Source: (Author, 2014) 179 Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design
Regulations and building codes
Taking into account the standardized process of different residential units of width (1.50) meters plot lottery which began in 1984, there was a gap to a passage up to (15) meters long, if the length of 14 years in which no consideration was given exceeded that, then the width shall increase to a to build homogeneity in the city. Al Buraimi was maximum of (2.20) meters. It can be illustrated accustomed to clustered spaces within the city, in the adjacent figure. designated to specific functions with a uniform character. With the new expansion planning, This contributes to the second reality in which directions arranging the operations along road there is a divergence from the real situation infrastructure axes needed standards. They in the city and the utilized plan in which the intended to preserve the traditional Omani MOH bases subsequent city planning, “2 A features while combining modern ones in the main corridor in front of one row of different developing city. Nevertheless these permits residential units of width (1.40) meters for five and certificates were only for the built elements units, if the units exceeded this number, then individually and not seen as a composition to the width shall be increased by (5%) for every make up the city. This code is not the extension additional unit provided that the maximum of the urban plans linking both urban scales width shall be (2.0) meters.” from the city to its final built dwelling elements. The next, Article (59) displays the car park Traffic engineering sets the key for new situation allowed within the legal boundaries community planning, requiring setbacks and of the plot specifying at least one car park other open areas to set large scale limits for every flat or single family residence for between the network and the city. residential areas. On-site research of the current specifically in New Saara does not establish this The existing building code from the Municipality regulation coming into force. Considering this to regulate the built environment of the city is neighbourhood being mostly consolidated, we focused on the house unit Little is established can infer other areas of the city present more regarding its relation to the city context extreme counterexamples to the article. surrounding it. As Article 58, section a) about residential buildings establishes: “1 (. . .) passages and corridors between two rows of
180 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 76. Article 58 a)1 Source: (Explanation Inspection and Engineering Affairs Department, 2008) Interpretation Author, 2014
Figure 77. Article 58 a)2 Source: (Explanation Inspection and Engineering Affairs Department, 2008) Interpretation Author, 2014
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Recommendations
Urban planning instruments are developed A missing link between the city planning level to guide and control physical and spatial (structure and expansion) and the building development. In the Omani context the planning level (individual house) becomes given land law as well as land allocation and obvious and has been identified as crucial for distribution practice together with the high urban sprawl and low quality of life in Al Buraimi population growth rates have created a situation and in other Omani cities as well. where priority is given to supply the demand of land, according to the law. Designation of Thus two strategic approaches are proposed new residential areas to repond to the ever that would react on the current challenges: increasing demand are reflected in the structure plans, showing more and more a horizontally First steps to foster quality of life in residential expanding city. Qualitative physical planning areas: Open space recovery program in however, with guidelines on what kind of urban consolidated areas and areas currently under qualities are going to be developed, which construction density is considered to be appropriate, how the open space should be integrated and other ○○ Open or non-built-up urban space is to be qualitative aspects of physical planning were divided into‚ public open space, meaning that not met by the structure plans. They focus on access is free to everybody and ‚private open the main road network to structure the city and space’ where access is restricted to a selected assign areas for expansion within a given time number of people. frame. ○○ Public open space includes space The second planning instrument in use is the dedicated to transportation (roads, car parking so called krookie that translates the building lots), sidewalks, green space and parks, setback regulations to any single building to be errected. (distance space between road and plot, distance The krookie only looks on one single plot and between two neighbouring plots (sikkha). on one single building and prescribes the percentage of plot surface allowed to be built up, ○○ Private open space is limited to the the setbacks, the maximum number of storeys, non-built-up space within an individual plot, the maximum height of the building and the use including roof terraces or balconies that form of the building. part of the build-up space itself. 182 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
○○ The open space recovery program would internal open space for ventilation, shaded follow a specific process, starting with an sitting areas, shaded pedestrian walkways, inventory of public space, physical performance children's playgrounds, social gathering space and patterns of use. for neighbouring families and friends...)
Second steps to foster quality of life in residential ○○ Priority is given to building permits within areas: Introducing the discipline of Urban one designated neighbourhood, to foster a joint Design to mediate between the “structural building process within a limited time span and plan’” and the “krookie”. to counteract sprawl.
Guidelines for urban design ○○ A certain number of adjacent ○○ Compactness and connectivity: Social and neighbourhoods are interconnected by internal spatial units of the city are neighbourhoods roads, internal walkways (shown in figure instead of single buildings. below). They may even share car parking areas.
○○ Neighbourhoods are organized and ○○ A cluster of neighbourhoods share their designed in size and in shape (a cluster/ mosques, small shopping facilities, a health Figure 78. Recom- block of a limited, but not too small, number care point, and other required daily services. mendations. of plots (about 40-50) and houses, that allow On the left side, open and un-built space is highlighted. On the right hand side, urban design interventions are proposed. Source: (Author, 2014)
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○○ Within the neighbourhoods traffic speed is neighbourhood design. Best practice cases from limited to 30 km/h. Roads are limited in width, neighbouring countries with similar climatic, corresponding to the idea of mixed use street cultural and historic background might be space (e.g. car, pedestrians, and bikes). included.
○○ Privacy within the neighbourhood is Moreover a competition on new housing types given to the individual family residences for compact settlements could be launched. through respective designs and setbacks. A This would include better building technologies neighbourhood may show different house types, and the use of renewable energies. though the attached twin villa, or row-houses or other compact building complexes should be A pilot project could test urban design on preferred in order to save land and to cope with the neighbourhood level using new housing new regulations on proportional density. (FSR/ types. Through this, strengths and weaknesses FAR) could be explored and documented within a comprehensive monitoring process. It would Further studies are recommended on review also help to formulate appropriate new building of planning standards and building codes, guidelines. and how to adapt them to the envisaged new
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References Edwards, B. et al. (2006) Courtyard Housing: Akbar, J. (1989) ‘Khatta and the Territorial Past, Present and Future. Taylor & Francis. Structure of the Early Muslim Towns’, in Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Al Gharibi, H. (2013) Urban Growth from Architecture. pp. 6, 22–32. Patchwork to Sustainability Case Study: Muscat. Technische Universität Berlin. Batty, M. (2012) Building a science of cities. Cities. 29S9– S16. Gordon, P. & Richardson, H. W. (2007) Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal? Burckhardt, T. et al. (2009) Art of Islam: Journal of the American Planning Association. language and meaning. Bloomington, Ind.: [Online] 63 (1), 95–106. World Wisdom. Ben-Hamouche, M. (n.d.) Corners-Sell Burton, E. et al. (1996) The Compact City A Regulations A Pioneer experience in The Sustainable Urban Form?. Routledge. Municipal Work and Sustainability. [online]. (Accessed 8 November 2014). Cohen, M. (1983) The challenge of replicability. World Bank Reprint Series. (287), . [online]. Ben-Hamouche, M. (2013) The paradox of Available from: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/ urban preservation: balancing permanence external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/ and changeability in old Muslim cities. Journal IB/2002/11/11/000178830_98101903362316/ of Urbanism: International Research on Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf (Accessed 16 Placemaking and Urban Sustainability. [Online] January 2015). 6 (2), 192–212.
Ebrahim, M. S. (2009) Can an Islamic model Inspection and Engineering Affairs Department of housing finance cooperative elevate the (2008) Regulations for Organizing Building. economic status of the underprivileged? Journal p.33. of Economic Behavior & Organization. [Online] 72 (3), 864–883. National Center for Statistics and Information (2014) Section 3 Housing.pdf.
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Krier, L. (1984) Urban Components. Vol. 54. Salingaros, N. A. (2007) Mathematical Theory Architectural Design. of the Urban Web. Journal of Urban Design. [Online] 3 (1), 53–71. Abu-Lughod, J. L. (1987) The Islamic city–Historic myth, Islamic essence, and Soloman, S. (2013) Good Governance contemporary relevance. International Journal and Sustainability in Residential Land of Middle East Studies. 19 (02), 155–176. Administration in Muscat Oman.
Mortada, H. (2003) Traditional Islamic Scholz, F., 1978. Sultanate of Oman: A Principles of the Built Environment. Routledge geographical introduction of Oman, its natural Cruzon. resources, its people, its settlements, its economy, and its modern development. Part I Petersen, J. E. (2004) Oman: Three and a Half ed. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Printing. Decades of Change and Development. Middle East policy. 11 (2), 125–137. Unwin, R. (1909) Town planning in practice: an introduction to the art of designing cities Punter, J. & Carmona, M. (1997) The Design and suburbs. reprint. London: Princeton Dimension of Planning: Theory, Content, and Architectural Press, 1994. Best Practice for Design Policies. Taylor & Francis.
Ragette, F. (2003) Traditional domestic architecture of the Arab Region. [Stuttgart]: Edition Axel Menges.
Salat, S. & Bourdic, L. (2011) Urban Complexity, Efficiency and Resilience. Urban Morphology. [online]. Available from: http://cdn.intechopen. com/pdfs/31591/InTech-Urban_complexity_ efficiency_and_resilience.pdf (Accessed 16 January 2015).
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187 Part 2.5 Heritage management and responsible tourism
Ana Alcántara Rapid economic development and social neglected this far, the remaining heritage in changes in Oman have led to a neglection of Al Buraimi might be able to contribute to heritage. In an effort to carry out the overall locally responsible tourism development that “Vision 2020” focusing on diversifying the can improve the lifestyle of the community, economy, it has been identified that the tourism increase the income of the families, preserve sector is crucial to develop. Tourism in Oman the natural and cultural heritage, and reinforce is supposed to be diverse responding to the local attachment to the heritage area. This study huge variety of natural and socio-cultural proposes a set of criteria and management plan backgrounds of the many tribes. Despite being for the implementation of responsible tourism. Part 2.5 Heritage Management and Responsible Tourism
Assesment of the current state of heritage
“Over the last fifty years tourism has become such as (i) achieving an annual average one of the largest economic sectors globally, growth rate of at least seven percent, (ii) accounting for some 9% of the world’s GDP improvement of employment opportunities and over 200 million jobs” (United Nations for Omani nationals, and (iii) to continue with World Tourism Organization, 2013, p.14). Also balanced regional development. The MOT’s in Oman tourism is considered one of the most strategy also outlines how Oman will achieve progressive economic activities that can benefit maximum benefits for local communities, other economic activities due to its wide scope. activate domestic tourism, encourage the role of Different assets give value to the tourist sector the private sector in tourism development, and such as culture, heritage and art and enable it to commit to sustainable tourism development” become a key sector to the economic growth of (‘Oman: Focusing on diversification’, 2010). a country and reduce poverty levels. Travel and Tourism in Oman generated 37,000 In June 2004, the Omani Ministry of Tourism jobs directly in 2013 (3.3 percent of total (MOT) was created (i) to increase the employment) and this is forecast to grow by contribution to the GDP by the tourism sector, 11.4 percent in 2014 to 41,000 (3.6 percent of (ii) to increase the level of employment of total employment). This includes employment Omani nationals in the sector, (iii) to increase by hotels, travel agents, airlines and other the average annual growth rate for the income passenger transportation services (excluding from tourism, and (iv) to be responsible for the commuter services). It also includes the promotion and marketing of Oman as a tourist activities of the restaurant and leisure industries destination(Ministry of Tourism, Sultanate of directly supported by tourists (World Travel and Oman, 2005). Tourism Council, 2013).
The MOT has the duty to preserve cultural In order to promote the importance and benefits integrity and preserve Omani identity; to of the tourist sector many educational programs
Previous page: promote the historic, cultural and natural have been established, such as the annual The ruins of Hamasa heritage and ethos of traditional hospitality. schools’ education program with presentations Source: (Salcedo, 2014) Different goals are set for the tourism sector to around 40 schools and colleges.
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Tourism in Al Buraimi Box 19. Responsible and
The development of Al Buraimi in the tourism sustainable tourism sector has been different than that in the national According to the UNWTO context. Part of the national budget goes to sustainable tourism should “(i) use tourism in the Governorate of Al Buraimi, but it environmental sources in an optimal has to be distributed to Al Buraimi, Mahdah and way, keeping a balance with the Al Sunaynah. natural ecological processes without threatening nature due to tourism The workforce in the hotel sector in Al Buraimi development, minimizing adverse Municipality totaled 168 in 2011 and decreased impacts on the environment and to 137 by 2012. The increase in the number of preserving heritage and biodiversity, expats living in the area can be reflected in the (ii) maintain the cultural identity of Omani Ratio of workforce in the tourism sector the host communities, preserving which was 25.5 percent in 2012 down from 36.9 their heritage and traditional values percent in 2011 (National Center for Statistics and encourage tolerance and and Information Sultanate of Oman, 2013). understanding between the host and Even though efforts have been made to improve visitor, and (iii) to provide long term the “Omanisation” in the tourism sector, the economic benefits to all stakeholders amount of foreigners working in this sector is involved in the tourism sector and to still higher. the destination, and to contribute to poverty reduction” (United Nations Minor projects run by locals and young people World Tourism Organization, 2005). are required. The Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Al Buraimi wants to encourage young citizens to become entrepreneurs and to enter announced to be built at Al Buraimi include a into the private sector, by providing them training 166,991 square meters hotel and shopping and and financing for facilities. “The Ministry of entertainment center, an environmental tourism Tourism...[is] making efforts to support tourism camp spread over 107,077 square meters, and a development, encourage entrepreneurship and four-star hotel and villas project stretching over provide the Omani youth with opportunities to 50,000 square meters at Hay Al Nafahat. […] The establish their own projects. [sic] The projects Oman Development Bank (ODB) is expected to
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play a big role in turning these opportunities to places and enable future generations to into reality by providing the required funding to have a glance of how the past used to look the Omani entrepreneurs (Times News Service, like and to create a sense of continuity that is 2014). an essential part of cultural identity. Tangible heritage assets have an advantage over their Heritage as an asset for responsible intangible counterparts, as the preservation tourism and conservation of the tangible assets can Oman is a country with a long tradition in be reached by taking proper care to preserve human settlements, handmade art crafts and their authenticity, while for intangible assets to the use of oral traditions and expressions to be preserved they have to be transferred from pass on knowledge, cultural and social values generation to generation. and collective memory. In order for intangible cultural heritage to be According to UNESCO, heritage is defined as preserved and conserved, legal measurements “our legacy from the past, what we live with have to be taken in order to maintain their today, and what we pass on to future generations. cultural property, folklore and traditions relative Our cultural and natural heritage are both to the culture. irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration” (UNESCO World Heritage Center, 2008, p.5). Negative effects of tourism and Cultural heritage refers to monuments, groups solutions to them of buildings and sites with historical, aesthetic, Even though tourism is considered a means to archaeological, scientific, ethnological or improve the living conditions of communities, anthropological value and natural heritage negative features can be also emphasized such refers to outstanding physical, biological and as (i) the increase of local pollution in the air, geological formations, habitats of threatened water and land that can be produced by the species of animals and plants and areas with tourism facilities, (ii) the use of non-renewable scientific, conservation or aesthetic value. resources in a mindless way by hotels and resorts, (iii) the damage of the flora and fauna The preservation of tangible heritage assets around a site, (iv) the degradation to the heritage ensures that the memories of the community of site, and (v) the poor working conditions some the past and the qualities that provide identity of the workers in travel and tourism can face.
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Thus worldwide and in Oman much attention industry, involves local people in decisions that is given to more sustainable or responsible affect their lives and life chances, makes positive forms of tourism, that take “full account of contributions to the conservation of natural and its current and future economic, social and cultural heritage embracing diversity, provides environmental impacts, addressing the needs of more enjoyable experiences for tourists through visitors, the industry, the environment and host more meaningful connections with local people, communities” (United Nations World Tourism and a greater understanding of local cultural, Organization, 2005). social and environmental issues, provides access for physically challenged people, is Sustainable or responsible tourism is tourism culturally sensitive, encourages respect between “which minimizes negative social, economic tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and and environmental impacts, generates greater confidence.” (Responsible Tourism Partnership, economic benefits for local people and 2002). The interaction between host and visitor enhances the well-being of host communities, is promoted to enable a broader understanding improves working conditions and access to the of the local cultural and social patterns.
Box 20. UNESCO World Heritage The formal effort to safeguard intangible cultural heritage through UNESCO began in 1972 with the Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage and the creation of the World Heritage List (Kurin, 2004). The World Heritage list gives international recognition and national support for the restoration, conservation, preservation of tangible monuments, sites and landscapes.
According to UNESCO, “tangible heritage” includes buildings and historic places, monuments, artifacts, etc., which are considered worthy of preservation for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specific culture”(‘Tangible Cultural Heritage | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’, n.d.) and “intangible cultural heritage” was described in the form of a list, as oral traditions and expressions […] and traditional craftsmanship, as well as the sites and spaces in which culturally significant activities and events occur” (Kurin, 2004, p.67).
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Box 21. People perceptions about Al Buraimi’s attractiveness To understand how the community perceives Al Buraimi, an open question was posed on the community questionnaires to determine the reasons why people should go to Al Buraimi. The outcomes were very different, while some of the survey respondents consider Al Buraimi a place with great commercial activity and considered it to be a tourist attraction; most of the community prefers to go to Al Ain for shopping. The ladies tailor shops are very famous in the area with clients from all around Oman. Also, the repair of cars has become a growing industry in Al Buraimi. Even though the community considered the Forts as part of the attractions of Al Buraimi, only 44 percent of the survey respondents have visited the Al Khandaq Fort and 37 percent the Al Hillah Fort. While the living conditions are stated as part of the reasons for visiting Al Buraimi, since the establishment of the physical border between Al Ain and Al Buraimi in 2009, the free transit between the two cities has become more difficult, and the advantage of Al Buraimi being cheaper than Al Ain is no longer considered as a priority because of the long commute.
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Heritage assets inventory for tourism in Al Buraimi
The following map shows the location of the tangible and intangible assets described ahead.
Figure 79. Location of heritage sites Source: (Author, 2014) This study identifies the following inventory of tangible heritage sites and intangible heritage features was identified during the fieldwork in autumn 2014.
Box 22. Tangible assets criteria
1. Cultural traditions, the assets have to be part of the cultural traditions and belong to Al Buraimi´s identity. 2. Ancient traditional human settlement should represent human interaction and the land-use of Al Buraimi. 3. Example of a type of building or architectural typology specific to Al Buraimi; . 4. Significant natural habitats for conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species. 5. Economic value for the future benefit of the community, if the asset is developed as a tourist attraction and new job opportunities appear.
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Ancient residential village Sa´ara
Located close to the border with the United Arab Emirates, and part of the Buraimi Oasis, Sa´ara was occupied by around four to five thousand
Figure 80. Decay people and used to be a very important site for situation in Sa´ara. farming and leisure in the summer; since it was Sa´ara is mostly located in the Buraimi Oasis, the abundance of abandoned and is palm trees for farming with the use of the aflaj occupied by eastern Asian people who pay system around the area provided a very shaded a small amount to the and comfortable place. land owners of the plots in order to use them as shelter and as small farms Today, the site is mostly abandoned, due to a Source: (Author 2014) shift in economic activities. Few plots are still being used for farming.
Ancient residential and market village Hamasa It used to be an important market in the area ruled by the Al Shamsi family. People from As Sunaynah, Sohar, Dubai and Ibri came to Hamasa to buy goods, trade animal, fruits, vegetables, and slaves. There are no existing written records of the way Hamasa used to look or how the inhabitants used to live, nor about the number of inhabitants or market shops. The use of tents as households was very common; families used to live all together.
Few structures remain today. It is known that the
Figure 81. Decay market and the houses were separated by the situation in Hamasa wadi that crossed through Hamasa. Source: (Author 2014) 196 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
The forts and watchtower
Currently, Al Buraimi possesses two forts, Fort Al Hillah and Fort Al Khandaq, and a watchtower.
They were both centers for political, social, religious interaction and administrative activities, including markets, houses and mosques (‘Ministry of Heritage and Culture, Sultanate of Oman’, n.d.).
Today, both forts and watchtower are well Figure 82. Al Khandaq preserved, Al Khandaq represents the emblem fort of the Governorate. Only maintenance work is Source: (Author 2014) needed as part of the facades and interior have fractures.
Box 23. The Buraimi Oasis For years, the Al Ain–Buraimi area was known as the ‘Buraimi Oasis’. The Buraimi Oasis does not apply only to the palm groves in Buraimi, but also to the wider Al Ain–Buraimi area. Before development, the Buraimi Oasis comprised nine small villages. Three of these were inhabited by tribes loyal to the Sultan of Oman: Buraimi, Hamasa and Sa´ara. The other six villages were inhabited by tribes loyal to the sheikh of Abu Dhabi: Al Ain, Muwaiqih, Mataradh, Jimi, Qattara and Hilli. In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, Al Buraimi was consider an urban settlement considered to be a strategic city due to its economic activities, such as manufacturing (pottery, weaving and ironworking), trade (camel trappings, pottery), and agriculture (dates, alfalfa, sweet and sour oranges, mangoes and root vegetables) as well as its two lines of falaj and its two forts: the Forts Al Buraimi and Fort Al Hillah Fort.
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Box 24. Intangible assets: criteria ○○ In order to identify the intangible heritage assets, a set of criteria were established. These assets have to be related to the following categories:
○○ Cultural traditions; the assets have to be part of the cultural traditions.
○○ Ownership of cultural property; should belong to the Al Buraimi´s identity.
○○ Example of a type of building or craft technique; example of a unique building technique as well as part of the ancient craft and arts in Al Buraimi.
○○ Risk of disappearing; due to modernization, part of the knowledge is in risk of being lost.
○○ Economic value for the future benefit of the community; if the asset is developed as part of a tourist attraction and new job opportunities appear.
Intangible assets
Building techniques and materials used for mortar and plaster. This traditional Due to the modernization in the 1970s, the earth architecture of has climatic properties that ancient building techniques and building ensure constant temperature within the building materials have lost their traditional importance. during the whole year without the existence of New houses with modern building materials windows. and amenities have appeared, such as air- conditioning. The cities were left abandoned The traditional summer houses were usually and traditional settlements are nowadays in larger with higher ceilings where small windows a very precarious condition. The restoration can be seen for the entrance of light; winter of the mud-brick houses is crucial, since they houses were more compact, having lower are a trace of history that could potentially be ceilings to preserve the warmth inside. “In transferred to a younger generation. the mud-brick houses, the ground floor was commonly used for storing and the upper floors The main building materials previously for living. Walls were up to 80 centimeters thick employed in Oman are mud brick, baked brick, on the ground level (Gaube, Heinz and Gangler, stone, mangrove poles, palm trees and lime, Anette, 2012, p.80).
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Traditional craft and arts
Various traditional crafts are inspired by the local environment and the local resources. For instance, Pottery making in the interior of Oman was a highly commercial practice, the production got into high volume with the use of the pottery wheel and the creation of small factories (Richardson, Neil and Dorr, Marcia, 2003).
Figure 83. Pottery in As in other areas of the country where dates Nizwa are found, basketry is a widely practiced craft. Source: (Author 2014) Different types of plaited–strip baskets are needed at different times of the year, for date- collection or storage, or for special occasions like Eid; the request for the large rectangular- storage basket which also serves as a cooking bag for shuwa´, the traditional Omani dish of roasted goat meat (Richardson, Neil and Dorr, Marcia, 2003).
The conservation of the intangible heritage assets provides traditions, practices, and forms of knowledge that help cultural identity survive to subsequent generations. Due to modernization, Figure 84. Basketry in building techniques and everyday appliances Al Buraimi local traditions are devaluated or endangered or Source: (Author 2014) both.
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Box 25. Further tangible assets examples: Falaj irrigation system
In 2006, the Falaj Daris Falaj Al Khatmeen in Willayat Nizwa, the Falaj Al Malaki in Willayat Izki, the Falaj al Mayssar in Willayat Al Rustaq and the Falaj Al Jeena in Willayat Sur were inscribed in the World Heritage List due to their ancient engineering technologies, sustainable use of water resources for the irrigation of palms and crops, the strengthening of the community values and the mutual community collaboration.
The conservation of the tangible heritage assets provides the future generation with a concrete notion of the past. They have the greater potential to provide economic benefit to the community, providing new job opportunities as a tourism attraction. Proper management, including information centers and staff, is required in order to increase the tourism value as well as to preserve the economic, social and environmental responsibility stated previously in this study.
Figure 87. Dry falaj in Sa´ara. Due to over exploitation and lack of research from side of the Omani authorities on the field, the falaj stopped supplying water. Source: (Salcedo 2014) 200 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Hamasa: an example for responsible tourism development
The area of Hamasa can exemplify how to taking place in Hamasa, such as coffee shops, preserve cultural heritage, and how to put restaurants and small grocery shops, mostly run heritage into value for a responsible tourism by expatriates though owned by Omanis. concept that would improve the entire community, increase the income of the families, New markets have absorbed the role of the and reinforce the local attachment. Hamasa market, such as the souqs close to the Al Hillah Fort. These are not only considered as Hamasa is overlooked by the Hamasa trade centers but as important meeting points Watchtower and divided by the wadi into the for the local community. The new souq is a small residential area and the market area. The white building with a watchtower in the center. remains of two falaj entering into the area can While inside the market mostly male expatriate be tracked with the remaining inspections wells, vendors sell imported products mainly from one leading north to south across the wadi China; including earth and clay artifacts, spices, towards the Hillah Fort and the other directly in shoes, food and traditional walking sticks that the middle of the Hamasa area. can be found outside the stalls. Female vendors sell plaited-strip baskets, traditional goods and The remaining buildings are precious in value some pottery. Fresh fish from Sohar and other due to the building techniques used to construct ports of Oman can also be bought daily. them. The actual physical situation of the mud- brick houses however is very critical, shifting Spatial configuration sands has covered most of the remaining Hamasa used to be a very compact village, buildings. mainly accessed by donkeys/camels to enable the transport of goods into and out of the According to the Ministry of Housing, the land market. The construction of asphalt roads inside use of Hamasa still remains as agricultural; Hamasa was stopped in order to preserve the reason why some farms are still in use. traditional identity of the place. Nowadays, other types of economic activities are
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Vernacular architecture Tenure
The remaining mud-brick houses in Hamasa Since plots in Hamasa have been inherited, the can be categorized by location, type of delimitation of some plots can be distinguished building, (residential, mosques, shops) and by by stone fences or concrete walls recently built construction materials such as stones, baked in order to delimitate property. Even though bricks, and mud bricks. abandoned, plots in Hamasa are extremely valuated because of the long history of Most of the mud-brick houses used to have inheritance they posses. pitched palm-frond (barristi) roofs and the bigger houses had flat earth roofs supported Identity at stake by palm trunks or mangrove poles. They had In general, the new lifestyle in Hamasa and in rooms with high ceilings for the hot weather Al Buraimi has led to the threat of the loss of season and low ceilings for the cold weather. the intangible assets mentioned above. The Few windows can be found on ground level due oral transmission of knowledge was considered to the importance of privacy; whereas many a tradition, covering literature, graphic arts can be found above. Some renovations can be and performed arts. Moreover, the knowledge observed and appreciated where earth roofs related to building techniques using mud-brick have been changed to wooden roofs. is liable to get lost if it is no longer preserved and transmitted. Hamasa is an extraordinary The foundations are shallow or have been built example of how vernacular architecture used directly on the ground. Only the houses as to look like, thus if it is not safeguarded it is well as the shops close to the wadi, had higher possible that this part of the Al Buraimi identity foundations made of irregular stones. This was will become extinct. to protect them from the high water levels during the rainy season. The falaj system infrastructure is still noticeable in some households, although in a bad condition.
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Guidelines and Action plan For the sake of elaborating guidelines and towards responsible tourism recommendations for responsible tourism, a set in Hamasa of criteria have been taken into consideration:
The purpose of this section is to provide a set a. The identification of opportunities and of strategies towards responsible tourism based weaknesses on the heritage assets in Hamasa, addressing b. The recognition of the stakeholders the issues of management, revitalization involved and the development of centered on re-habitation, conservation, training linkages between them and skill development. c. The design of specific projects, including a trial area In order to become a tourist attarction based d. The impact on the local community on these assets, the guidelines include ancient e. The creation of new job opportunities settlements for housing purpose, the agriculture f. The improvement of capacity building and animal breeding as economic activity and g. The raising of awareness the reuse of ancient handicraft techniques. One of the main purposes is to promote active It is important to tackle the characteristics of collaboration between the state, the private responsible tourism, and to cover the aims of sector and civil society. It is for the sake of the the Omani “Vision 2020” by increasing the diversification of the tourist sector, to develop importance of the tourism sector, fostering the high qualified and well-trained human resources. preservation of social, cultural and environmental resources of the country, including more The following action plan is developed in three Omanis in the tourism sector and improving different phases. The responsibilities and the lifestyle of the host community. interactions between the diverse stakeholders vary.
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Phase I (short term) Actions and activities
The creation of man-made attractions is required Physical planning such as a small-scale museum, for the display For Phase I, it is required to select a trail of local artwork as well as local handicrafts. area, where the remaining buildings will be Small restaurants and coffee shops should be categorized in three degrees of preservation, the run inside the trial area. These places should ones that are in an adequate state, those that provide local food and be run by the community. can be preserved, and those where only small New gift shops should be established where intervention are needed, such as refurbishments. local handicrafts can be sold and workshops can The ones that are in an adequate state, that take place. needs to be restored, and the ones that are in ruins. The classification of the buildings has to Parallel to these actions, awareness programs be coordinated with the Ministry of Heritage have to be implemented to encourage local and Culture in order to have accurate criteria of communities to participate; capacity building classification. is also required to improve the hospitality, and tourism management skills to provide quality The trial area, Hamasa I, should be restored, services. Additionally, training for the community preserving the heritage resources and is required for the development, management minimizing further destruction. and operation of small businesses.
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Figure 88. Interven- tions in Phase I Source: (Author 2014) Stakeholders involved businesses. The media, academia and the In this phase, an active collaboration between Ministry of Tourism are the bodies responsible most of the stakeholders is required from the for awareness programs and campaigns to beginning of the action plan and for its overall promote participation in tourism. The media success. Even though building interventions in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism is are needed in Hamasa; the Ministry of Heritage also responsible for the marketing of the newly and Culture is the main entity responsible for developed pilot project. the protection and preservation of the ancient building; the ministry has to provide guidelines Outputs/Goal on how intervention should proceed. The A certain number of jobs will be created with involvement of the civil society is essential the new economic activities The promotion to run the new local activities. The Chamber of tourism will increase the community of Commerce and Industry has the ability to involvement in the sector, giving them the tools provide trainees with capacity building in the to have a say in the development of their own tourist sector and for the creation of small home area.
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Phase II (medium term) Stakeholders involved
Physical planning In this phase, the labor of the local community, Phase II will follow the same guidelines as mainly the ones with agricultural knowledge, is in Phase I, Hamasa II will be created. The required. The main responsibility of the Ministry restoration of the decayed buildings, the of Heritage and Culture remains the protection preservation of the heritage resources as well as and preservation of the ancient buildings. The the minimization of further destruction remain creation, promotion and enhancing of cultural as the main priorities. events, such as festivals in Hamasa have to be run and supervised by the Ministry of Tourism, Actions and activities with the aim to involve the community in In phase II, linkages are developed to local cultural events as well as to attract more tourists agriculture and local products as part of the to Al Buraimi. activities. The falaj system should be also included in order to revive the Oasis’ life, and The cooperation between the Ministry of Tourism provide an example of how life used to be. The and the private sector in this phase is important breeding of animals should also be integrated for the promotion of tourism though the private as part of the activities. enterprises and for the development of tourism products, such as maps and brochures. To develop a structured holistic tourism experience based on the available heritage Outputs/Goal resources, walking night tours can be New jobs will be created with the new economic established to visit the Old souq – the Al activities and with the integration of agriculture. Hillah Fort – the New souq – the Al Khandaq With new tourist activities created, trained people Fort – and the Hamasa Tower – Hamasa. In will be required for the delivery of information every spot, informational brochures as well as along the different spots of the walking tour, trained representatives should be available. as well for running the tourist information This includes the establishment of a tourist center. Providing economic incentives in information centre. tourism, agriculture and the production of local merchandise, will add value to Hamasa and to Al Buraimi.
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Figure 89. Interven- tions in Phase II including interventions in Phase I Source: (Author 2014)
Figure 90. Night tour walking route The Walking night tours are intended to provide and holistic tourism experience based on the available heritage resources. Trained people will be required for the delivery of information along the different spots of the walking tour. Source: (Author 2014) 207 Part 2.5 Heritage Management and Responsible Tourism
Phase III (long term) Further actions: festivals
Physical planning According to the outcomes from the survey Phase III will follow the same guidelines as in conducted in Al Buraimi, different actions have Phase I, Hamasa III will be created. Small-scale to be taken in consideration of attracting more accommodation facilities can be established, tourists to the area. 56% percent of the survey such as “Bed and Breakfasts” and small scale respondents have not visited the Al Khandaq hotels. Large-scale renovation will be required to Fort and 63 % have also not visited the Al enable the provision of high quality service. Hillah Fort. In order to foster more visits, the Ministry of Tourism in collaboration with the Actions and activities local authorities, could promote the creation of With the trial project running in different areas festivals in the area taking place in both forts. in Hamasa, the provision of accommodation As part of the areas to improvement, the lack can be made in order to extend the visit of the of information provided on the heritage assets tourist to more than a day. in Al Buraimi make it difficult for visits by non- Arabic speakers to partake, since information is Stakeholders involved only transmitted orally. The private sector is the main actor in this phase, for running accommodations that fulfill the need of the tourist and reach high quality standards. The engagement of the entire community in of high importance for the success of phase III since the aim is to provide an example of responsible tourism in an Oasis settlement.
Outputs/Goal The number of new jobs will increase in the different areas of the accommodation facilities. The objective is to improve quality standards in the tourism sector and to extend the stay of visitors by providing an example of traditional way of life.
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Figure 91. Interven- tions in Phase III, including interventions in Phase I and Phase II Source: (Author 2014)
Action plan
Figure 92. Summary of the action plan Source: (Author 2014) 209 Part 2.5 Heritage Management and Responsible Tourism
National action plan Al Buraimi should be promoted more often both As part of a national action plan, a National Fort inside and outside Oman. It should be included Route will be created, where the Al Hillah Fort in national brochures and national tourist maps. and the Al Khandaq Fort could be integrated to The great potential of Al Buraimi has not been promote the area and to attract more tourists. fully realized.
Figure 93. National Fort Route Source: (Author 2014) 210 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Figure 94. Ruins in Hamasa Source: (Salcedo, 2014) Conclusions
Modernization has played an enormous role in cultural heritage assets and the reinforcement of the transformation of lifestyle and economical the local attachment to the heritage area? behavior in Al Buraimi. The “Vision 2020” has been taken on as criteria for the diversification This study shows that Al Buraimi has substantial of the economy, and tourism has been selected tangible and intangible heritage assets thereby as the main sector for development. making it an ideal segment of a responsible tourism development plan. The benefits gained How might this apply to some heritage assets, will involve not only the civil society, but the such as those in Al Buraimi, which have private sector and the local government. Most remained in a long state of abandon and decay? notably the improvements required for the How can proper heritage management recover development of the traditional settlement of and preserve the tangible/intangible assets to Hamasa must go beyond it and involve the become part responsible tourism development oasis as a whole and Al Buraimi as an exemplary for the sake of the improvement of the lifestyle of part of it. It is crucial to reinforce the sense the community, in order to increase the income of ownership and cultural identity in the new for the families, to preserve of the natural and generations. 211 Part 2.5 Heritage Management and Responsible Tourism
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213 Part 3 Further recommendations Sonja Nebel
contributors: Panagiotis Achamnos Ana Alcántara Pedro Becerra Florencia Carvajal Jesús Salcedo The key fields of strategic interventions as We follow hereby this definition of urban presented in the preceding chapters demand governance given by UN-Habitat and would besides the “what to do” also for the “how to like to focus on a few key aspects that have do”. Urban governance reffers to “the sum of the been turned out as cross-sector or cross-cutting many ways individuals and institutions, public issues to be mentioned as crucial for a successful and private, plan and manage the common process towards a resilient urban development affairs of the city. It is a continuing process in Al Buraimi. The following chapter presents the through which conflicting or diverse interests issues and also recommends a set of tools that may be accommodated and cooperative action can be implemented. Next, the topic of capacity can be taken. It includes formal institutions as development is explained and recommendations well as informal arrangements and the social are made as well. Finally, a recommended list of capital of citizens”. further studies is presented. Part 3. Further Recommendations
Cross cutting issues Cross-cutting issue: Inter-sectoral cooperation and coordination Cross-cutting issue: Decentralization All sector-related assessments have mentioned It has been proved that the strong top-down the difficulties arising from uncoordinated decision-making process is (i) a time-consuming planning and implementation and from one and (ii) often not responding properly to the missing interdepartmental coordination and local needs and potentials. The legal framework cooperation. When it comes to strategic planning i.e. physical planning standards, building codes for a sustainable development, coordination and or road design manuals, is supposed to allow cooperation however becomes crucial. As all equal living conditions nation wide but do not relevant Ministries are represented with their Al consider diverse natural-geographic settings Buraimi branches, we recommend to establish within the country, diverse micro-cultural an interdisciplinary and interdepartmental background and diverse economic conditions. council, kind of “task-force resilient Buraimi”. Any sustainable future development concept This council representing all governmental however would rely rather on local needs bodies involved will discuss and decide about and potentials than on general regulations. priorities of action and implementation and will Interviews with experts from different local accompany the strategic procedure. The council governmental institutions in Al Buraimi have should also decide about further responsibilities. proved the importance of locally based human resource and revealed the high expertise and Cross-cutting issue: Participation knowledge of the governmental staff. The many interviews that could have been conducted with residents during the field Locally based decision-making power might studies in autumn 2014 have proved besides be able to react faster on dynamics of change, the citizens’ vital interest in urban issues might understand better and exploit the local as well competent attitudes and ideas on potentials for development. It may also be what quality of life would mean to them. better prepared for planning and managing Furthermore people expressed their willingness the common affairs of the city. Establishing and readiness to actively contribute i.e. in new Previous page: the Municipal Council in Al Buraimi seems to forms of waste collecting and recycling, their Mountain range in the south-east border of Al be a good precondition for a locally based and openness towards appropriate forms of public Buraimi Governorate promising urban governance for sustainability. transport, and a strong identification towards Source: (Salcedo, 2014) 216 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Box 26. Tools for participation the place of residence. Thus one main challenge regarding governance is enhancing the citizen ○○ Public urban talks: heritage assets, participation in a general strategy towards waste and recycling, renewable energies, resilient development. The Municipality has to urban design. keep in mind that the measures proposed in this study are intended for the well being of the ○○ Urban design and planning vast majority as well as for the environment; competitions: new open spaces, new mixed therefore the active participation of the citizenry typologies, etc. is encouraged in order to strengthen the strategy as well as finding points to be re-formulated. ○○ Pilot projects and campaigns: public transport, bike rental, environmental and This study recommends the following activities heritage awareness campaigns, open space to take place once the Municipality agrees with recovery. the Municipal Council on the steps to be taken in order to proceed with the strategy. ○○ e-Governance: Al Buraimi’s web portal
Participatory approaches in urban development Buraimi has started to inform about the ongoing and urban planning include phases of studies on the future development in Al Buraimi information, dialogues and consultation for Municipality and Governorate. participatory decision-making and long term involvement of all parties concerned. A few This important channel of communication tools are presented below that might foster a between the Governmental institutions and the participatory urban management process. citizens could be fostered and complemented by series of urban talks to be organized by the Tool: Public urban talks Municipal Council and the respective Buraimi Urban development is a public affair. Thus branches of the Ministries concerned in city planning and urban design are topics cooperation with Buraimi University. of general public interest. The media in Oman is continiously reporting on envisaged Urban talks could cover a variety of topics, projects in the urban sector and their stage of emphasizing i.e. on the heritage assets, on implementation. Also the local media in Al possibilities of waste recycling, on renewable
217 Part 3. Further Recommendations
energies, on public transport, on urban is close to be finished. An exhibition under the design and local identity, just to mention a title “Magestic Muscat –our city our future” few. Introducing the formate of urban talks as exposed the results to the public. Similar an instrument to address local communities, initiatives adapted to the local context could be professionals and citizens alike would highlight realized in Al Buraimi as well. Competitions can the importance of a public discourse on urban be launched on an international level, or region development. wide (GCC, Arab countries) or on a national and local level. Also students’ competitions should Tool: Urban design and planning be thought of, to explore young professionals’ competitions creativity. Focussing on the local capacities Competitions in urban planning, urban design, through competitions and projects would as and architectural design have a long standing well strengthen the private sector for diversifying tradition worldwide and are highly estimated as economy and encourage young Omani an instrument to create a variety of proposals professionals to invest in their hometown and thus show the scope of alternatives. They creating ownership and responsibility for their also offer interesting incentives for professionals city. to prove their capabilities and expertise. Tool: Pilot projects and campaigns Competitions need to be prepared carefully by A pilot project is a small-scale preliminary project a committee that clearly defines the tasks to conducted in order to clarify and test conditions be fulfilled and the goals to be achieved. A jury and impacts of the project prior to a full-scale out of experts will evaluate the contributions intervention. Whenever new approaches are and decide about a ranking. The results will proposed where less or even no experience be displaced to the interested public in an has been achieved before, it is recommendable exhibition. to go through that kind of test phase before establishing bigger programs and projects. Muscat Municipality had started in 2011 a widely recognized initiative for 24 selected Pilot projects have another useful secondary locations in Greater Muscat to be developed by effect that is their potential for creating awareness international and national companies including among the public. As they are conducted during i.e. the Muttrah Fish Market where realization limited time, and they are carefully evaluated the
218 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
results can be discussed within professionals Example: “Save the environment” and governmental institutions but as well campaign with representatives from citizens, and from the private economic sector. It is an efficient Re-launch the national energy and water saving instrument to foster a broad dialogue and a campaign (started in 2009) on the local Al consensus on future ways to go. Pilot projects Buraimi level have been suggested in the sector of solid waste management (see part 2.3.) and in the sector of Example: plastic bottles collection heritage management (see part 2.5). campaign A pilot project of returning plastic bottles to Example: Public transport pilot project specific collection points could be established, The city of Al Buraimi is growing fast and the as the residents are willing to participate in urban area will be much bigger according to such a project. This initiative will succeed in a current projections. Therefore, it is important first attempt of separating the solid waste by to consider the implementation of alternative collecting all the plastic bottles for recycling modes of transportation than private cars. purposes. Moreover, people will be more eager As a first step, a pilot project is suggested in to participate if by returning the plastic bottles order to measure the service performance and they get back a small refund. adjust the proper size and scale for the public transportation system operation. Example: Smart Car wash campaign Another pilot project that can be introduced Example: Bike rental pilot project and promoted is a facility where the residents A pilot project in bike rentals could be can have their cars washed by using treated established in order to measure the performance wastewater from the sewage treatment plant of biking. This initiative is aimed at the foreign (STP). The residents could be charged a small residents in the city, which could be included fee and save potable water from their own in their transportation mode as it is currently domestic supply. challenging for them to own a car. The bike rental points could be located in strategic points of the city that concentrate residential areas of immigrants.
219 Part 3. Further Recommendations
Example: Open space recovery By facilitating better interaction between campaign citizens, businesses and Government, eOman will take Oman forward to a new age of progress it is important to reduce car dependency by and prosperity. providing facilities for pedestrians. This means that the improvement of public spaces is a Following the omanuna /e-oman web page Al must. Thus, capacity on urban design and Buraimi Governorate und Municipality may landscaping is requested in order to minimize become a strong member of the e-governance automobile use. There is also a need for a more movement and establish their regional and local compact development by increasing densities e-governance frame. A particular website on Al and mixed land uses in the urban area, which Buraimi could be linked to the overall e-oman would facilitate proximity and accessibility. web, informing about ongoing activities, services and about the urban projects undertaken by the Tool: e-governance/ internet local government. performance/social media During the past years more and more families Interviews with residents during the field and individuals use the internet for easier research in September/October 2014 have access to information and communication. proved the willingness of the citizens to play E-government plays a vital role in Oman as well. an active role in the development of their daily living environment. Thus the interest Oman’s e-Governance initiative has the vision in communication and dialogue via internet of transforming Oman into an advanced, world- and via social media is increasing in particular class e-Government by seamlessly integrating all among the younger population that takes over a Ministries and Government entities to provide high percentage of the residents. faster and more effective public services online.
“eOman seeks to empower people and transform Oman for the better. Be a part of eOman today, and discover a brighter future” (http://www.oman.om).
220 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Capacity Development for sustainable development Al Buraimi
“Problems cannot be solved with the same mind work with. Both individuals and organisations set that created them.” Albert Einstein will need what is often called an “enabling environment” that is given by the nations Why capacity development? political and legal background where institutions The paradigm shift that has been elaborated and organizations are embedded in. and argued for in this report would be followed by changed overall urban development goals What is meant by “capacity” and as well as changed planning methods and “capacity development”? instruments. Thus we suppose an emerging We follow the definition of UNDP defining need for additional professional skills and further capacity as: “the ability of individuals, capacity that go beyond the current planning and institutions, and societies to perform functions, management practice in Al Buraimi in particular solve problems, and set and achieve objectives and in the Sultanate of Oman in general. in a sustainable manner.” (UNDP 2007)
Current challenges have been identified such as “Capacity development is the process whereby low experience in participatory and cooperative individuals, groups, and organisations enhance planning, lacking skills in best practice methods their abilities to mobilize and use resources in and management tools including integrated order to achieve their objectives on a sustainable monitoring, highly centralized and time basis”. (UNDP 2007) consuming decision making processes, low technical skills in up to date GIS an CAD, to Whenever starting a capacity development name a few. Long term successful interventions pogram it has to respond to the specific Al in the urban sector however rely to a great Buraimi/Omani context but we would however extend on the professional qualification of recommend to follow the well experienced individuals, their personal skills and abilities methodological steps within the process of and their power to trigger down their capacities capacity development as proposed by UNDP. to the institutions and organizations they
221 Part 3. Further Recommendations
STEP 1 Engage stakeholders in capacity building
STEP 5 STEP 2 Evaluate capacity Asses capacity assets development and needs Capacity development process
Figure 95. Capacity STEP 4 STEP 3 development process Implement a ca- Formulate a capa- pacity development city development (Source: Salcedo 2015 / response program based on UNFAO)
Enabling environment • Policy and legal framework • Policy commintment and accountability framework • Economic framework and national public budget allocations • Governance and power Organizations • Motivation • Strategic, organizational and managements functions (strategic leadership, inter/intra institutional linkages, programme management). • Operational capacity (processes, systems, procedures) • Human and financial resource • Knowledge and information • Infrastructure Figure 96. Three levels Individuals of capacity development • Job requirements and skill levels (technical and managerial skills) (Source: Salcedo 2015 / • Training and competency development based on UNFAO)
222 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Capacity can be identified and developed on three levels: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the ○○ level of individuals (human resource/ United Nations describes the three levels as human skills/ knowledge/ experience/ values) the figure on the previous page shows, and these three levels are interrelated and mutually ○○ level of groups and organisations influence each other as shown in the graph (management systems/ management culture/ below. work processes Efforts to strengthen abilities of individuals, ○○ level of society (legal administrative groups, and organisations can comprise a framework/ policies/ cooperation between state, combination of (i) human skills development; private sector and civil society) (ii) changes in organisations and networks; and (iii) changes in governance/institutional context (ADB 2004)
Enabling environment • Policies, legislation, power relations, social norms
Organizational level • Internal policies, arrangements, procedures, frameworks
Individual level • Experience, knowledge, technical skills Figure 97. Interrela- tion of levels in capacity development (Source: Salcedo 2015 / based on UNFAO) 223 Part 3. Further Recommendations
Capacity needs assessment Pilot training program
In order to identify the appropriate interventions Output of the training needs assessment for for capacity development in Al Buraimi a sustainable urban management in Buraimi systematic and comprehensive capacity could lead to a Pilot Training Program to test needs assesssment is recommended. “Needs and specify training needs and to answer the assessment” is a process targeting all parties crucial questions of: involved in strategic urban development, urban planning and management. ○○ Who is in need for training?
Without anticipating future results we assume ○○ What kind of training is needed? certain gaps between the academic background of the professionals (no bachelor nor master ○○ Who will do the training? programs run in the Sultanate in the field of sustainable urban management) and their Without anticipating a capacity development qualification needed; there might be a lack program that has to be tailormade for the of methodological competency in meeting Buraimi/Omani context after a comprehensive the challenges of rapid growth management, capacity needs assessment process we infrastructure and land management, recommend in general a capacity development participatory decision making, planning and program that would start on the individual level implementation; there might be out-dated with a training program comprising: regulations that don’t cope anymore with dynamic needs and changes; there might ○○ advanced training courses combining be highly centralized and top-down decision international experience with locally acquainted making procedures that don’t respond to local know-how („tandem training“ through 1 needs and potentials. international and 1 local expert in order to train future trainers as well).
○○ advanced training should combine external training with on-the-job training carried out during working hours and closely related to real life tasks and challenges of the trainees;
224 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Further Studies recommended
○○ advanced training should be held for a The presented studies –which had to be carried group of interdisciplinary professionals to foster out within a limited time span and limited man- cross-sector thinking and problem-solving, power- revealed further in depth studies to be and to support inter-departmental and inter- conducted in order to promote and sustain institutional cooperation; the recommended approaches towards a more resilient development for AL Buraimi ○○ advanced training modules should be Governorate and Municipality. developed within a participatory process among trainers and trainees to better achieve ownership Of foremost need seems to be a critical review among the trainees. of urban planning standards and building regulations, as they are not in all points of ○○ advanced training should be based on state view responding to the urban and regional of the art teaching and learning methods and development goals aiming at a particular and techniques including case studies, workshops, locally relevant sustainable growth management, self-directed studies, internships, site visits, role sustainable transport, and sustainable housing plays, teamwork, et al. design and construction standards.
These few remarks may emphasize the A general review of current environmental laws importance of life-long learning of professionals, and regulations should be included in order within flexible and adaptive structures and to verify if the law is taking into account the institutions backed by state policies and legal long-term conservation of natural resources frames that are a precondition of long term for the Governorate. This is linked to the sustainable development based on resource water management of the Governorate within efficient and responsible management for a the Ministry of Municipalities and the Public high quality of life for all citizens. authority for Water and Electricity. If a sound review of the general environmental law is made, weaknesses in it can be identified, and opportunities for better practices regarding water can be made possible.
225 Part 3. Further Recommendations
Exploring the possible use of renewable energies: interior living comfort, commonly known as The Sultanate of Oman has the potential to bioclimatic architecture. It intends to balance exploit renewable energy resources (wind, the design and natural environmental elements sun, tidal power) due to its advantageous such as rain and vegetation, in addition to the geographical location and climate. Other sun and wind for the optimization of resources. countries in the region -foreseeing the long-term oil depletion- have already seriously considered Heritage preservation manual alternative energies. It is important that Oman In order to make the most accurate decision on starts taking into account the consumption of the classification of the remaining buildings in non-renewable energies to face the challenges Hamasa (for the development of responsible of oil dependency. Though this might be an tourism), the Ministry of Heritage and Culture issue on the national level, there are some local has to develop regulations and codes related to and regional aspects that should be studied the preservation and conservation of heritage more in depth. Related to the hereby presented buildings in a decaying state. It is important to urban development strategy we mainly refer to have a detailed inventory of the current state of research on the implementation of alternative the remaining buildings in order to maintain energy sources in the transportation sector. records for future studies. The availability of updated technologies and renewable sources of energy provide Physical planning law review opportunities to reduce emissions and The existing physical planning regulatory contamination of the environment. instrument has a traffic fluidity planning criteria in the projection of several year times which The Municipality of Al Buraimi could also aim explains today’s scenery of over dimensioned at adopting clean energies at the household roadways. Regarding residential areas, a study level. This shall not be understood as simply to develop a physical planning instrument to implementing innovative technologies and address dwelling areas is necessary. It would supplying the energy demand harnessing solar help setting the restrictions and standards for or wind resources. Urban design, building design different areas in the city. For example: the speed principles and construction techniques, as well limit around neighbourhoods, sidewalk width, as use of appropriate materials and insulation etc. It would constitute spatial considerations favour decreasing the energy demand to achieve lacking in the current codes. 226 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Highway Design Manual Review would bring adjustments in several aspects The road regulations and codes should as the size of the plot. This is a delicate issue encompass the standards for transportation requiring strict modifications in order to facilities at the local level. At the same time, manage the current problem of land exhaustion. the regulation should consider the facilities for Ways of compensation would be derived from non-motorized transportation (walking and decreasing the plot size, which must be at biking). It is important to regulate the spaces least being considered for housing purposes. for parking lots and encourage the reduction of Eligibility of the applicant related to the time car use through the legal framework. However plan/schedule for the development intention. the transportation manual should establish the Times should be set apart for housing than criteria for the implementation of the codes, for other uses. Specification is also required by including strict procedures of monitoring for each land use. The intention of equality and inspection. Thus, the regulation would be among citizens is a well-established principle. enforced in the different transportation projects. However, new well-researched strategies are It should also specify clearly the standards for indispensable to determine a link between the National, Regional and Local network and receiving land and developing it, in a systematic the responsibility of the actors involved. order without encouraging piecemeal horizontal growth. That is, the location of plots should only Land allocation review and monitoring be within infrastructure-serviced areas, as part via data of the lottery. Another crucial aspect of high Even though this study is focused on the issues significance is the calculation of the cost of land and proposals at the Governorate level, it is in relation to its maintenance, whether rural or important to state that a review on the land urban. As highlighted, there are many topics allocation policy needs to be done. This has which derive from the study of the land law with to take into account the consequences of the specific applications, that nationals would be physical planning law, and the land tenure the best entitled to analyse and organize such allocation system. A review should take into information. account the main components of this law and how can it be transformed in order for a brand Examination is needed to adopt existing new paradigm on development and land tenure indicators in agreement for the evaluation of to occur progressively and in consideration of achievements the plan or project has had. The the population. Revising the current land law most common for housing is to establish a 227 Part 3. Further Recommendations
relationship between housing and the market ○○ Data on where are the fastest poles of in terms of affordability. Quantity and quality development, regarding: housing, agriculture, is more subjective and its parameters need commerce and industry; in order to know where specific contextualization. are this activities prosperous. Likewise, similar studies are needed for the areas where the same Finally, in order for this to occur, this study activities are decreasing or even disappearing. identifies the need for the following statistics and information to be produced with the use of ○○ Data on where people are living and geographical information systems, surveys, etc. working, studying, spending time, etc.; in order to portray how this land allocation is fostering or ○○ Geographical data of all land plots preventing livelihoods to occur. allocated and whether they are developed or not, in order to obtain a ratio between how much land is allocated and how much land is developed within a determinated time span. In addition information that shows where land is developed the fastest, with what density (people/km2), and at what rate (time) are needed.
228 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Conclusions Mechanisms to structure new criteria for the regional development of Al Buraimi Governorate Integrated strategies are essential for recognize three scenarios to empower, first by sustainable urban development. For the five small scale actions. The objectives set are for intersecting topics presented in this report: the city to lead the way towards a more resilient regional development, transportation, service society in economic, social and environmental infrastructure, housing and heritage; the terms, for both the major city and its consideration on the government with its surrounding town and villages. In the long- top-down decision-making structure makes term, improved management of public services evidence of its key contribution for hindrances guarantee enhanced delivery of city systems as in urban management redirection. living conditions and economic opportunities.
Figure 98. Agriculture in As Sunainah Source: (Salcedo 2015) 229
Annex Annex
Methodological remarks
This report developed from five master Both empirical and theoretical methodological degree theseses corresponding to the Urban approaches were utilized for the analysis in all Management program from the Technische topics. Qualitative data from semi structured Universität Berlin. The research engaged in interviews with a wide range of Governorate writing each thesis stemmed from the joint Ministries and their sub-departments, official interest between the Governorate of Al Buraimi institutions, academics, the private sector, local and the university. The goal, to produce an population, all contributed to the development assessment of the urban condition of the city of the five subjects. Besides this, quantitative from five specific topics: Regional development, data obtained from governmental statistics, Transportation, Infrastructure, Housing and site visits, photographic documentation and Heritage. mapping support the qualitative evaluation on site.
232 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
List of Institutions visited
Al Buraimi Governorate Office
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Environment & Climate Affairs Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Regional Municipalities & Water Resources Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Tourism Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Transport and Communications Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Transport and Communications in Muscat
Municipal Council of Al Buraimi
Oman Chamber of Commerce & Industry Al Buraimi Branch
Transit Department of the Royal Oman Police of Al Buraimi
233 Annex
Glossary Connectivity
Accessibility The state or quality represented by the capacity It is the ability to reach desired goods, services, of establishing a direct link to form a closed activities and destinations (collectively called network. It is measurable by the density of opportunities). Access is the ultimate goal of bonded relationships in a system or between most transportation, except a small portion of objects. travel in which movement is an end in itself (jogging, pleasure drives), with no destination. Density It is the number of people or jobs per unit of Bioclimatic architecture land area. It increases the proximity of common The design of built structures considering the destinations, and the number of people who local climatic context to harness thermal and use each mode, increasing demand for walking, visual comfort using the natural resources cycling and transit. at hand the most as possible while reducing artificial systems. Ecotourism Is environmentally responsible travel and Compact city visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, An urban design and planning concept that in order to enjoy, study and appreciate nature, considers compactness more sustainable than that promotes conservation, has low visitor sprawl by means of high density. It aims for impact, and provides for beneficially active socio- closer relations and improved accessibility via economic involvement of local populations. mixed land use and preference on short walking distances. It concentrates on the human scale Heritage dictated by community oriented guidance. Is that which is inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the Compactness benefit of future generation. A characteristic recognized by the tightness of space between objects or the relations Inclusive Transportation Planning in systems. The tight space translates to a It considers all significant objectives, impacts proximate fixed distance for all the containing and options. Moreover, it is integrated (decision- aspects. making is coordinated among different sectors,
234 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
jurisdictions and agencies), and inclusive (all the detailed surveys the Ministry of Housing affected people are able to participate). performs before land is subdivided into plots. The term is used specifically in Oman. Intangible cultural heritage It is believed to stem from the French term Consist of the oral traditions and expressions “croquis”: a presentation of brief description in […] and traditional craftsmanship, as well as the broad strokes of a current situation. sites and spaces in which culturally significant activities and events occur for a specific culture. Land Use Mix (UNESCO). It refers to locating different types of activities close together, such as shops and schools within Integrated housing or adjacent to residential neighbourhoods. It Is as a process so as a product where the reduces the amount of travel required to reach house is a cultural and urban product linked common activities. to historical, physical (morphological) and social processes. This builds a morphological Mobility structure with character and specific features. It refers basically to the movement of people or In this regard, not only a physical form is goods. defined but a function and interaction within the city and housing systems. The resulting Mode of transport form and function define the specification of It is also known as means of transport, types the urban layout and how it is read and used. of transport, transport modality or form of All the imbalances and potentials of residence transport. It is a term used to distinguish are related to this process and the physical form substantially different ways to perform transport. which it generates. Non-motorized transportation Krookie It is also known as Active Transportation and It refers to the A4 document which details Human Powered Transportation and includes different information from the plot as its Walking and Bicycling. These modes provide serial number, dimensions, area, site location, both recreation (they are an end in themselves) coordinates and the building restrictions it and transportation (they provide access to possess. The krooki’s metadata results from goods and activities).
235 Annex
Paradigm Responsible tourism
A theory or a group of ideas about how Is tourism which minimizes negative social, something should be done, made, or thought economic and environmental impacts, generates about. greater economic benefits for local people and enhances the well-being of host communities, Proximity improves working conditions and access to the The concept of urban proximity requires that industry, involves local people in decisions that cities should be built with appropriate population affect their lives and life chances, makes positive and landmark density so that destinations contributions to the conservation of natural and are reached with reduced time. This reduced cultural heritage embracing diversity, provides commuting allows for reduced fuel expenditure more enjoyable experiences for tourists through and also opens the door to alternative means of more meaningful connections with local people, transportation such as bike riding and walking and a greater understanding of local cultural, social and environmental issues, provides Replicability access for physically challenged people, is A literal and conceptual approach on the ability culturally sensitive, encourages respect between of replicating or reproducing in other location tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and and also in a different scale. The approach can confidence. be literal or conceptual.
Resilience An ability to recover from or adjust easily to misfortune or change. In the planning field the term resilience studies human actions as cycles that are adaptive, just as in ecology. The interest in resilience, in acquiring this capacity to regain the original state or form, to withstand change or to recover quickly from a problematic; lies in the fact that resilient planning strategies acknowledge that this natural adaptive cycles can be modified with planning intervention.
236 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
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237 Annex
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About the authors
Dr. Sonja Nebel Jesús Salcedo Villanueva graduated in architecture and urban planning graduated in architecture at the National from RWTH Aachen-Germany. She earned her Autonomous University Mexico, at the Max PhD at the same university. Sonja has been Cetto School and has experience on social teaching for more than 25 years at different development projects in Mexico’s rural areas universities in Europe and in Arab Countries in with NGO “Natura y Ecosistemas Mexicanos the field of urban design, urban planning and A.C.”. He is also a DAAD scholar who recently urban conservation. obtained a Master of Science degree in Urban She is currently lecturer at the Urban Management at the Technische Universität Berlin Management Masters Programme of Berlin with a thesis on Omani Regional Development. University of Technology (TU Berlin) where Further work includes an internship with the she has been teaching since 2000. From 2008- Institute for Transport Research at the German 2014 she was Professor for Urban Planning Air-Space Centre and research on the fields of and Urban Design at GUtech Oman - German resilience and regional development. University of Technology and principal investigator of an interdisciplinary research project on “Sustainable Urbanization Patterns in Oman“. Sonja has focused for many years on cross cultural and interdisciplinary scientific research i.e. in Zambia, Bolivia, Thailand, China, Syria, Oman and other Arab countries. Furthermore, she works as a consultant within the international development cooperation in the field of urban development and urban management, sustainable urban conservation, strategic and participatory planning. 242 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Pedro Becerra Rodriguez Panagiotis Achamnos is an architect from Colombia. He has worked in is a civil engineer from Greece. He studied at projects related to landscape architecture, design the National and Technical University of Athens. and construction in Bogota. He has recently He started his career in civil engineering as an obtained a Master of Science degree in Urban assistant civil engineer in construction sites in Management at the Technische Universität Athens. He has recently obtained a Master of Berlin. During the last stage of his studies he Science degree in Urban Management at the was selected to conduct an investigation on Technische Universität Berlin. He was selected sustainable transportation in Al Buraimi for the to conduct his master thesis on infrastructure Government of Oman. provision in Al Buraimi for the government of Oman.
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Florencia Carvajal S. Ana Alcántara is an architect from Ecuador. She studied is an architect from the Instituto Tecnológico at the Pontificia Universidad Católica in y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Quito. She has built her professional career Mexico. She has been working in a Canadian- in urban design with architecture firms in Mexican Architecture Firm and gained China in addition to having independent work experience in the development of urban and experience in design-related projects. She architectural plans. During her studies she has recently graduated as an urban manager. was CONACYT scholarship holder given by During her preparation time she participated the Mexican government. She has recently in the Knowledge and Innovation Community obtained a Master of Science degree in Urban of the European Institute of Innovation and Management at the Technische Universität Technology and was selected to conduct her Berlin. She was selected to conduct her master master thesis on housing in Al Buraimi for the thesis on heritage sites and responsible government of Oman. tourism in Al Buraimi for the government of Oman.
244 Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Panagiotis Achamnos, Pedro Becerra, Mohammed Al-Bhadi, Dr. Hammad Al Gharibi, Florencia Carvajal, Ana Alcántara, Jesús Salcedo, Dr. Johannes Kuechler, HE Al Sayed Ibrahim Bin Said Al Busaidi, Dr. Sonja Nebel, Dr. Bettina Hamann.
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