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2016 - N° 2

A SERIES OF ANNALES DES MINES YEAR 2016 - N° 2 Published with the support FONDFOUNDEDÉES EN IN 1794 1794 of the Institut Mines Télécom SOMMAIRE 2

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 [French version:September2016-n°125] ESCP Europe François FOURCADE Centre MauriceHalbwachs,ENS/EHESS/CNRS Michel VILLETTE of aFrenchexpatinMexicanfactory multinational corporation: The experience The incompatibilityofworldswithina 35 [French version:September2016-n°125] University) Research PSL ParisTech, Mines (CGS, Professor Blanche SEGRESTIN, of Walther Rathenau Awritings the through perspective historical reform: corporate implied innovation When 28 [French version:September2016-n°125] Université Paris-Saclay) CNRS, Polytechnique, École (i3-CRG, Héloïse BERKOWITZandHervéDUMEZ standardization inthe18thcentury T 20 [French version:June2016-n°124] Professors ofstrategyat Toulouse BusinessSchool Pierre-André BUIGUESandDenisLACOSTE models French andGermanfirms: Two different The internationalizationstrategiesof 11 [French version:March2016-n°123] des Sociologie de Organisations, Sciences-Po Centre researcher, associate and School, Business NEOMAprofessor, Associate Sébastien DUBOIS A Weberian proposition order: status a as academia in Stratification 03 he Gribeauvalsystem,ortheissueof Cnr d Rcece n eto, École Gestion, en Jean-Baptiste SUQUET, Recherche Polytechnique) de researcher (Centre & I) Paris de (IAE professor associate Nathalie RAULET-CROSET, Organisations, UniversitédeBourgogne) des Gestion en Rcherche de (Cenre researcher & Franche-Comté) de (Université professor associate Damien COLLARD, graduates relationship: The followuponyoung The conditionsforasuccessfulmentoring 55 [French version:December2016-n°126] Santé Mentale,Société(CERMES3) Santé, Sciences, Médecine, Recherche de Centre the at research postdoctoral and Sociology in PhD Henri BOULLIER, authorization” The REACHof“prohibitionthrough Regulating molecules“withoutdata”: 47 [French version:December2016-n°126] (École des MinesdeNantes,InstitutMines-Télécom) Sociology Industrial of professor assistant Stéphanie TILLEMENT, Institut and Nantes, de Mines Sciences Mines-Télécom), des associate (École Managerial and professor IEMN-IAE) Nantes, of de (Université professor university Benoît JOURNE, Mines deNantes,InstitutMines-Télécom), des (École Sciences Managerial in student doctoral Jérémy EYDIEUX, interstitial activities High-reliability organizationseenthrough 63 en Recherche [French version:December2016-n°126] de (Centre Gestion, ÉcolePolytechnique). associate research Laure AMAR, and en Recherche de & Gestion, UniversitédeParis-EstMarnelaVallée) (Institut School) researcher Business associate (Neoma professor adjunct Stratification in academia as a status DUBOIS order: A Weberian proposition Sébastien Sébastien DUBOIS Associate professor, NEOMA Business School, and associate researcher, Centre de Sociologie des Organisations, Sciences-Po

[French version: March 2016 - n°123]

Increasing stratification in higher education is analyzed by using the concept of a status order. In Max Weber’s work, “status” refers to ranks in a social hierarchy based on prestige; and persons of like rank tend to assemble and form a status group. Recent research has redefined status as signaling a “quality” that organizes relations between people as they form groups. These two lines of research are crossed to identify the processes that divide academia into various status groups and thus produce, despite individuals’ merits, structural inequality. This approach is grounded on an empirical study of Organization, a journal supported by a group of critical, “postmodern” academics, whose key members come from the same universities (mostly English and, to a lesser extent, Australian and Scandinavian).

nequality in the academic world is glaring. In et al. 2010), or even the same social group (ÖZBILGIN management studies,(1) the situation is evolving 2009). As Murphy and Zhu (2012) have shown, toward a “world championship of scholarship” with 66% of the authors published in the twelve major Iits winners and losers (MURPHY & ZHU 2012:916). (four-star) management journals and 86% of the According to Podsakoff et al. (2008), 5% of scholars members of these journals’ editorial boards were accounted for 55% of citations and published more Anglo-American (United States, Canada, United than a quarter of the articles in the most prestigious Kingdom). The French represented 2% of the authors journals. With reference to Google Scholar, 5% of and 2.1% of editorial board members — about as much scholars produced a quarter of the research (articles, as Germans. books, working papers); and with reference to the Scopus data base, 5% of researchers represented Unless the conclusions are to be drawn that about 50% of the articles and 80% of citations Anglo-Americans are massively “better” scholars (COURTAULT et al. 2010). than others and that, owing to their talents, they merit This inequality does not result from merit alone, as this concentrated representation, does this inequality several studies would like to believe (PODSAKOFF not entail social processes that beg to be explained? et al. 2008). If it did, we would have to admit that an I do not claim to provide herein an exhaustive or overwhelming proportion of the most meritorious come, systematic explanation of how academia operates. “as if by chance”, from English-speaking lands and from My intent is, instead, to propose a grid for interpreting the same universities and doctoral schools (BEDEIAN this inequality with the help of the concepts of “status” and “status order”.

(1) Despite the focus herein on managerial studies, the situation The concept of status order (PODOLNY 1993) clearly does not differ much in other disciplines. In the two postulates that the social recognition (status in Podolny’s systematically top-ranking journals of sociology (American Journal words) enjoyed by individuals leads to a relatively of Sociology and American Sociological Review), from 90% to 95% of the authors are American (GINGRAS & WARREN 2006). stable social stratification over time. This implies that Once again, we must draw the conclusion either that American forms of inequality stem from social structures instead sociologists are extraordinarily talented or else that the social of the qualities of individuals. The status order tends to processes in operation have led to the overwhelming domination reproduce itself though the processes whereby people of sociology by a few scholars with similar profiles. This article has been translated from French by Noal Mellott (Omaha Beach, form groups and choose to associate with each other as France). a function of their respective positions.

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 3 To pursue this line of inquiry, this article draws on both on the East Coast of the United States at the end of the Max Weber’s legacy and recent discussions to examine 19th century. Status confers the material or symbolic how the concept of status can help us conceive of privileges attached to a respected social position, for the social hierarchy and equality. The second part of example, the opportunity to keep company in a given this article shows how this concept sheds light on the social circle or to gain access to a certain profession. It organization of the academic world. In the last part, bears an offer of resources. Unlike class, status makes the example of the journal Organization serves to for community, a point to which we shall return. examine in detail the argument that the academic field of management studies is organized in relatively closed Revival of the concept status groups through a control over the admission of The concept of status has spurred several recent new members. In the Weberian sense, we thus come publications (PIAZZA & CASTELLUCCI 2014). For face to face with the phenomenon of “closure”. Podolny (1993:830), whose writings have contributed to this revival, “a producer’s status is defined as the degree to which market participants perceive the quality The concept of status of its product to be superior to that of its competitors.” Status serves to signal quality in an uncertain situation, The Weberian legacy since there usually exists a stable and, in general, TRIAL BY FACT BY TRIAL The concept of status has its origin in the work of Max positive linkage between the producer’s status and the Weber (1864-1920). Status and class underlie the quality of the proposed products. Weberian analysis of social stratification. Much caution Partnerships between firms (for example, of a company is needed when interpreting Weber’s brief notes about manufacturing a recognized brand of computer chips this concept in the unfinished fourth chapter of the first with a computer-maker) so clearly signal information volume of Economy and Society (Weber 1978, 1995) about the expected quality of products that Podolny has and the other scattered references to it. The Weberian advanced the argument that a firm’s status changes as concepts of status and class have prompted much of a function of its alliances. A firm grows stronger when the thought devoted to social stratification (KURZMAN it associates with a higher-status partner; or on the et al. 2007). contrary, weaker when associating with a lower-status partner. According to Robert Merton, products will be On the one hand, Weber’s writings refer class — in evaluated better if they come from a high-status firm line with Marx — to the economy, i.e., to the inequa- than products of like quality from a low-status firm. As lity of revenues: “a probability which derives from the a consequence, the high-status firm will, for a lower relative control over goods and skills and from their production cost, be able to propose its products at a income-producing uses within a given economic order” higher price; and the low-status company will have (WEBER 1978, vol. I, p. 302). A class groups individuals trouble competing. who share the same economic situation, and thus the means of controlling and using goods. Weber did not Status “invokes the imagery of a hierarchy of positions think that a class makes for a community: “the unity of — a pecking order — in which an individual’s location social class is highly variable” (p. 302). within the hierarchy shapes others’ expectations and actions toward the individual and thereby determines On the other hand, status is grounded on prestige, the opportunities and constraints that the individual esteem and “social honor” (COX 1950). This confronts” (PODOLNY 2005:11). A status order exists relational concept evaluates how individuals are and, as Podolny has tried to show, tends to be stable distributed in the social hierarchy owing to the prestige over time.(2) Competition pushes higher-status actors, they are recognized as having: “an effective claim to since they are able to do so, to choose partners with social esteem in terms of positive or negative privile- a status at least equivalent to their own. For Menger ges” (WEBER 1978, vol. I, p. 305). This hierarchy (2009), this association of actors on the basis of their is a matter of consensus. As a type of inequality, it is social recognition is “selective cooptation”. As Podolny double-sided (PIAZZA & CASTELLUCCI 2014:290): (2005:255) has pointed out, status is by nature a to be seen as a “relationship between social groups” conservative, stabilizing force. (for instance, between members of two profes- sions, such as doctors and nurses) and as a The concept of status can be applied to both firms and “hierarchical relationship among individuals” (a individuals. It has found applications in the sociology of culture (DUBOIS & FRANÇOIS 2013; MENGER doctor and a nurse). In modern societies, prestige 2009) and of organizations (WASHINGTON & ZAJAC is based, in particular, on formal education and the diplomas that validate skills and know-how, or on a profession. The profession of lawyer endows all (2) For Podolny, “reputation” refers to an actor’s past behaviors. who exercise it with a degree of prestige in society, Reducing status to a signal of quality risks confusing status despite the wide disparity of incomes in this group with reputation. This confusion can be cleared up by taking the social dimension into account: reputation does not create a (KARPIK 1995). social structure. The space allotted for this article does not allow Status is visible through patterns of consumption, for discussing the relations between reputation and status. The key idea is that a status is, in fact, incorporated in the social lifestyles and values. Individuals of equivalent status structure, specifically a status order. Podolny’s definition has tend to adopt common consumption and behavior been widely adopted (cf. WASHINGTON & ZAJAC 2005, PIAZZA patterns, like the “leisure class”, analyzed by Veblen, & CASTELLUCCI 2014, BITEKTINE 2011).

4 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 2005) as well as economic sociology (ESPELAND for itself. Academics, too, sometimes play the role of

& SAUDER 2007). It has even been suggested to apply “consultant” for political and economic elites. DUBOIS it to academia (PODOLNY 1993:837). There are three main constitutive aspects of status in Podolny’s argument is economic; it aligns the concept of academia. The first is affiliation with specific universities. status on a signal of quality (PIAZZA & CASTELLUCCI A professor from Harvard is better positioned on the 2014). However the economic and social definitions social scale than a colleague from the University of can be brought together by conceiving of status both as North Dakota. This affiliation signals the quality of the a signal of quality and, in accordance with the Weberian “production” of each: more will be expected of the first Sébastien tradition, as a position in a social hierarchy. Both than of the second. As Merton pointed out, the work definitions hinge on the prestige an actor is recognized of the first will, when of equivalent quality, be better as having. Status is a subjective evaluation (of quality evaluated than that of the second. Contrary to Valle and as inferred from the position in a hierarchy) as well Schultz’s (2011) assertion, this is not the only constitutive as a structural reality (a relatively stable hierarchical aspect of status in the academic world. A second factor structure). is publications. Publication in an academic journal is a sort of tournament; the authors tourney each other Prestige directly signals quality. Buying a prestigious when they submit articles to the same journal. Since it writer’s book involves an expectation about the quality can publish but a few articles, the journal uses this as of what we are going to read. A book associating René an argument when it vaunts its refusal rate as proof of Char and Picasso, for example, does not just reinforce its demanding intellectual standards (BEVERUNGEN the status of both artists, i.e., their respective places in et al. 2012). Victory in this tournament sends a positive the hierarchies of poets and painters; it also sends a signal about the quality of the published intellectual strong signal to readers about the book’s quality. work. Under the current system, this victory is instantly The main criticism to be addressed to Podolny concerns evaluated in terms of the journal’s ranking or “impact his idea that status necessarily changes through factor” (BERRY 2009). Likewise, expectations about a the successive associations formed with partners, book’s quality are related to the prestige of its publishing specifically: that the association with a partner of lesser house. Thirdly, holding a position on a journal’s editorial status always lowers one’s own status. This seems board — besides increasing the chances of being too categorical, as Dubois and François (2013) have published and of playing a key role in academic affairs shown in their study of associations between poets (ÖZBILGIN 2004) — is also a signal of the recognized and publishers, where the alliance with a lower-status qualifications of the person holding the position, all the partner does not systematically lessen the status of more so if the journal has a high rank. the more prestigious one. Picasso might sign a book with an unknown poet without losing status; but the How the status order operates in academia poet’s status will, for sure, benefit from this association What I am suggesting is that academia is organized with a so prestigious painter. as a status order mainly through cooptation. Owing to this process, actors, each of equivalent status in their fields of qualification, associate with each other so that Academia as a status order the prestige of the one reflects onto the other, thus To illustrate the idea of status, Weber proposed the amplifying differences with lower-status actors. This example of Chinese scholars (WEBER 2000). They is the case on both the organizational and individual were made to compete for access to prestigious scales, among firms (PODOLNY 2005) as well as positions, had to pass difficult formal examinations artists (DUBOIS & FRANÇOIS 2013; MENGER 2009). and were then subject to lifelong evaluations of In academia, scholars mostly work with colleagues their intellectual aptitudes. This competition through of equivalent status. In a study of coauthored articles selective examinations was based on criteria apparently published in the major journals of managerial studies, related to a merit system. The recruits had, therefore, Acedo et al. (2006) classified the authors in four to continually improve their qualifications and skills. categories as a function of their bibliographies: category Under the control of the emperor for whom they were 4 grouping the authors with the best reputations.(3) “consultants”, they formed a “corps”, a somewhat This study found that 45.49% of the coauthored articles autonomous social group that devised its own rules were written by authors from categories 3 and 4; but of operation and, in particular, set the social rewards only 5.48%, by authors from categories 4 and 2. By the that the “best” among them could hope to receive. This way, 19.9% were written by authors from categories corporate group of scholars was organized in a social 1 and 4 — usually an experienced scholar cosigning an hierarchy based on prestige. article with a doctoral student or young PhD in his/her We recognize in this description many similarities with department. These patterns, brought to light through the contemporary situation in higher education. a network analysis, have been confirmed by other Academia, too, is made up of highly qualified studies (EVANS et al. 2011, JONES et al. 2008). Although individuals who compete with each other for prestigious positions and are subject to ongoing evaluations of (3) Acedo et al. (2006) selected the major American and European their intellectual, apparently “meritocratic”, qualities. academic journals of management, the latter like the former, in Academics, too, form a relatively autonomous social English: Organization Studies, Journal of Management and group that operates following rules it has mostly set Human Relations.

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 5 the pattern of an experienced scholar coauthoring prestigious positions (in particular on the editorial an article with a doctoral student or young PhD does boards of academic journals or through participation on occur, it is but another way that scholars consolidate committees or in roundtables at academic congresses). their status while diffusing their ideas and sponsoring a All three are directly or indirectly linked to the person’s promising young talent in the best networks. As already productivity in research. pointed out, this sort of association does not necessarily An appointment to an editorial board very much hinges demean the higher-status partner. on this productivity (ÖZBILGIN 2004). As for affiliations, The choice — so decisive — made by the editors of the chances for entering a prestigious university (and the mainstream journals involves similar processes thus benefitting from its status) mainly depend on the (BURGESS & SHAW 2010, ÖZBILGIN 2004). individual’s results in research, given the tenure system Universities, too, each in its domain, are organized as (BEDEIAN et al. 2010), which has now been implanted a status order, which is “objectified” through repeated in French universities (MENGER et al. 2015). ranking procedures (ESPELAND & SAUDER 2007). What are the reasons for this emphasis on research? The universities with the best reputations tend to recruit The latter is definitely not the only criterion that could the “best” professors and researchers; they then furnish be used for evaluations and promotions. It is, however, these recruits with the best resources so as to enable a more discriminating one than the individual’s them to consolidate their status individually (D’AVENI

TRIAL BY FACT BY TRIAL “performance” in teaching or administration. Productivity 1996) — thus accelerating the Mertonian process of in research is very concentrated — a Pareto curve: accumulating advantages while amplifying differences. 5% of researchers account for about 50% of articles and In fact, these universities exchange young PhDs 80% of citations. In contrast, “teaching performance” is through narrow recruitment channels (BEDEIAN et al. more evenly distributed among academics, in a bell 2010). These processes operate all the better insofar curve (MENGER et al. 2015). as citation indexes and classifications for ranking journals immediately provide the information to be used Research and teaching, the two main academic tasks, have different underpinnings. For one thing, for cooptation strategies. 5% of professors cannot attract 80% of students…. In contrast, research is a scarcer resource, so contested Status groups that an individual’s high productivity in research sends a stronger signal about his/her reputation than would be the case for teaching. Furthermore, academics seem Status groups and closure more sensitive to performance in research: “resear- For Max Weber, individuals of equivalent status tend chers proudly display their stars, like army medals” to form a community, a status group. Like Chinese (CHEVRIER 2014:21). Besides, research claims to offer scholar bureaucrats, such a community’s members a promising, innovative learning experience — on par share values, lifestyles, work experiences, a group with the latest scientific trends — in flagship programs consciousness…. Communities of this sort are, (MBAs, for example), unlike teaching standardized, however, informal. Given their similar social positions, routine introductory courses. In addition to the obvious the members share not only social but also economic variability of the quality of courses, teaching is a “local- interests. They are able, therefore, to coordinate their ly” evaluated “performance”. Unlike research, it is hard actions for the purpose of establishing norms. to compare teaching across establishments or among individuals since there is no agreed-upon means of Though differing depending on their level of prestige, measurement (like bibliometrics in research). Research status groups function via a “closure” based on emits a signal about the person’s reputation that is the academic degrees that validate qualifications. conveyed fast at no extra cost, whereas teaching, This criterion, in particular, will be used to establish intended for a broader public, requires logistics and distinctions between members and nonmembers, so costs the professor’s salary.(4) as to control the group’s composition. Status groups can thus become “castes”, i.e., groups that recruit their The reputation of establishments of higher education members using their own criteria (COX 1950). According depends, first of all, on research, where competition, to Bendix (1974:154), who draws on Weber, “whether easy to measure, facilitates international comparisons formally free or institutionalized, modern intellectual and classifications. To be persuaded of this, we need life tends to form cliques and schools of thought or but consult the brochures or websites of French style. And on that basis, distinctions of class and status universities, which systematically list scholars’ individual are formed among intellectuals”. results in terms of research (publications) but do not describe their “educational skills”. As French business In scientific circles, the validation process involves the schools undergo a process of “academization”, their academic degree (PhD and the place where it was results in research are the discriminating criterion for obtained), affiliations and, of course, publications. ranking them (MENGER et al.2014, 2015). The variable A publication seems to function like a security: it of research allows for the widest dispersion among is evaluated as a function of the journal where it is published, of the latter’s rank and impact factor. (4) Might the situation not change owing to the creation of a It becomes a sort of currency on the academic global market for teaching through massive open online courses marketplace. Recall that three main means establish (MOOCs)? Might the possibility of diffusing such courses on a an academic’s status: affiliations, publications and large scale at small cost… but is this to be hoped for?

6 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 schools and for quite strong correlations with a d’Administration des Affaires (INSEAD). Doing a few school’s rank, budget and degree of internationalization. simple calculations using Burgess and Shaw’s data, we DUBOIS The result is blatant. Two academic labor markets are notice that 76% of editorial board members are based organized in a hierarchy: the one for top-level research in the United States. For these 36 journals, the average professors (based on their publications) and the ratio between, on the one hand, the number of editorial other for teaching professors. This holds for English- positions that board members held in other journals in speaking lands (HENKEL 2005) as well as French the Financial Times group and, on the other hand, the (5)

business schools. Besides, the number of positions total number of editorial board positions is 42.11%. This Sébastien for “research only” or “teaching only” is on the rise, is evidence of the concentration of these key positions thus dividing academic labor, the faculty, into two in the hands of a small interconnected elite. unequal groups. To examine the collaboration (the cosigning of articles The stratification characteristic of academia should, along with less formal actions) between members of therefore, be interpreted as a hierarchy of status groups the teaching staff in managerial studies in the United with varying degrees of prestige based on the variables Kingdom, another study (EVANS et al. 2011:394), of research and affiliations. These groups rely on two adopting a statistical method, drew the conclusion that major institutional factors, which are the driving force cooptation, a powerful means for organizing academic in status formation: academic institutions (universities, life, leads to the formation of “rich clubs”. business schools, departments, doctoral degrees) and Academic institutions recruit, as shown, from the docto- academic journals (in particular, the editorial boards of ral degree programs of institutions with equivalent the “best” journals). These two factors are tightly corre- prestige. These doctoral programs are the cradle for lated. Academics affiliated with the same universities the socialization of status groups. The major variable sit on the editorial boards of the best journals, as the is not just the country of origin but, even more, the diagram from Burgess and Shaw (2010:636) depicts. specific institution where research professors teach This network diagram has been drawn using data about or have pursued their PhD (ALTMAN & LAGUECIR the editorial board members of the 36 top-ranking 2012). From this perspective, the admission of persons journals of the well-known Financial Times classi- from other countries into doctoral degree programs in fication. On this diagram, the only university not in universities in English-speaking lands does not upset the United States is French: the Institut Européen the status order. It merely reinforces its ramifications. This does not stem just from institutional strategies. In effect, faculty members themselves choose, in priority, (5) In this system, teaching is the variable for making adjustments: business schools set the number of hours of courses a professor young colleagues who share their values and have must dispense as a function of his/her results in research. As a graduated from institutions like their own in terms not director at EDHEC clearly put it, “If a professor does not fill his of just prestige but also culture. Academics working in contract of publications, he can be dismissed. However, if he is a prestigious university where research reigns tend to a good teacher, we might keep him. In this case however, he will choose young colleagues from establishments like their have a lot of hours of courses to teach” (“Les coulisses du mercato des profs-stars”, L’Expansion, p. 52, 4 May 2011). own (D’AVENI 1996).

Figure 1: Network of universities with members on the editorial boards of the 36 top-ranking journals of the well-known classification made by Financial Times (Burgess & Shaw 2010:636)..

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 7 A critique of Organization, a critical academic jour- Of the twenty authors who signed 21% of the articles, nal 60% are English, all of them from the aforementioned To illustrate my remarks, I have chosen Organization, universities. In fact, four or five of them have publi- one of the few European journals ranked with four stars shed at least one article per year. Out of the twenty by the French National Center of Scientific Research most published authors in the journal, 85% have been (CNRS). Specialized in the sociology of organizations, current or former members of the editorial board. Among it would offhand seem to be more open, especially the three others, two have sat on the editorial board since it is a “critical” journal in organization studies. of Organization Studies, the other major European Its editorial line is to contest the dominant North journal of organization studies, which has as its American models, in particular positivism and quanti- mainstay the annual colloquium organized by EGOS, tative methods, and to direct attention to critical the foremost social event in this discipline. The thinkers from other disciplines, such as Bourdieu, editorial boards of Organization and Organization Foucault or Deleuze (PARKER & THOMAS 2011). Studies overlap: 29 persons sit on both boards. I examined the tables of contents of the issues from We thus come to see the interconnections between the the last five years: in all, 220 articles by 352 authors elites of the European academic journals specialized (6) from 175 universities and 28 countries, including in organization studies. These authors (some of Romania and Brazil. Given its location in Europe and them also editorial board members) are in a position TRIAL BY FACT BY TRIAL its editorial line, the network around Organization for exercising broad control over publication in the would, we assume, be less “hegemonic” and less journal’s pages and partial control over access to the concentrated than what Burgess and Shaw described field of critical management, of which Organization is a in the “mainstream” journals of the Financial Times flagship. The most published authors share the same group, dominant in major North American universities. academic (and social) activities. These social patterns However the social relations formed around this are, we might imagine, even clearer in the dominant European journal are very hierarchical, thus revealing mainstream journals than in this European journal, the overlapping between academic journals and given the latter’s critical, multidisciplinary stance: we search in vain for a single article by, for instance, a universities, the two main places for making the status Brazilian or Romanian author in Administrative Science of researcher. Quarterly during the same period. Five universities account for 21% of Organization’s These data throw light on stratification in academia. authors. The situation has changed a little since a According to the Weberian interpretation proposed previous study (JONES et al. 2006), which found herein, these groups tend to reproduce themselves by 25% for the period from 1994 to 2001. coopting members through complex procedures, such The key universities in this journal’s network are as integrating researchers from dominated countries. clearly identifiable: those in the United Kingdom These phenomena, leading to closure, are sometimes (Leicester, Manchester, Cardiff, Essex) plus a hidden. According to Özbilgin (2004), Turkish collea- few foreign establishments, such as Copenhagen gues who were admitted to a journal’s editorial board, Business School or the universities in Lund (Sweden) probably as a token of the board’s plurality, did not have and Sidney (Australia). any communication from the board over a two-year period! In the words of this former editor-in-chief of In all, 60% of the articles have been signed by more British Journal of Management, himself of Turkish origin: than one author. Furthermore, 49% of these coauthored “White masculine hegemony continues to reproduce articles involve at least one author from the most itself, as graduates, who are trained in elite research represented universities; and 35%, more than one institutions with entrenched forms of inequality, are author from these universities. Furthermore, 45% of the blessed from the beginning through the system of authors are English. patronage with privileged access to prized posts in the Italians make up but 0.005% of the authors; and academic labor market. In the same way, journal editors Germans, 2.8%. The French authors, 1.9%, come from want high impact factors and seek well-known people four establishments of higher education (University to sit on their boards and to publish in their journals. of Paris-Dauphine and three grandes écoles). All but This process keeps well-known persons well-known. one of them (who had a PhD from a major American The glass elevator effect is hard to break into unless university) coauthored articles with high-status foreign you are in the friendship circle of the ‘well-known’, colleagues. Among the “exotic” scholars (to the which is more likely if you are from the upper class, the exclusion of English-speaking lands and Scandinavia), product of an elite institution, especially in the United 44% coauthored articles with a colleague from one States or Britain” (ÖZBILGIN 2009:114). of the ten most represented universities. This remark points to the existence of a status order, If we eliminate the special issues that Organization, where the dominant groups — expecting a quality to its credit, devoted to “management from the South” of work produced using criteria they have to a large or post-colonialism, we discover but two authors from (6) countries in the planet’s South. Each of them had The big American universities are nearly completely missing in this picture. Organization is not part of the dominant American a PhD, the one from an Ivy League university in the networks: I have turned up only one author from one of the top United States and the other from an English university ten American universities (according to the Financial Times centrally positioned in the journal’s network. classification).

8 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 degree defined and incorporated in the hierarchical rigidify and artificially deepen status differences by logic of self-reproduction — have definite social organizing competition like a tournament, by defining DUBOIS profiles. As a driving force, status tends to establish and making data available via bibliometrics — data hierarchical groups that might be relatively separate that are simplified and sometimes erroneous (BERRY from each other (PODOLNY 2005). An example is 2009) — and, too, by setting special rules for organizing the domination of English-language journals, which this competition so as to artificially increase the mainly publish English-speaking authors or foreigners differences between rivals from schools in the top tier

who have undertaken a doctoral degree program in and those from schools just below that level, or between Sébastien English-speaking lands (ALTMAN & LAGUECIR 2012). articles published in three-star and two-star journals, This is the case of Organization, a journal articulated etc. From this point of view, systematically using lists around a dominant group — the critical, postmodern that ranks journals (as Section 37 of the CNRS does), current of thought — whose core is made up of English especially in French schools of management, reinforces researchers and, to a lesser degree, of Australians the processes described herein — to the point that and Scandinavians. The major authors belong to the some deans have now been won over to strategies, same English-speaking culture, come from the same in particular for faculty management, that exclusively universities and often enough work together to coauthor pursue the number of stars (GLESS 2014). articles or sit on editorial boards in the same journals. Dominant status groups are in the position of exercising broad control over the recruitment of new members. References Not only do they hold positions of power in universities and on the editorial boards of journals, as we have ACEDO (F.J.) , BARROSO (C.), CASANUEVA (C.) seen; but also, as Weber suggested, they decree & GALAN (J.), “Co-authorship in management and the highly standardized norms (and enforce them) organizational studies: An empirical and network that tightly govern academia’s intellectual production analysis”, Journal of Management Studies, 43(5), (GREY & SINCLAIR 2006). As Özbilgin (2009) has pp. 957-983, 2006. stated, they are hardly inclined to give up key positions ALTMAN (Y.) & LAGUECIR (A.), “Leadership in the or to yield on the norms governing academic production, academic field of business and management and the since these norms serve their interests. question of country of origin: A commentary on Burgess and Shaw (2010)”, British Journal of Management, 23(4), pp. 589-597, 2012. Conclusion BEDEIAN (A.), CAVAZOS (D.), HUNT (J.) & This interpretation of inequality in higher education JAUCH (L.), “Doctoral degree prestige and the suggests that the current system of scientific academic marketplace: A study of career mobility within evaluation, centered on publication in journals that the management discipline”, Academy of Management are ranked and claim to have high “impact factors”, Learning and Education, 9(1), pp. 11-25, 2010. favors and consolidates the organization in terms of BENDIX (R.), “Inequality and social structure: A status groups with unequal degrees of prestige. To its comparison of Marx and Weber”, American Sociological advantage, this interpretation avoids falling into the Review, 39(2), pp. 149-161, 1974. trap of oversimplifying social reality by positing a binary http://d20uo2axdbh83k.cloudfront. contrast between “dominant” and “dominated”. It lets us net/20140223/8e8d778b53ee029dda802c4ac90c77bf. see academia as a series of hierarchical, specialized pdf. status groups, which vary depending on the country, discipline or current of thought, in the likeness of the BERRY (M.), “Les mirages de la bibliométrie, ou group formed around the journal Organization and comment scléroser la recherche en croyant bien faire”, English universities — a social network still separate Revue du MAUSS, 33, pp. 224-245, 2009. from the major North American journals. https://www.cairn.info/revue-du-mauss-2009-1- page-227.htm This interpretation has tried to explain academia’s fragmentation and its convergence toward an “elite BEVERUNGEN (A.), BOHM (S.) & LAND (C.), “The of the elites” with shared characteristics. It would, of poverty of journal publishing”, Organization, 19(6), course, come as a surprise were the relentless race in pp. 929-938, 2012. research for the obtainment of academic recognition BITEKTINE (A.), “Toward a theory of social judgments (CHEVRIER 2004:18) not to have consequences on of organizations: The case of legitimacy, reputation how higher education is organized. For sure, inequality and status”, Academy of Management Review, 36(1), existed prior to the incredible acceleration of the race pp. 151-179, 2011. toward a top rank or classification of establishments, journals, scholars, etc. However, forms of inequality BURGESS (T.F.) & SHAW (N.E.), “Editorial board have undoubtedly deepened. They tend to rigidify membership of management and business journals: through processes that are not just (or at least not A social network analysis study of the Financial Times mainly) meritocratic. 40”, British Journal of Management, 21(3), pp. 627-648, 2010. In structural terms, this is a consequence of using rankings, as Espeland and Sauder (2009) have CHEVRIER (S.), “Publish… and perish!”, Gérer et shown in American law schools. These ranking systems comprendre, 115, pp. 18-21, 2014.

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 9 COURTAULT (J.M.), HAYEK (N.), RIMBAUX (E.) & MENGER (P.M.), Le travail créateur: S’accomplir dans ZHU (T.), “Research in economics and management in l’incertain (Paris: Gallimard, 2009). France: A bibliometric study using the h-index”, Journal MENGER (P.M.) & MARCHIKA (C.), “La technologie of Socio-Economics, 39(2), pp. 329-337, 2010. de sélection des étudiants dans les grandes écoles de COX (O.C.), “Max Weber on social stratification: commerce françaises”, Revue française d’économie, A critique”, American Sociological Review, 15(2), XXIX(2), pp. 5-42, 2014. pp. 223-227, 1950. MENGER (P.M.), MARCHIKA (C.) & HANET (D.), D’AVENI (R.A.), “A multiple-constituency, status-based “La concurrence positionnelle dans l’enseignement approach to interorganizational mobility of faculty and supérieur”, Revue économique, 66(1), pp. 237-288, input-output competition among top business schools”, 2015. Organization Science, 7(2), pp. 166-189, 1996. MURPHY (J.) & ZHU (J.), “Neo-colonialism in the DUBOIS (S.) & FRANÇOIS (P.), “Career paths and academy? Anglo-American domination in management hierarchies in the pure pole of the literary field: The case journals”, Organization, 19(6), pp. 915-927, 2012. of contemporary poetry”, Poetics, 41(5), pp. 501-523, ÖZBILGIN (M.), “‘International’ human resource 2013. management: Academic parochialism in editorial

TRIAL BY FACT BY TRIAL ESPELAND (W.) & SAUDER (M.), “Rankings and boards of the ‘top’ 22 journals on international human reactivity: How public measures recreate social resource management”, Personnel Review, 33(2), worlds”, American Journal of Sociology, 113(1), pp. 205-221, 2004. pp. 1-40, 2007. ÖZBILGIN (M.F.), “From journal rankings to making ESPELAND (W.) & SAUDER (M.), “The discipline of sense of the world”, Academy of Management rankings: Tight coupling and organizational change”, Learning and Education, 8(1), pp. 113-121, 2009. American Sociological Review, 74(1), pp. 63-82, http://www.academia.edu/171620/From_journal_ 2009. rankings_to_making_sense_of_the_world EVANS (T.S.), LAMBIOTTE (R.) & PANZARASA (P.), PARKER (M.) & THOMAS (R.), “What is a critical “Community structure and patterns of scientific journal?”, Organization, 18(4), pp. 419-427, 2011. collaboration in business and management”, PIAZZA (A.) & CASTELLUCCI (F.), “Status in Scientometrics, 89(1), pp. 381-396, 2011. organization and management theory”, Journal of GINGRAS (Y.) & WARREN (J.P.), “A British connexion? Management, 40(1), pp. 287-315, 2014. A quantitative analysis of the changing relations PODOLNY (J.M.), “A status-based model of market between American, British and Canadian sociologists”, competition”, American Journal of Sociology, 98(4), Canadian Journal of Sociology, 31(4), pp. 509-522, pp. 829-872, 1993. 2006. PODOLNY (J.M.), Status signals: A sociological study GLESS (E.), “Ce que les entreprises attendent des of market competition, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton business schools en 2014”, L’Étudiant, 25 April 2014. University Press, 2005). http://www.letudiant.fr/educpros/actualite/ce-que-les- entreprises-attendent-des-business-schools-en-2014. PODSAKOFF (P.), MACKENZIE (S.), PODSAKOFF (N.) html & BACHRACH (D.), “Scholarly influence in the field of management: A bibliometric analysis of the GREY (C.) & SINCLAIR (A.), “Writing differently”, determinants of university and author impact in the Organization, 13(3), pp. 443-453, 2006. management literature in the past quarter century”, HENKEL (M.), “Academic identity and autonomy in Journal of Management, 34(4), pp. 641-720, 2008. a changing policy environment”, Higher Education, VALLE (M.) & SCHULTZ (K.), “The etiology of top-tier 49(1/2), pp. 155-176, 2005. publications in management: A status attainment JONES (O.), SHARIFI (S.) & CONWAY (S.), “Accounting perspective on academic career success”, Career for organization: Round-up the usual suspects”, Critical Development International, 16(3), pp. 220-237, 2011. Perspectives on Accounting, 17(2-3), pp. 283-304, WASHINGTON (M.) & ZAJAC (E.J.), “Status evolution 2006. and competition: Theory and evidence”, Academy of Management Journal, 48(2), pp. 282-296, 2005. JONES (B.F.), WUCHTY (S.) & UZZI (B.), “Multi- university research teams: Shifting impact, geography, WEBER (M.), Confucianisme et taoïsme (Paris: and stratification in science”, Science, 322(5905), Gallimard, 2000). pp. 1259-1262, 2008. WEBER (M.), Économie et société, volume 1 (Paris: KARPIK (L.), Les avocats. Entre l’État, le public et le Pocket, 1995). marché, XIIIe-XXe siècles (Paris: Gallimard, 1995). WEBER (M.), Economy and society, an outline of KURZMAN (C.), ANDERSON (C.), KEY (C.), LEE (Y.), interpretive sociology, two volumes edited by G. Roth & MOLONEY (M.), SILVER (A.) & VAN RYN (M.) “Celebrity C. Wittich (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, status”, Sociological Theory, 25(4), pp. 347-367, 2007. 1978).

10 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 The internationalization strategies of French and German firms: Two different models

Pierre-André BUIGUES and Denis LACOSTE Professors of strategy at Toulouse Business School

[French version: June 2016 - n°124]

Macroeconomic statistics and data on big firms are used to compare the internationalization strategies adopted by French and German firms. The German and French models of internationalization differ with respect to: exportation; the volume and type of foreign direct

investments; and the mode of market entry. Several possible explanations of these noticeable Pierre-André BUIGUES and Denis LACOSTE differences in strategies are proposed, among them: costs, the firms’ strategic choices and the institutional and cultural environment.

s internationalization advances, firms are international diversification (LI & YUE 2008); the mode often unable to defend a strong position on and timing of market entry (STEVENS & DYKES 2013); the domestic market without also being or even the relation between internationalization and presentA on other national markets. The motivation for performance (WAN & HOSKISSON 2003, ELANGO this is not just the quest for new prospects in targeted & SETHI 2007). However most empirical studies on foreign markets that are to be conquered. It also has international diversification, by focusing on a speci- to do with the shares and roles assigned to various fic country of origin, have failed to take into account foreign markets in the production chain through the how the firm’s nationality affects its strategic choices investments made there, whether of a horizontal or (LI & YUE 2008). National characteristics (comparative vertical type (LEMAIRE 2013). advantages, the institutional and cultural environment, Researchers have adopted various theories to tackle etc.) weigh on the resources at a firm’s disposal, its this problem, such as the product-cycle theory organizational routines and its competitive advantages, (VERNON 1966), the Uppsala model of phases in all of these being factors affecting the firm’s strategic commitment decisions (JOHANSON & VAHLNE 1977), choices (BARMEYER & MAYHOFER 2007). the eclectic paradigm (DUNNING 1988), the theory For this reason, it is necessary to conduct new of transaction costs (WILLIAMSON 1975) or the new studies for identifying and better understanding economic geography (KRUGMAN 1991). These theories differences in corporate internationalization strategies, refer to a firm’s characteristics, products and markets in particular with respect to the mode of foreign in the effort to explain its reasons for developing market entry that a firm adopts as a function of its abroad, the regions where it sets up operations and country of origin. Several studies have concentrated its decision about how to enter the foreign market on the mode of entry, a critical component in a firm’s (COLOVIC & MAYRHOFER 2008). Except for the international strategy; but no consensus has emerged Uppsala model however, they concentrate on but a (MORSCHETT et al. 2010). In particular, very few single aspect of the process (MEIER & MESCHI 2011). studies have compared the internationalization Nonetheless, they have considerably contributed to strategies of firms from different countries in Europe — strategic management and help us better understand a promising perspective for research (MAYRHOFER differences in the choices made by firms. In addition, 2004). Several questions arise about these differences these theories have underlaid empirical research. in international strategies. What specific advantages Some of these empirical studies have focused on how of a firm and which national, institutional or cultural the context in a firm’s country of origin influences its characteristics of its homeland affect its choice of an internationalization strategy, in particular: the degree of international strategy?

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 11 The research presented herein, by concentrating on One advantage a firm gains from an exportation the internationalization strategies of firms from two strategy is flexibility: it is easier to pull out of the market European countries, helps make up for this lack in than in the case of an FDI, and the volume of exports comparative studies. For this purpose, it has used targeting foreign markets can be adjusted as a function global, macroeconomic data as well as data from of demand on one of them. Moreover, an exportation the UNCTAD sample of multinational firms. Three strategy allows for faster access to foreign markets, alternatives for internationalization strategies are since the firm uses its existing production capacity taken under consideration: exportation or foreign in the homeland. A last point: a growing volume of direct investment; foreign investments of a horizontal exports enables production plants located in the or vertical type; and investments made by setting up country of origin to improve their performance thanks a foreign subsidiary from scratch (greenfield to economies of scale (GRANT et al. 1988). Given investments) or by purchasing foreign companies these advantages, exportation is the most widespread (acquisitions). We have left out of account foreign form of internationalization. When turning toward market entry modes based on more cooperative international markets, small and medium-sized firms practices, since data about them are not available at usually start by exporting. But even firms with foreign the country level. subsidiaries continue using exportation as a vector in their internationalization strategy. Since studies have already described the effects of size, the quality of production factors, local institutions In contrast, foreign direct investment bears advantages (what has been dubbed the country’s “munificence”) for a firm compared with a strategy based on expor- and the legal system, we thought it worthwhile to tation alone. First of all, setting up operations directly IN QUEST OF A THEORY A OF QUEST IN compare rather similar countries in order to neutra- in the targeted country facilitates market entry there lize the effects of these three dimensions. France and by reducing transportation costs of merchandise and Germany are of a comparable scale, and each has a sidestepping barriers to transactions, whether custom high degree of munificence (WAN and HOSKISSON duties or other impediments (UNCTAD 2012). Next, 2003). Both figure among countries with a legal host country governments often direct investments, system of a civil law type (LA PORTA et al. 1998). which create jobs locally. Finally, FDI makes available Furthermore, they use the same currency, the euro, and to the firm the comparative advantages specific to have, through the European Union, the same economic the foreign market and enables it to benefit from its environment. We can then set the differences observed physical presence there: access to scientific or techno- in our findings down to other characteristics of these logical resources, as well as the low costs of labor or two lands. natural resources (KOGUT & ZANDER 1993, ZAHRA et al. 2000). This article(1) starts by comparing the choices that French and German firms have made between exportation and Comparing France and Germany provides a contrasting direct foreign investment, and then between foreign picture of the relative weights of exportation and FDI investments of a horizontal or vertical type. It then strategies for companies from these two countries. turns to the choice between greenfield investments Quite clearly: whereas French firms have preferred FDI or acquisitions. Several possible explanations will be at the cost of their own exports, German firms have presented to account for the differences observed preferred exports from the homeland and have made between the internationalization strategies of France and fewer direct investments abroad than their French German firms: the positioning of products, investments counterparts. Measuring the exportation of merchandise in R&D, the cost competitiveness of production sites, and services in 2010 as a percentage of GDP, the and the institutional or cultural environment of the percentage point difference between the two lands country of origin. Nevertheless, our research cannot was 22.1 in Germany’s favor, whereas the difference yet establish a clear causal connection between these between the two with respect to the total stock of FDIs explanatory factors and the observed differences in was 15.8 in France’s favor (cf. Table 1). Furthermore, internationalization strategies. these relative discrepancies in internationalization strategies have been accentuated during the first decade of the 21st century. German firms increasingly Which strategy: Exportation or foreign prefer exportation strategies more than French firms, whereas the latter increasingly prefer FDI strategies direct investment? more than German firms. Exportation and foreign direct investments (henceforth, How to explain these differences in internationalization FDIs) are different, but not mutually exclusive, ways strategies with respect to exportation? for firms to stake out a presence on foreign markets. Multinational corporations, in particular, do not usually The first explanation of the low level of exports by adopt the one to the detriment of the other. Nonetheless, French firms is simply that France has fewer exporting the benefits and costs of these two strategies are firms: 11% of German firms do so as compared with different in nature (LEMAIRE 2013). only 4% of French firms (Direction Générale du Trésor 2009a). The dearth of exporters in France — approxi- mately 100,000 here as compared with 350,000 in Germany — is closely related to the lack of “large” (1) This article has been translated from French by Noal Mellott small and medium-sized firms in France. Size has (Omaha Beach, France). a positive effect on both the propensity to export and

12 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 Average FDI Total FDI Exports 2010 Exports 2000 outward stock outward stock 2010 1995-2004

French firms 25.5% 28.8% 59.1% 13.0%

German firms 47.6% 33.4% 43.3% 10.6%

Percentage point difference -22.1 -4.6 15.8 2.4 (France-Germany)

Sources: Authors’ calculations using data from the European Commission (2014) on exports and from UNCTAD (2012) on FDIs.

Table 1: Exports of goods and services and the total stock of foreign direct investments as a percent of GDP. the volume of exports, as several studies have shown their headquarters in France as compared with ten in (MITTELSTAEDT et al. 2003, LU & BEAMISH 2001). Germany (UNCTAD 2013).(2) Whereas France lacks In 2007, France counted 4,900 middle-tiers firms as middle-tiers firms compared with Germany, it has more compared with 8,800 in Germany; and the gross sales big multinationals. of its middle-tier businesses were twofold less than their German equivalents (DANIEL & PICO 2012). As a proportion of total jobs (domestic and foreign), the Furthermore, fewer small and medium-sized firms are share of jobs in the foreign affiliates of the French multi- exporters in France than in Germany: 42% of firms with nationals retained in UNCTAD’s ranking was, in 2012, from 100 to 249 wage-earners do not export, compared higher than for the German multinationals: 63% vs. with only 17% of German business of the same size 58% (UNCTAD 2013). In that year, total employment in (DIRECTION GÉNÉRALE DU TRÉSOR 2009b). the German economy amounted to 41.5 million persons Pierre-André BUIGUES and Denis LACOSTE as compared with only 28.2 million in France; but the This explanation seems insufficient however, since big French multinationals had more employees outside France and Germany continued diverging with respect the country than did the German ones: 1.36 million vs. to exportation from 2000 to 2010, even though the 1.29 million (respectively, 5.6% vs. 3.1%). structural characteristics of industry in the two lands We obtain a different perspective on the internationali- had not fundamentally changed. By placing data on zation of these big French and German multinationals exports alongside data on FDIs, we notice that the latter by turning from the share of jobs in foreign affiliates to are much higher for French than for German firms. sales outside the domestic market (both exports from Might French firms have simply deserted their homeland the homeland and the sales made by foreign affiliates) because, in their opinion, it is no longer competitive? in relation to total sales. In 2012, sales outside the The annual increase in wages between 2000 and 2010 homeland by German multinationals amounted to was 2.7% in France compared with a moderate 1.1% in 72% compared with 68% for French multinationals Germany (COHEN & BUIGUES 2014). Might France’s (cf. Table 2). low level of exports not be explained, above all, by We thus observe major differences in the internationali- the decision of big French multinationals to manufac- zation strategies of big French and German multinatio- ture abroad and to scale back production at French nals. The French ones have preferred FDI, thus limiting locations because the costs there are less competitive? exports from plants in France. In contrast, German This explanation is convincing given the increase in multinationals are less inclined to set up operations the stock of French FDIs compared with German FDIs outside the country; and as a consequence, a larger during the period when the relative weight of French share of their exports comes from plants in Germany. exports was decreasing. Foreign direct investments, more than exports, are (2) mostly a matter for big corporations; and France In France: Renault, ÉdF, Engie, Veolia, Total, France Télécom, Vivendi, Schneider, Sanofi, Pernod-Ricard, Saint-Gobain, La- has more multinationals than Germany. Out of the farge, EADS and Carrefour. In Germany: VW, Mercedes, BMW, hundred biggest nonfinancial multinationals (classified E.ON, RWE, Deutsche Post, Deutsche Telecom, Siemens, BASF by foreign assets) in the world in 2012, fourteen had and Linde.

Ratio of employment in foreign Ratio of sales outside the homeland subsidiaries to total employment to total sales

French multinationals 63% 68%

German multinationals 58% 72%

Percentage point difference 5 -4 (France-Germany)

Source: Authors’ calculations using data from UNCTAD (2013) about the top 100 multinationals.

Table 2: Jobs and sales outside the country of origin in the biggest French and German multinationals (2012).

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 13 These findings about the biggest multinational firms markets of larger countries in order, on the one hand, corroborate macroeconomic data on the weight of to reduce fixed installation costs and, on the other, exportation strategies in Germany and of FDIs in France to reap economies of scale. The relative production (Table 1). French multinationals, unlike their German cost at foreign plants in the case of a horizontal FDI counterparts, have definitely preferred setting up opera- compared with the cost of importing products from the tions outside the country, to the detriment of produc- multinational’s country of origin apparently depends on: tion in, and exports from, the homeland. The probable sales costs, transportation costs, trade barriers (such explanation for this is the decreasing cost competitive- as custom duties) and the economies of scale to be ness of production sites in France, as compared with made thanks to plants in the foreign land. Germany. Vertical multinationals seek to take advantage of To illustrate these differences between French and international differences in the cost or quality of various German firms, it is worthwhile analyzing a firm from factors during each phase of the value chain. They each land in the same branch of the economy. Table 3 thus specialize their plants in each country on a given presents data on two automakers. When foreign sales stage of the production process. Optimally locating are used to measure internationalization, Volkswagen various business activities is a key issue for the outstrips Renault. When shifting the focus to jobs in multinationals that increasingly segment the value foreign affiliates however, Renault turns out to be more chain (COLOVIC & MAYRHOFER 2011). Opting for internationalized than Volkswagen. For a lower propor- this strategy is not new. In the late 1990s, Ford located tion of sales abroad, Renault produces more outside the operations as a function of characteristics in the host country. This is clear evidence that the French automa- country (MUCCHIELLI 1998). The most technology- IN QUEST OF A THEORY A OF QUEST IN ker counts less on domestic production and, therefore, intensive activities (motor parts) were located in on exports than its German counterpart. Leamington (England) and Cologne (Germany); and the least technology-intensive ones (final assembly, A question is still standing. As for operations set up upholstery), in Valencia (Spain). A good example of outside the country of origin, do these French and this vertical model comes from the German automakers German multinationals differ with respect to the choice who moved the production of certain parts to eastern of a type of FDI, horizontal or vertical? Let us now turn Europe while keeping much of the value chain in to this question. Germany. Vertical FDIs stimulate international transactions, Which FDI strategy: Horizontal, or unlike horizontal ones. Trade and FDIs are much more vertical? compatible when foreign investments are of a vertical type. The parent company’s productivity is a factor in the Markusen & Venables (1998), who introduced a typolo- decision to make a vertical FDI (HEAD & RIES 2001). gy of FDIs based on the strategies underlying decisions In this case, the main determinants of the location for setting up foreign subsidiaries, have distinguished of production units abroad are: unit labor costs in between horizontal FDIs, which create subsidiaries that the host country, the characteristics of its labor market produce goods identical to those manufactured by the and the level of qualifications and skills there. multinational in its country of origin, and vertical FDIs, The multinational firms that prefer FDIs of a vertical which set up operations abroad that are complementary type will, therefore, tend to import intermediate goods to the parent company’s activities. for assembly at their factories in the homeland. On the Horizontal multinationals set up abroad produc- contrary, those that prefer FDIs of a horizontal type tion processes similar to the parent company’s in import fewer intermediate goods but more finished the homeland. Markusen and Venables (1998) have products. As Table 4 shows, the share of intermediate emphasized that FDIs of a horizontal type reduce trade goods in total imports was, in 2011, lower in France flows. When a multinational sets up a subsidiary, local than in Germany. During the period 1994-2011, this production replaces exports. Accordingly, multinatio- share increased considerably in Germany while tending nals choose to make horizontal FDIs when exportation to be stable in France. This comparatively low degree costs are higher than the costs of setting up opera- of externalization to low-cost countries of the supply of tions abroad. They prefer this strategy for entering the intermediate goods might, for France, be the factor that

Ratio of employment in foreign Ratio of sales outside the homeland subsidiaries to total employment to total sales

Renault 58% 74%

Volkswagen 55% 81% Percentage point difference (Renault- +3 -7 Volkswagen) Source: Authors’ calculations using data from UNCTAD (2014) on the top 100 multinationals.

Table 3: The internationalization of Renault and Volkswagen (2013).

14 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 accounts for the difference in the competitiveness of its for final assembly, an activity retained more often in exports with Germany’s. Germany than in France. French automakers tend to make horizontal FDIs. 1994 2011 Foreign factories produce vehicles in full, a percentage France 46% 44% of them then being imported back in France. In contrast, German automakers import auto parts more than their Germany 47% 51% French counterparts; and German factories are still Percentage point more oriented toward the final assembly of vehicles for difference -1 -7 exportation. German FDIs tend, therefore, to be vertical. (France-Germany) German firms take advantage of international differences Source: Ministère de l’Économie et des Finances, 2012. derived from the cost or quality of labor during each Table 4: Share of intermediate goods in imported manufactured phase of the value chain for producing intermediate products (France and Germany, 1994 and 2011). goods and parts. Each foreign market where operations are set up is specialized in a specific type of intermediate Whereas French firms prefer setting up, in foreign product, and the German multinational tries to optimize markets, operations covering the whole value-added cost competitiveness and product quality. chain up to and including the finished product, German These internationalization strategies, whether firms still export from Germany while importing interme- horizontal or vertical, are not independent of the diate products. They have, as a consequence, moved strategy adopted for entering foreign markets. We abroad operations involving labor-intensive phases suppose that horizontal FDI strategies are better in the value chain (KINKEL & MALOCA 2010) while adapted for penetrating foreign markets through keeping inside the country the core activities for adding acquisitions whereas vertical FDI strategies are better value to the manufacturing process, namely: R&D, adapted to market entry through what has been Pierre-André BUIGUES and Denis LACOSTE engineering, assembly and marketing (SINN 2006). called greenfield investments. Acquisitions seem less What about the strategies of the biggest French and suited for producing abroad a single segment of the German multinationals? Do these firms prefer horizontal value-added chain. Can these suppositions be or vertical FDIs? Do their profiles differ? The automobile corroborated? industry illustrates, once again, the general differences between France and Germany with respect to the role assigned to homeland operations in the value chain. Which market entry strategy: French automakers are strongly inclined to import Greenfield investments or vehicles and export auto parts, whereas their German acquisitions? counterparts tend much more to import auto parts and export vehicles. As Table 5 shows, the importation of When a firm makes a direct investment to set up auto parts in 2011 represented a smaller percentage operations in a foreign country, it has to choose of total imports in France than in Germany. In turn, the between two possible investment strategies, exportation of vehicles represented a smaller percen- greenfields or acquisitions. tage of total exports from French than from German Greenfield investments, which create a new production automakers. unit from scratch, are a good way to expand into Differences in strategy clearly come into play. French foreign markets. This strategy’s principal advantage automakers tend to offshore production more than is that the parent company maintains full control over assembly. The factories moved abroad make vehicles operations. However a rather long time is required before the strategy becomes fully operational. for foreign markets and, too, target the domestic market in France. During the first decade of the 21st century, Mergers and acquisitions hold certain advantages Renault became a net importer of vehicles in France compared with the foregoing strategy, in particular a (BUIGUES et al. 2015). German automakers use forei- fast, easy access to new production capacities. Firms gn countries, in particular the new EU member states, tend to make acquisitions in sectors where there are to make parts that are then imported back into Germany several targets that can be bought out. Furthermore,

Exports Imports

France Germany France Germany

Auto parts 37% 25% 27% 41%

Vehicles 63% 75% 73% 59%

Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: Direction Générale des Douanes et des Droits Indigents (2012).

Table 5: Horizontal vs. vertical FDIs: French and German multinationals in the automobile industry (2011).

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 15 this strategy allows a firm to immediately expand its of governance and management, might work in favor of market share and reinforce its position on the market. greenfields instead of mergers and acquisitions. In the case of an acquisition, the cultural shock between the Hennart (1982) was one of the first scholars to have German firm and the thus acquired foreign company analyzed the factors that weigh on the choice between might jeopardize the Rhenish model. these two modes of foreign market entry. Among the Japanese multinationals trying to enter the Comparisons between the foreign market entry American market, those with a slight competitive strategies of German and French firms are telling. advantage relied on acquisitions, whereas those with Between 2011 and 2013, German firms heavily made a strong competitive advantage preferred greenfields greenfield investments: more than €56 billion per year (HENNART & PARK 1993). Consonant with these compared with but €36 billion for French firms. The findings, a relation has been shown to exist between reverse can be observed for mergers and acquisitions. R&D and the mode of market entry (CHANG & French multinationals invested more in acquisitions ROSENZWEIG 2001). A firm’s commitment to R&D than did the Germans: €12.1 billion per year vs. only is an important factor in the choice between these €9.4 billion (See Table 6). two market entry modes. In technology-intensive sectors, firms with a competitive advantage generally The competitive advantage of German firms — in prefer greenfields, since they have what it takes to particular their high level of differentiation, their develop in house the requisite capacities. On the other position on the high end of their markets and their hand, firms that are not R&D-intensive might want to high level of spending on R&D — provide, in our acquire technological skills through acquisitions. opinion, a possible explanation of their preference for

IN QUEST OF A THEORY A OF QUEST IN greenfield investments over mergers and acquisitions. Acquisitions usually cost more than internal This confirms the findings of previously cited studies development, owing to the financial premiums as (HENNART & PARK 1993, CHANG & ROSENZWEIG well as the costs of transactions and integration 2001). (LEE & LIEBERMAN 2010). They also seem riskier than greenfields. An acquisition requires more funds In contrast, French firms launch bigger operations up front, whereas a greenfield can be gradual. During than their German counterparts. The average amount implementation, acquisitions often run up against for an acquisition was $26.5 million compared with cultural differences; and expected economies of scale $20.3 million for German firms. For greenfields, are not easy to achieve. the respective averages were $44.5 million and $41.2 million. This difference might be set down to the Finally, a firm’s in-house “culture” is an important factor. French firms’ propensity to pursue horizontal opera- Some firms have a culture favorable to greenfields; tions, which, by nature, cover a larger span of the value others, to acquisitions. Whether the firm adheres to chain than the vertical operations preferred by German an “Anglo-American” or a “continental” culture weighs firms. on this choice (BUIGUES & LACOSTE 2011). In the former, the approach adopted by stockholders is more financial than industrial, and such firms tend toward Conclusion mergers and acquisitions rather than greenfields, which require a long-term strategy. French multinationals In the effort to contribute to the literature on corporate where Anglo-American shareholders carry weight tend strategies for penetrating foreign markets, this article to adopt merger-and-acquisition strategies. has compared the practices of firms from two European lands (France and Germany) and tried to explain the Indeed, firms and their executives are “imbued by differences thus observed. Since most earlier studies a cultural socialization that has shaped their way of have treated Europe like a single unit (MAYRHOFER perceiving reality, and of thinking and acting according 2004), it is worthwhile assessing how the characteris- to this perception” (BARMEYER & MAYHOFER tics of specific European countries weigh on the choices 2007:15). German firms, for example, value joint made by their firms. This France/Germany comparison, management; and wage-earners must be won over to globally but also among big firms, has brought to light strategic objectives. This form of management pushes considerable differences in strategic choices. for a high level of standardization of work processes. These characteristics of Rhenish capitalism, of its mode Besides setting in a clear light two disparate models

Value of reenfield investments Value of mergers and acquisitions outside the country outside the country

French firms $35.9 billion $12.1 billion

German firms $56.3 billion $9.4 billion

Difference France-Germany -$20.4 billion +$2.7 billion

Source: Authors’ calculations using data from UNCTAD (2014). NB: A three-year period (2011-2013) has been used to limit possible distortions due to any given year.

Table 6: Foreign investments of French and German firms:Greenfields vs. mergers & acquisitions verage(A value, 2011-2013).

16 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 of internationalization strategies, this comparative by German multinationals in spending on R&D and analysis of the international strategies of firms from innovation. Germany and France has mentioned explanatory Consequently, French and German firms pursue factors. However the suggested explanations are, at different models of internationalization. This article does this point, but hypotheses for further research. They not claim to present an exhaustive list of the explana- await corroboration: the strong cost competitiveness tory factors, nor to establish a direct relation between of production sites in Germany compared with plants these two models of internationalization strategies and in France; the position of German multinationals at the economic performance. It is yet to be proven whether high end of their markets; their high level of spending these differences stem from domestic conditions (the on R&D in comparison with French multinationals; and costs of labor or capital, the institutional and cultural cultural and institutional factors. Let us review the major environments) or from the general strategic position. aspects that set these two models apart. Although average profitability is lower for French than First of all, French firms prefer FDIs more than German German firms, this is not so for the French and German firms, which tend toward exportation. France has more multinationals in the UNCTAD sample. In 2012, the big multinationals than Germany, and its multinationals margin in relation to sales was 5.6% for these French have gradually moved production plants outside the multinationals vs. 3.9% for the German ones. country. In contrast, the big German groups still give Beyond its input to theory-building in the academic a strategic place to plants in Germany and still export literature, this article shows that managers must, when massively from the homeland. Had French multina- analyzing competition or drafting a strategy, better tionals adopted internationalization strategies similar understand how a competitor’s decisions are rooted to the German ones, France would have improved its in the context of his country of origin if they want to balance of trade. How to account for this difference in anticipate his strategic movements. strategies? It has, we suppose, to do with the conditions of production in the homeland (the unfavorable trend This research has limitations that should be pointed in total labor costs in France compared with Germany) out. First of all, it focuses on exports and foreign Pierre-André BUIGUES and Denis LACOSTE and, too, with the positioning of products on the market investments, and thus overlooks more cooperative (French firms at the lower or middle range of the forms of development (franchises, alliances, etc.). In market compared with the upscale products of German effect, data on these entry modes are not available at firms). The erosion of France’s balance of trade might, the country level. Secondly, the use of global data therefore, be mainly due to a lack of competitiveness does not enable us to eliminate the hypothesis of plants inside France, even though the performance that specialization by sector in the two countries of big French multinationals is comparable with that of under study has affected the choices made — even their German counterparts. though the sectoral distribution of the French and German multinationals ranked among the top 100 by Secondly, when they move operations outside the UNCTAD is comparable. All the German firms and homeland, German firms rely, more than French firms, 60% of the French firms come from five branches of on a vertical segmentation of the value chain. They the economy: the automobile industry; energy and keep creative activities (e.g., their massive investments utilities; telecommunications; electric and electronic in R&D) and, above all, final assembly in the homeland. products; and the chemical and pharmaceutical That is what the big German automobile firms have industry. Finally, although possibilities for explaining done. On the contrary, French multinationals prefer national characteristics have been suggested herein, FDIs of a horizontal type, evidence of this being the they do not take into account all dimensions of each importation into France (to satisfy domestic demand) of nation’s context. Nor do they allow us to build a model the vehicles made by Renault in Romania, Turkey or of how these dimensions are related to the choices Spain. These differences in international strategies fit made. It would be worthwhile brining national, cultural into global strategies that also differ. Made-in-Germany factors into the proposed model; model-builing, though is still a reference mark, both qualitatively (brand complicated, is an important line of inquiry for further imagery, objective quality) and quantitatively (the research. volume of exports stimulated by the location of plants in Germany). This accounts for the German firms’ determination to not choose horizontal FDIs but to take References advantage of international differences in the cost or quality of labor so as to produce intermediate parts and BARMEYER (C.) & MAYRHOFER (U.), “Culture et products abroad. relations de pouvoir: Une analyse longitudinale du groupe EADS”, Gérer et comprendre, 88, pp. 4-20, 2007. Finally, German multinationals, much more than their www.annales.org/gc/2007/gc88-06-07/barmeyer.pdf French counterparts, make foreign investments through internal growth (greenfields). 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GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 17 Comprendre, 119, pp. 62-72, 2015. internationalization process of the firm: A model of knowledge development and increasing foreign market CHANG (S.J.) & ROSENZWEIG (P.M.), “The choice commitment”, Journal of International Business Studies, of entry mode in sequential foreign direct investment”, 8, pp. 23-32, 1977. Strategic Management Journal, 22(8), pp. 747-776, 2001. KINKEL (S.) & MALOCA (S.), “Localisations indus- trielles: les entreprises redécouvrent les vertus du ‘made COHEN (E.) & BUIGUES (P.A.), Le Décrochage indus- in Germany’”, Regards sur l’économie allemande, 95, triel (Paris: Fayard, 2014). pp. 5-14, 2010. COLOVIC (A.) & MAYRHOFER (U.), “Les stratégies de KOGUT (B.) & ZANDER (U.), “Knowledge of the localisation des firmes multinationales: une analyse du secteur automobile”, Revue française de gestion, 104, firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational pp. 151-165, 2008. corporation”, Journal of International Business Studies, 24, pp. 625-645, 1993. COLOVIC (A.) & MAYRHOFER (U.), “La reconfigura- tion de l’espace mondial et les stratégies de localisation KRUGMAN (P.), “Increasing returns and econom- des firmes multinationales”, Management international, ic geography”, Journal of Political Economy, 99, 16(1), pp. 11-19, 2011. pp. 483-499, 1991. DANIEL (L.) & PICO (L.), “Vers une stratégie de LA PORTA (R.), LOPEZ de SILANES (F.), réindustrialisation?” in the special issue Réindustrialiser SHLEIFER (A.) & VISHNY (R.W.), “Law and finance”, la France? of Sociétal, 76, pp. 51-61, 2012. Journal of Political Economy, 106, pp. 1113-1154, 1998. IN QUEST OF A THEORY A OF QUEST IN Direction Générale du Trésor et de la Politique LEE (G.K.) & LIEBERMAN (M.B.), “Acquisition vs. Économique, “L’appareil exportateur français: une réali- internal development as modes of market entry”, té plurielle”, Trésor-Eco, 54, 8 pages, 2009a. Strategic Management Journal, 31, pp. 140-158, 2010. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_ Direction Générale du Trésor et de la Politique id=1921434&rec=1&srcabs=473721&alg=7&pos=3 Économique, “Spécialisations à l’exportation de la France et de l’Allemagne: similitude ou divergence?”, LEMAIRE (J.P.), Stratégies d’internationalisation (Paris: Trésor-Eco, 68, 8 pages, 2009b. Dunod, 2013). Direction Générale des Douanes et des Droits Indirects, LI (J.) & YUE (D.R.), “Market size, legal institutions, and “Des stratégies automobiles différentes en France et international diversification strategies: Implications for en Allemagne”, Le Chiffre du commerce extérieur, 30, the performance of multinational firms”, Management April, 2012. International Review, 48(6), pp. 667-688, 2008. DUNNING (J.H.), Explaining International Production LU (J.W.) & BEAMISH (P.W.), “The internationalization (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988). and performance of SMEs”, Strategic Management Journal, 22(6-7), pp. 565-586, 2001. ELANGO (B.) & SETHI (S.P.), “An exploration of the relationship between country of origin (COE) and MARKUSEN (J.R.) & VENABLES (A.J.), “Multinational the internationalization-performance paradigm”, firms and the new trade theory”,Journal of International Management International Review, 47, pp. 369-392, Economics, 46(2), pp. 183-203, 1998. 2007. MAYRHOFER (U.), “International market entry: Does EUROPEAN COMMISSION, “Statistical annex to the home country affect entry-mode decisions?”, European economy”, Autumn, 2014. Journal of International Marketing, 12(4), pp. 71-96, 2004. GRANT (R.M.), JAMMINE (A.P.) & THOMAS (H.), “Diversity, diversification, and profitability among British MEIER (O.) & MESCHI (P.X.), “Approche intégrée ou manufacturing companies, 1972-84”, Academy of partielle de l’internationalisation des firmes: les modèles Management Journal, 31(4), pp. 771-801, 1988. Uppsala (1997 et 2009) face à l’approche ‘International New Ventures’ et aux théories de la firme”,Management HEAD (K.) & RIES (J.), “Overseas investment and international, 15(1), pp. 11-18 , 2010. firm exports”, Review of International Economics, 9(1), pp. 108-122 , 2001. MINISTÈRE DE L’ÉCONOMIE ET DES FINANCES, “Les importations de biens intermédiaires, facteur de HENNART (J.F.), A Theory of Multinational Enterprise compétititivé?”, Études et Éclairages, 33, July 2012. (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1982). Available at lekiosque.finances.gouv.fr/fichiers/Etudes/ HENNART (J.F.) & PARK (Y.R.), “Greenfield vs. tableaux/EE_33.pdf acquisition: The strategy of Japanese investors in the MITTELSTAEDT (J.D.), HARBEN (G.) & WARD (W.A.), United States”, Management Science, 39(9), 1993, “How small is too small? Firm size as a barrier to export- pp. 1054-1070. ing from the United States”, Journal of Small Business JOHANSON (J.) & VAHLNE (J.E.), “The Management, 41(1), pp. 68-84, 2003.

18 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 MORSCHETT (D.), SCHRAMM-KLEIN (H.) & VERNON (R.), “International investment and interna- SWOBODA (B.), “Decades of research on market entry tional trade in the product cycle”, Quarterly Journal of modes: What do we really know about external anteced- Economics, 80, pp. 190-207, 1966. ents of entry mode choice?”, Journal of International WAN (P.W.) & HOSKISSON (R.E.), “Home country Management, 16(1), pp. 60-77, 2010. environments, corporate diversification strategies, and MUCCHIELLI (J.L.), Multinationales et mondialisation firm performance”, Academy of Management Journal, (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1998). 46(1), pp. 27-45, 2003. SINN (H.W.), “The pathological export boom and the WILLIAMSON (O.E.), Markets and Hierarchy: Analysis bazaar effect: How to solve the German puzzle”, The and Antitrust Implications (New York: Free Press, 1975). World Economy, 29(9), pp. 1157-1175, 2006. Available ZAHRA (S.A.), IRELAND (R.D.) & HITT (M.A.), at “International expansion by new venture firms: http://www.cesifo-group.de/portal/page/portal/ International diversity, mode of market entry, techno- DocBase_Content/WP/WP-CESifo_Working_Papers/ logical learning, and performance”, Academy of wp-cesifo-2006/wp-cesifo-2006-04/cesifo1_wp1708. Management Journal, 43(5), pp. 925-950, 2000. pdf STEVENS (C.E.) & DYKES (B.), “The home country cultural determinants of firms’ foreign market entry timing strategies”, Long Range Planning, 46, pp. 387-410, 2013. UNCTAD, World Investment Report (New York & Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2012, 2013 & 2014). These annual

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GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 19 The Gribeauval system, or the issue of standardization in the 18th century

Héloïse BERKOWITZ and Hervé DUMEZ (i3-CRG, École Polytechnique, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay)

[French version: September 2016 - n°125]

From the Revolution to the Napoleonic Empire, French armies had the upper hand in Europe —

OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER mainly owing to the standardization of the artillery at the end of the 18th century by Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval (1715-1789), an officer and engineer. This standardization of the caliber of canons and the design of carriages (wheels and axles) presupposed techniques of produc- tion and measurement, and implied training artillery officers in the basic and applied sciences. Everything had to change at once: military doctrine, industry and techniques. Like the Querelle des Bouffons in opera, this highly controversial shift sparked a major controversy during the last years of the monarchy: the so-called Quarrel of the Reds and Blues, with reference to the color of gunners’ uniforms before and after the reorganization of the artillery. Initially backed by the king, Gribeauval fell out of favor but was then reinstated and conducted his reform successfully. A presentation of this first big battle of industrial standardization in its historical context…

etween 20 September 1792, the date of the for standardization in contemporary industry. This is Battle of Valmy (which amounted to an artillery not a matter of coincidence. The artillery is required to duel that ended with the Prussian army beating have sometimes contradictory and often incompatible Ba retreat) and 18 June 1815, the date of the Battle of characteristics: to be robust, powerful, precise, stable, Waterloo (which put an end to the First Empire), the simple for use and upkeep, light and fast — all of this, Revolutionary and then Napoleonic French armies of course, at a low cost. The army resignedly accepted dominated the European military stage.(1) This suprema- for a long time a “more or less felicitous compromise” cy came from their mobility, which astounded enemies. between these contradictory requirements — a The most spectacular instance was the swing toward compromise resulting from a “roughhewn price quote Germany in August 1805 of the Grande Armée, which, that depends on the moral, social, intellectual, technical stationed in Boulogne, had initially been instructed to and economic conditions at any given moment” embark for England. Advances took place so swiftly that (CHALMIN 1968:466). How was this approach the general commanding the Russian army, Kutuzov, overhauled? How did the Gribeauval system develop? on whose support his Austrian allies were counting, How was it put into application? The major quarrels thought that the French were still along the English about standardization are not merely technical and Channel while they had just hemmed in the Austrian industrial but also, as we shall see, political and social army in Ulm. The French army owed this mobility and owing to their implications. (1) its considerable firepower to its artillery. The French artillery had been designed and standardized in the waning years of the monarchy (1) The authors would like to thank the participants of the AEGIS under what has been called the Gribeauval system. This writing workshop of 8 April 2016, who helped them improve this system is probably the archetype of all the big battles text, which has been translated from French by Noal Mellott (Omaha Beach, France).

20 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 The military controversy was threatening to split the French army in two. Nonetheless, in his posthumous Mes rêveries (1757: Invented in the 14th century, artillery had the function book I, chapter 7), Maurice de Saxe stated his preference of demolishing the ramparts around medieval towns for an army exclusively equipped with 16-pounder or defending them during a siege. Problems of cannons drawn by oxen. These beasts of burden, he standardization arose from the start. Each foundry wrote, could be put out to pasture more easily than felt it fully mastered the best techniques and tried to horses and, when food was scarce, could be slaughtered make innovations without giving thought, apart from so that famished soldiers would have something to the ambition to outstrip them, to what its competitors eat. We might at least conclude that he apparently were doing. Consequently, the cannon parts were not did not set store on the speed for moving troops! comparable with each other: carriages, bores, the caissons containing cannonballs and gunpowder, etc. Meanwhile, Frederick II, who did not like siege warfare — everything depended on the mill that had made and had little talent for it, was clearly orienting the them. Each cannon (or nearly) had its own projectiles. Prussian army toward maneuver warfare. Prompted by This was an especially acute problem for the armies this example, some pundits in France also called for a of Charles V, their equipment reflecting the diversity of “light and manageable” artillery “always in movement” the Holy Roman Empire. The cannons from Austrian, (CHALMIN 1968:487). Spanish or Flemish foundries were not at all compatible In the mid-18th century, two schools of thought stood with each other. The first attempt at standardization at odds. This standoff — technical, political and indus- was to codify calibers so as to reduce the number of trial — sparked a quarrel. This controversy, violent in them. words, foreshadowed the battles of standardization in Héloïse BERKOWITZ and Hervé DUMEZ Héloïse BERKOWITZ and Hervé DUMEZ The purpose of artillery changed during the reign of modern industry (CORBEL 2005). Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II, 1594-1632) of Sweden. Upending current tactics, this king was the first to use light, mobile guns grouped in batteries. Cavalry could Before Gribeauval thus be sheltered from attacks by the enemy infantry On 7 October 1732, Louis XV signed a royal order for a and held in reserve for launching a potentially decisive much needed reorganization of the artillery. It instituted, offensive. French generals (such as Gassion, assistant under the influence of one of the best artillery officers at to the young Condé) managed to gradually introduce the time, Jean-Florent de Vallière, what has been called the Swedish king’s ideas in the French armies. the “Vallière system”. To put an end to the anarchy in Nevertheless, wars at the end of the 17th century, in calibers, only guns firing projectiles of 24, 16, 12, 8 and particular those conducted by Louis XIV, remained tradi- 4 pounds would be made in France. tional. Armies moved slowly over routes, which could This step was important but not decisive, since no not be used all winter long and could barely be used account was taken of the choice between destructive in the summer during bad weather, before reaching a firepower and mobility. All artillery guns, even those of city to besiege and then moving on to the next. This lighter weight, were still long and, as a consequence, sort of warfare was still being waged at the start of the heavy. They were made for sieges, for attrition rather 18th century. A distinction was made between “batte- than maneuver warfare. For a 4-pounder Vallière ry guns” (the heavy cannons used for sieges) and cannon, the barrel’s length equaled 26 times the “field guns for a Swedish-type campaign”. Technically, caliber, in comparison with a ratio of 17 for a Swedish- these two types of cannons were quite different and type cannon. The weights were 1,150 pounds for the were not at all handled alike. On the battlefield, the first and 600 pounds for the second. The variance for Swedish-type of artillery had to be positioned with regard artillery of a Vallière type was much too large for regular to the infantry and cavalry, whereas the heavy cannons windage (i.e., the difference between the diameters of served only during sieges. It should be pointed out the cannonball and of the bore). Therefore, the firing that the heavy cannons were 16- or even 20-pounders, range and precision were not optimal. Furthermore, only the numbers indicating the projectile’s weight in the sizes of calibers had been fixed. Everything else, French pounds.(2) in particular the carriages, still varied from province to The actions of one of the greatest generals, the province. In fact, Vallière refused to have any changes Marshal of Saxony, illustrated this hesitation. Count made to the carriages. Maurice’s brilliant campaign in 1745 started with the capture of Tournai with the help of siege artillery. A In late 1754, the minister of Warfare, Marc-Pierre de little more than a month later, the Battle of Fontenoy Voyer de Paulmy, Count of Argenson, learned that was won because batteries (Swedish-type artillery) Frederick II had decided to adopt a light cannon for the were quickly redeployed to curb an English attack that Prussian army — barely one hundred times the weight of its projectile. Although Franco-Prussian relations were not all that cordial, Frederick II accepted, probably as a token of goodwill, for France to send an envoy. He said he would place at the French officer’s disposal all requested information. The officer that the crown chose (2) Since the French pound, 489.5 g, weighed more than the En- to send was Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval. glish pound, 453.6 g., an English cannonball of 16 pounds was Coming from the minor nobility and having a humble not compatible with a 16-pounder French cannon; and vice-versa. financial situation, Gribeauval had been oriented

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 21 toward the artillery, since he had neither the means nor field warfare actions. But ignorance, pride or jealousy the contacts that would have opened the way toward always interferes — the devil himself. We cannot joining the infantry or cavalry. Gribeauval arrived in change that like changing clothes. It costs too much, Berlin on 20 May 1755. Upon returning to Paris, he and there’s too much danger if we are not sure of submitted to the king a report critical of the Prussian success” (quoted in HENNEBERT 1896:36). equipment. The king asked for proof. Gribeauval, the only person capable of giving it, was thus introduced to Louis XV. The Gribeauval reform The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) broke out a year Gribeauval decided to take on the devil’s own job: he later. Aware of her army’s weak points, Maria Theresa launched a sweeping reform. His starting point was of Austria, allied with France, asked Louis XV to send to differentiate between siege and garrison artillery, engineers trained in siege warfare. Since the time of coastal, naval and field artillery. For field artillery, a Vauban, French engineers were known to be the best system was to be designed allowing for mobility and in this field. heavy firepower — which, at the time, seemed contra- Appointed Oberstfeldwachtmeister of the imperial dictory. To make a lighter cannon without reducing armies, Gribeauval, 43 years old, conducted his first its projectile’s weight, the simplest solution was to siege, the town of Neisse/Nysa (now on the German- shorten the barrel. So the decision was made that the Polish border). Within a few months, he became the barrel’s length would equal 18 calibers, i.e., 18 times specialist of this type of combat in the Austrian army and the cannonball’s diameter. The Prussians had settled won fame at Schweidnitz/Swidnica, which he had been on a ratio of 15, but Gribeauval held firm: 18 was assigned to defend. The Prussian king would spend better for the gun’s solidity. Time would tell that he was months taking back this town, which the Austrians had right: some of the cannons made during the reign of OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER captured in a few days. Frederick II was piqued, as he Louis XV would still be part of the Grande Armée’s stated in a letter: “A certain Griboval [sic], who is full of equipment. himself, and ten thousand Austrians have stopped us With a shortened barrel however, a cannon could up till now” (quoted in NARDIN 1982:83). He was so not shoot as accurately nor as far. It was agreed to vexed that he refused, at first, to meet Austrian officers maintain a range of 500 toises (about one kilometer, after the town fell, but he then changed his mind and one toise being approximately six feet). To avoid fire even invited them to his table. This battle created a dispersion, cannonballs had to be perfectly spherical, considerable stir in Europe: a French officer had stood and the variance between the diameters of the ball and up for several months to the Prussian king personally in of the bore had to be kept small. A major industrial and command of the siege. Following this event, this officer technical problem cropped up. found himself in a sensitive position. The Empress wanted to keep him in her army and awarded him the Gribeauval turned to Johann Maritz from Berne. This Maria Theresa Order, a very rare distinction for a forei- founder of Swiss origin proposed a revolutionary gner; but Louis XV definitely wanted him to return to method. Till then, cannons had been cast in a mold his homeland. Gribeauval finally decided to go back to with a core inserted to create the hollow area corres- France. ponding to the bore. Once the cannon was cast, the core was taken out; and the hollowed out space was Drawing lessons from the war, Count Étienne-François reamed so that the bore would be as even as possible de Choiseul, secretary of state for War (but, in fact, inside. In contrast with this core casting, Maritz — and quasi prime minister) proposed a reform of the army this was his strong point — cast a cannon as a solid to Louis XV. His diagnosis was clear: France thought piece and then bored a hole in it afterwards. He even it had the best artillery in Europe. This fixed idea might claimed to have made a perfectly even bore down to a still be true for siege artillery, he told the king, but it millimeter. He invented a brand-new machine for this no longer held for field artillery. Modernizing the army feat. was imperative. To do so, Choiseul proposed appoin- ting Gribeauval while keeping Vallière as the nominal The problem still hanging was to improve the roundness officeholder. of projectiles so that shorter (and therefore lighter) cannons could be made with a firing range and a This would be a sound decision, since the prince precision equal to traditional ones, which were longer of Liechtenstein had already reformed the Austrian and, therefore, heavier. The first guns made under this artillery, which had proved to be the best in Europe new system seemed satisfactory. during the war. Gribeauval knew the ins and outs of the reform adopted by Austria. Having analyzed its In late April 1764, Choiseul ordered Gribeauval to test weak points, he thought he could fix them by making a and compare the new and old cannons in Strasbourg. system even better than the Austrian one: “This artillery As he full well knew, many in the artillery corps firmly has a big effect in battles owing to the large number [of opposed the new system. Everything was to be very pieces]. It has advantages over France’s artillery, which carefully organized. In particular, several opponents has its own advantages over it. An enlightened man, of Gribeauval would sit on the committee in charge of without passion, familiar with the details and creditwor- writing the report. All the officers at the garrison were thy enough to go straight to the good solution, would asked to attend the demonstration. The test was tightly take from these two artilleries what could be used to designed. Two rows were erected of wooden posts make one artillery that would be decisive in nearly all spaced approximately sixty feet apart. Each cannon’s

22 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 firing range would be measured accurately along with Oddly enough, the royal order for reforming the artillery fire dispersion. was never published. This was rare but not exceptio- nal. Expecting lively opposition from the army, political A report was forwarded in August to the minister. There authorities tried to avoid rocking the boat while retaining was little difference in the firing range between the the possibility of reversing course if need be. light and heavy pieces: from 5% to 10% depending on conditions. By elevating the angle half a degree for The new system also implied reforming how the armies the lighter cannons, they had a range equivalent to the operated. Till then, gunners formed a separate corps. heavier pieces. Fire dispersion did not amount to much. In the field, they slept in the artillery camp with their An extreme test was ten run on the cannons: firing nine equipment. During combat, they were on temporary hundred shots in a row, conditions resembling actual assignment with the infantry. There was no specializa- warfare. Might the lighter cannons not overheat much tion: a detachment might operate a 4-pounder one day faster than the heavier ones? The test proved that this and a 16-pounder the next. Now, each detachment was did not happen. specialized in a type of artillery and made responsible Gribeauval thus demonstrated that the new cannons for the cannon and its maintenance. The detachment were as efficient as those from the Vallière system could stay with the infantry unit where it was assigned. of 1732, but they were much lighter and easier to Knowing that it would (logically) be necessary to have maneuver. He reckoned that only the 12-, 8- and the gunners mount horses, Gribeauval expected 4-pounders should be retained,(3) the 3-pounder being an outcry. He settled on proposing that they ride in too inefficient. The 16-pounder cannons, too heavy, carriages, a solution adopted in Germany. But Choiseul would be kept in reserve for eventual use against put this decision on hold. To signal that the reform fortifications that withstood attack. But they would not marked a turning point, gunners would now wear blue Héloïse BERKOWITZ and Hervé DUMEZ accompany the army during campaigns, since the instead of red uniforms. 12-pounders were more than adequate to breach the From an industrial perspective, the new system could usual fortifications. work only if standardization were complete. Previously, Gribeauval did not hold still at this point. For the lighter each province used its own system of measurement, cannons to yield a decisive advantage on the battle- whence variances in calibers. Gribeauval imposed on field, the whole system had to be redesigned (ROSEN everyone the so-called Châtelet toise. Standardized 1975). copper measuring rods were distributed in all arsenals. No one had ever before worked under conditions When a cannon was in firing position while being sharing this degree of precision. Controls upon delivery transported, its weight was unevenly distributed. The were now systematic. They were facilitated by ongoing Austrian solution for the carriages was adopted: the improvements in the instruments invented for the task, barrel had a different position for transportation and such as the callipers that, by measuring the bore with for firing. However many technical improvements went unprecedented precision, would help reduce windage far beyond what the Austrians had imagined. Wooden (PEAUCELLE 2005:60). “Now — something not imagi- axles on cannons were replaced with iron ones. A nable previously — a rim made in Auxonne could be screw replaced the wood peg that, pushed in at variable fully adjusted to a hub made in Strasbourg or Metz!”, lengths, regulated the angular height. A compartment exclaimed du Coudray, a captain who appreciated the was added to the carriage for balls and powder; once interchangeability of parts (NARDIN 1982). positioned, a cannon could thus be fired without having to wait for the caisson carrying munitions. Besides, the Costs were expected to explode. But nothing of the sort caissons were lighter, and all vehicles now had much happened. On the contrary and to everyone’s surprise, sturdier steel axles. Two standardized sizes were set standardization with such a high level of precision came for the wheels of carriages, caissons, forges, etc. Since at a relatively moderate price — owing to economies of axles might break, the decision was made to equip scale and the learning curve. artillery units in the field with forges. The equipment was designed so that a cannon could be released from the team drawing it without having to unharness the horses; this considerably saved time when setting up A technical controversy and political a battery. about-face Besides his excellent work in the foundry, Maritz was a remarkable mechanic. He advised Gribeauval on Vallière was succeeded by his son as director-general all points in the new system. Although the report by of the artillery. The son had a book by his father, who Gribeauval to Choiseul was improved with additions had died a few years earlier, published in 1768. He till 1789, it was not substantially altered. The whole added an appendix of his own to it: “Reflections on the Gribeauval system was ready in 1764. Once imple- principles of artillery”. Therein, he reiterated the usual mented, it would stay pat till the French Revolution criticisms: light artillery pieces had a shorter range, and (NAULET 2002). their fire was less accurate. Besides, they overheated too fast; and the reduced windage prevented firing (3) Demonstration of the firing of an 8-pounder cannon of the red-hot projectiles. This was true: a cannonball dilated Gribeauval system on by heat could no longer be loaded in a barrel more https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx2IQViUmkc. precisely calibrated to the ball’s diameter (whence the

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 23 invention of the howitzer). In conclusion, the system name-calling between “Reds” and “Blues”, the from 1732 should be preserved, since it had proven “fashionable” and “old whigs”! To make the quarrel itself, especially with respect to mobility. resound, Saint-Auban started publishing articles in the Journal militaire et politique. According to the editor, This first criticism of the reform of the artillery under “There is more than the presumption that, had (as is the Choiseul and Gribeauval opened a floodgate for what custom) he asked the ministers for permission to make would appear in several memoirs — usually published public his remarks against adopting the new system, in London or Amsterdam to elude censorship. Doubt the examination of the manuscript would have been was cast on the Strasbourg test, which Saint-Auban, sent to his opponents and he would thus have been one of Gribeauval’s most vehement opponents, forbidden to express his opinion freely. Instead, the described as a set of “mysterious operations covered editors and censors of the learnèd journals of physics, in a darkness inscrutable to any human eye that was not thought to be timid or accommodating” (quoted in encyclopedists and others have found nothing in M. de NARDIN 1982:168). Recall that Choiseul had taken Saint-Auban’s writings that could prevent the printing the precaution of putting opponents of Gribeauval on thereof” (quoted in NARDIN 1982:286-287). the committee and that the tests were performed in This dispute impassioned public opinion, even though it the presence of all officers at the garrison, who were understood next to nothing about the topic. Meanwhile, mustered for the demonstration. In these memoirs, any since 1752 and the performance in Paris of La Serva old claim could be made: the new guns were less sturdy Padrona [The Servant Turned Mistress], the country and less accurate than the older ones; the carriages was shaken by the quarrel between supporters of were too fragile; gunners’ specialization in given types French opera, descended from Lully and Rameau, and of cannon was a regression compared with their former of Italian opera, revolutionized by Pergolesi (FABIANO versatility, which had proven useful on the battlefield; the 2005, KINTZLER 2011). These quarrels extended

OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER screw for adjusting the angular height became clogged beyond a narrow circle of experts and drew enthusias- with soot and wore out; promoting noncommissioned tic attention of all strata of the population. Given that officers to the rank of officer of artillery madethem explicitly political debates were forbidden under the arrogant and incompetent; and so forth. Above all, monarchy in the mid-18th century, they instituted what the cost of Gribeauval’s full reform alarmed financial Jürgen Habermas (1988) has called the public sphere, services, which would urge decision-makers to review in preparations for free, open debate, as would happen their position. during the French Revolution. The debate flared, and authorities felt it necessary to A complication: while reforming the artillery, Gribeauval organize a new demonstration. The test conducted in had tried, in addition, to have the guns used by the Douai on 12 July 1771 showed that heavy cannons infantry replaced (PEAUCELLE 2005). Once again, the had a range 15% longer than light ones but that fire new muskets (Model 1777) would give an advantage to dispersion was the same for both. The lighter cannons French armies during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic also had twice the recoil of heavier ones. The test was wars. However Gribeauval’s opponents used a shady made to add more gunpowder in an effort to increase affair concerning the previous generation of muskets to the range of the light pieces, but to no avail. In some stain his reputation. Gribeauval fell into disgrace. cases, the range was even shorter. This finding should have come as no surprise, since Bernard Forest de Belidor, professor of mathematics and artillery, had Gribeauval’s comeback: The peak of proven a few years earlier that the optimum range was attained using a dose of gunpowder equal to a third of his career the cannonball’s weight. Following the Douai demons- The eclipse did not last long. Emmanuel-Armand de tration, Louis XV began having doubts. He decided Vignerot du Plessis-Richelieu, Duke of Aiguillon, was to fall back on the former system. The symbol of this appointed minister. Though favorable to Gribeauval, he revesal: gunners would keep their old uniforms. knew he would have to play it tight. How to reverse, The only voice speaking up for the new system once again, the king’s opinion? He cleverly put together came from Philippe Tronson du Coudray, the scantly a committee of four Marshals of France who had 32-year-old captain of the work crew. Coudray, commanded an army in Germany: Richelieu, Contades, whom Gribeauval had appointed, circulated several Soubise and Broglie. The selection was unquestionable: pamphlets in favor of his mentor’s system and against these men had gained the most experience in recent the about-face. Besides, what to do with the equipment wars, during which they had won fame and used the acquired over the previous seven years? The stock of equipment in question. But the selection was not neutral: projectiles and new guns would have to be modified Aiguillon knew that these officers had experience for the sake of compatibility with the old equipment with lighter pieces of artillery and preferred them. that would be redeployed. The circumference could Vallière (the son) and Gribeauval expounded their be reduced, it was imagined… but Coudray explained ideas before this prestigious group. As Aiguillon how dangerous this was, given the friability of the expected, the Marshals unanimously sided with cannonballs. Gribeauval. The Academy of Sciences joined the fray. Buffon, After a stroke of hard luck — Louis XV died on who liked to claim to be expert in metallurgy, emitted 10 May 1774, and Aiguillon was dismissed — an opinion. Coudray refuted him. The fray involved Louis XVI chose as replacement de Mouy, who was in

24 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 favor of Gribeauval. The royal order of 3 October 1774 was blocked because transportation was in the hands adopting the Gribeauval system even foresaw that of private operators instead of the army. The risk of a promotions for gunners would be made on the basis dispute was too high, and the ministry of War under of their qualifications (through a vote by those in the Ségur (as under Choiseul previously) backed down. rank above them). This provision — utterly contrary to The French Revolution would make this additional step what existed in the infantry or cavalry, which nobles forward in 1791. dominated — vouchsafed the artillery corps’s techni- cal competence. When, in July 1789, noble officers For twenty years, Gribeauval introduced the first major emigrated, thus disorganizing the army, they were system of industrial standardization in history, even usually replaced with artillery officers selected for their though we cannot explain exactly how, with no previous qualifications alone. Among them would be a young experience, he achieved such a colossal task: “the Corsican from the minor nobility… realization and use of construction tables required a constant effort that continued till into 1789. They had to The quarrel smouldered in memoirs and pamphlets, be made for all parts and materials: cannons, munitions, until it burned out for want of combatants: Vallière died; caissons, carts, field forges, carriages, axle units, and authorities forced Saint-Auban, the staunchest drays, etc., as well as the tools and devices used for all opponent of the Gribeauval system, to hold his peace. sorts of control and verification (lunettes, callipers, etc.). Du Coudray had to leave the country. Above all, the There were, too, the drawings of the special machines new system’s 4-pounder cannons proved effective for boring, reaming or cutting bolts. Related regulations, during the difficult campaign in Corsica in 1769, when just as useful, set the sizes of the semifinished products Noël Jourda, the Count of Vaux, heavily relied on them. to be used, such as pieces of iron (flat or square), sheet

Gribeauval could now try to fully deploy his system, in metal, bars (round or rectangular), wooden parts,… Héloïse BERKOWITZ and Hervé DUMEZ spite of the financial situation, which would deteriorate the tools for artillery: drill bits, screw taps, tappers, due to the support that France was lending to the etc. Each of these tools bore a standardized mark, American insurgents. It is worth mentioning Philippe a crowned ‘A’ (Royal Artillery Corps) followed by two Henri de Ségur, minister of War, who made a decision letters indicating the origin (MA for Maubeuge, SE for that would play a part in triggering the French Revolution: Saint-Étienne, etc.)” (NARDIN 1982:340). To improve a royal order of 22 May 1781 required that nobles have on these parts and materials and foster ongoing innova- proof of four quarters of nobility in order to become tions, Gribeauval supported setting up a special shop military officers. This decision eliminated the sons of the for designing prototypes in Saint-Étienne. bourgeoisie and of Nobles of the Robe from the king’s service. The discontent it sparked would burn on. All the same, this minister let the artillery to Gribeauval, since Epilogue it had, it was believed, attained a degree of efficiency We expect that Gribeauval would have been promoted such that no major reform was required. A royal order Marshal, but he did not meet the requirement of four of 3 November 1776, written under Gribeauval’s supervision, enabled him to deploy his system. By the quarters of nobility set by Ségur. He was not among 1780s, it was in place. A last step was to finalize the the eleven Marshals of France appointed in June 1783. new Gomer mortars, which would be used during all the He died on 9 May 1789, as the Estates-General was Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. meeting. He did not, therefore, witness his system’s triumph on Europe’s battlefields. Gribeauval then devoted all his energy to training officers and gunners.(4) Engineering theory was to be taught: mathematics, the physics of metal and wood, Taking stock of the Gribeauval system metallurgy, mechanics, smelting, draftsmanship, topography and lessons about military campaigns. It is worthwhile reviewing several points in this The practical part of course work (three days a week) system. involved learning how to form batteries, maneuver, The first, not all that important, has to do with the manipulate munitions and artillery pieces, and fire controversy about what Gribeauval himself actually cannons. contributed to his system. From the start of the quarrel, As for industry, Gribeauval helped Ignace de Wendel Saint-Auban accused him of not having invented his and William Wilkinson set up in Le Creusot an ironworks system, of having borrowed nearly all his ideas from with a forge for casting cannons using coke as fuel. He the Austrians and Prussians. After all, Gribeauval had engaged in a last battle for a reform: Frederick II had probably come upon the forecarriages with big wheels, created mounted artillery units a few years earlier. The the long shafts (which made it possible to pull the cavalry was capable of capturing a position, such as a cannons while trotting or even galloping, and not just hilltop, but unable to keep it long enough for the infantry at a walking pace), the iron axles, the copper pads for to arrive. Setting up an artillery battery in such a position the hubs, etc. in a publication dating from 1722, a book would be a tactic useful for withstanding a counterattack. he did not mention by a certain Camus: Des forces Austria had adopted this tactic, and it was impossible to mouvantes. Oddly enough, English-speaking historians imagine that France should not do so. But the situation have rekindled this controversy by claiming that the famous Gribeauval system was but the Liechtenstein (4) École Polytechnique is the Revolutionary heir of the Gribeauval (i.e., Austrian) system (MACLENNAN 2003). The artillery schools. question seems insignificant. After all, the superiority

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 25 of the French artillery and, therefore, of the Gribeauval The Strasbourg test had a rigorous methodology. system was repeatedly demonstrated on battlefields Measurements were accurate, owing to the posts during the French Revolution and under Napoleon. staked sixty feet apart. Furthermore, the cannons were tested under an extreme condition: continuous firing, Two more important points have to do with standardi- which raised the temperature of the barrels. Choiseul zation itself. fully understood that this technical demonstration had First of all, the originality and strength of Gribeauval’s a political dimension. For one thing, he made sure to approach was, unmistakably, that it was systemic. appoint to the official committee avowed opponents of Gribeauval introduced, for the first time in history, a the new system. For another, he tried to reach out, at standardized industrial system. This required inventing least indirectly, to a broader public by authorizing all the more accurate measuring instruments, setting up officers at the garrison to attend. workshops capable of designing prototypes, devising The second test at Douai, though intended to be purely methods of production capable of achieving the requisite technical, was — as everyone knew — political. It level of quality, and instituting systems of control to induced Louis XV to make an about-face, in a return make sure that all production sites had the same to the Vallière system. But the demonstration proved level of quality and produced exactly the components unsatisfactory for technical reasons. Either the persons required. Given this systemic approach, everything had who conducted it were not familiar with the technical to change at the same time in the political, industrial, and scientific discoveries made by Belidor; or else they military, scientific and social spheres. willfully ignored them. Although the decision to be made As for industry, this precise, detailed standardization fit into a political context, it had to be as rigorous as boosted the integrated manufactories that implemented possible scientifically. serial production with tight quality controls. Complaining The third test, organized by Aiguillon, was highly political. OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER about this, manufacturers called for higher prices. The final users — the Marshals of France who had As for education, schools had to be founded or reformed taken part in the last major war (with Prussia) — were entrusted with conducting it. They heard both parties, to provide the best possible scientific and technical Vallière’s son and Gribeauval; and then expressed training to the persons who would be using the new an opinion. Politically, it was hard to challenge their equipment on the battlefield. expertise, even though, from the start, everyone knew As for the army, warfare had changed. Till then, it they supported a Swedish-type of artillery. mainly consisted of laying siege to fortifications; Let us bear in mind that this quarrel concerned military but now it required mobility and firepower, with, as a equipment. The level of technical uncertainty is very consequence, the carnage under the Revolution and high, since military equipment is actually tested only in the Empire, the first slaughtering fields of modern a real-life situation — on the battlefield. For this reason, times. This trend entailed an organizational change: military officers usually prefer limited conflicts, which the artillery, an autonomous corps during siege allow them to form a clear idea about the performance warfare, was now integrated with other army corps for of the material at their disposal. The occasion for testing maneuvers, even though its differences, owing to the the Gribeauval system arose during the limited war skills and qualifications required, persisted. conducted in Corsica, when the Count of Vaux made As for science, prototypes were tested, and the heavy use of the new 4-pounder cannons. This settled science behind the working of metals came under the quarrel in the most convincing of ways. discussion. As for the political and social spheres, the need for Conclusion expertise cast doubt on the monarchy, precisely: on the very foundation of an aristocratic society, namely the Beyond the history of industry during the 19th century, principle that the nobility was the only group capable on the far side of the history of politics, much of assuming military offices. Although the emigration of of what would occur between 1792 and 1815 noble officers as of July 1789 disorganized the French — the establishment of democracy against the army in the short run, it ultimately made room for aristocracy and the growing power of expertise in deserving talents. Young officers who were not nobles democratic society — was played out during the often but had been trained in artillery schools soon took the overlooked battle for the standardization of artillery. places left vacant by the émigrés. They would form the This battle was conducted by a man who imagined a brilliant staff of French armies during the Revolutionary system, who took interest in any inventions that could and Napoleonic periods. be incorporated in it, who set off “bunches” (to borrow from Schumpeter) of innovations, who managed to Secondly, another lesson to draw from the Gribeauval install the system over a twenty-year period, during reform is that battles of standardization are both the reigns of two kings, and who did all this in spite of technical and political, the two dimensions overlapping. political setbacks and the repeated appointment of new Given the uncertainty that prevails when they are ministers. pitched, these battles are not purely technical. This falls in line with science studies of scientific controversies (LATOUR 1989, CALLON et al. 2001). The three tests run for settling the quarrel make this point.

26 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 References LATOUR, Bruno, La science en action. Introduction à la sociologie des sciences (Paris: La Découverte, 1989). CALLON, Michel, LASCOUMES, Pierre & BARTHE, Yannick, Agir dans un monde incertain (Paris: Seuil, MACLENNAN, Ken, “Liechtenstein and Gribeauval: 2001). ‘Artillery revolution’ in political and cultural context”, War in History, 10(3), pp. 249-264, 2003. CHALMIN, Pierre, “La Querelle des Bleus et des Rouges dans l’artillerie française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle”, Revue NARDIN, Pierre, “Gribeauval, lieutenant général des armées du Roy (1715-1789)”, Les cahiers de la d’histoire économique et sociale, 46(4), pp. 465-505, Fondation pour les études de Défense nationale, 24, 1968. 1982. CORBEL, Pascal, “Edison contre Westinghouse: la NAULET, Frédéric, L’Artillerie française (1665-1765). première bataille moderne pour un standard industriel”, Naissance d’une arme (Paris: Economica, 2002). Gérer et Comprendre, 82, pp. 70-77, December 2005. PEAUCELLE, Jean-Louis, “Du concept d’interchangea- FABIANO, Andrea, La “Querelle des Bouffons” dans la bilité à sa réalisation: le fusil des XVIIIe et XIXe siècles”, vie culturelle française du XVIIIe siècle (Paris: CNRS Gérer et Comprendre, 80, pp. 58-75, June 2005. Éditions, 2005). ROSEN, Howard, “Le système Gribeauval et la guerre HABERMAS, Jürgen, L’espace public: archéologie de moderne”, Revue historique des armées, 1-2, pp. 29-36, la publicité comme dimension constitutive de la société 1975. bourgeoise (Paris: Payot, 1988). SAXE, Maurice de, Mes rêveries. Ouvrage posthume HENNEBERT, Eugène, Gribeauval, lieutenant général Héloïse BERKOWITZ and Hervé DUMEZ de Maurice comte de Saxe, duc de Curlande et de des armées du Roy (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1896). Sémigalle, maréchal général des armées de Sa Majesté KINTZLER, Catherine, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Très-Chrétienne: augmenté d’une histoire abrégée splendeur et naufrage de l’esthétique du plaisir à l’âge de sa vie, de différentes pièces qui y ont rapport, par classique (Paris: Minerve, 2011). monsieur l’abbé Pérau, 1757.

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 27 When innovation implied corporate reform: A historical perspective through the writings of Walther Rathenau

Blanche SEGRESTIN, Professor (CGS, Mines ParisTech, PSL Research University)

[French version: September 2016 - n°125]

OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER The work of Walther Rathenau (1867-1922), the head of Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG) and a minister in the early days of the Weimar Republic, casts a historical light on the ideas that intellectuals and corporate executives in the 1910s had about the modern firm and its social responsibilities. For Rathenau, the modern firm stands out owing not to its size but to its capacity for collective innovation. Seeing this capacity as the grounds for new responsibilities, he proposed institutionalizing a form of governance that would articulate the firm’s private status with its finality as a community of interest. Now that corporate social responsibility is being discussed in terms ranging from voluntary ethics to a utilitarian approach, reading Rathenau leads us to understand that history could have carried this concept in a different direction: perspectives open for the future…

alk about corporate social responsibility is beco- (ACQUIER & GOND 2007, BOWEN 1953). Referring ming more earnest as firms grow and have a to corporate leaders as “quasi-public servants”, global reach. Given the ecological disequili- George Walbridge Perkins, a director at US Steel Tbria caused by corporate activities, some pundits have Corporation and then Harvester International, wrote denied that business can voluntarily take account of in 1908 (p. 393): “Many of our corporations, being of social and environmental preoccupations (CRANE comparatively recent origin, have, at the outset, been et al. 2014, FLEMING & JONES 2013, KARNAN 2011). managed by men who were previously in business, As a private party pursuing its own interests, a firm in some form or another, for themselves; and it has might, of course, pay heed to stakeholders when doing been very difficult for such men to change their point of so stimulates its growth. But is it able to actually take view, to cease from looking at questions from the sole into account social preoccupations that do not serve its standpoint of personal gain and personal advantage, interests or might even disserve them? and to take the broader view of looking at them from the These questions are not new, as history shows standpoint of the community-of-interest principle.” Such (ACQUIER & AGGERI 2009, MARENS 2008). talk has often been interpreted as a legitimation of firms The paternity of the concept of corporate social (HEALD 1957 &1961), an interpretation that is partially responsibility is usually attributed to Howard Bowen’s reductionist. book published in 1953. (ACQUIER & GOND 2007). Let us, herein, look back on the origins of corporate Questions about social responsibility arose, it has social responsibility by setting our sights on Walther been attested, from the birth of big firms and modern Rathenau (1867-1922), one of the few corporate management at the start of the 20th century. Modern directors at the time who put his conception of the firm managers did not just “rationalize” operations; they and of its social responsibilities in writing. The thoughts purposed to be progressist. Corporate leaders of this author, who was both a captain of industry and frequently drew attention to their responsibilities and a minister during the Weimar Republic, had a the services of public interest rendered by their firms resounding echo during his lifetime. In Germany, more

28 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 than 65,000 copies of his book, Von kommenden Rathenau’s life and dazzling career and of the lukewarm Dingen, were sold during the year of publication in reception given to his ideas. A reinterpretation of his 1918; and an English translation came out in 1921. writings will then be proposed that insists on innova- Rathenau was “the most read and passionately tion. It will be shown how his analysis led to a critique discussed German author” at the time (KESSLER of economic theories and to proposals for reforms that 1933:179). Berle and Means quoted from this book would link corporate autonomy to the aforementioned in the conclusion of their well-known The Modern community-of-interest principle. Corporation and Private Property, published in 1932, in order to suggest that a firm might serve not only its owners or shareholders but also society as a whole. Walther Rathenau (1867-1922), Blanche SEGRESTIN Nevertheless, Rathenau has had few disciples. Given the current “crisis” of corporate social responsibility, it “A man with his contrary” is worthwhile looking back on his contribution, since it Walther Rathenau’s life was hardly ordinary. We might opens toward another understanding of the firm’s social say it was threefold: he was an industrialist, politician responsibility. and essayist — the links among the three not always For one thing, Rathenau, writing while radical being evident. changes were taking place in German industry, based corporate responsibilities on an analysis of the From childhood to chairman of AEG firm as such. Once it had caught up with England, Walther Rathenau was the son of Emil Rathenau, Germany experienced a period of unprecedented AEG’s well-known founder. Emil started his education growth during the second half of the 19th century. In as an apprentice in a farm machinery factory inherited particular, the iron and steal, chemical and machine by his grandfather. He then worked in building, and tool industries transformed, within a few decades, even more designing, machinery for the purpose of a country achieving unification. In the early days of systematizing mass production at the lowest cost. the 20th century, much thought was being devoted After having bought Edison’s patent, he founded to big firms. Recent studies have shed light on both Deutsche Edison Gesellschaft, which would become the influence of Taylorists and the drive toward Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG). Faced rationalization in Germany (NYLAND et al. 2014), in with the mighty Siemens, AEG cleverly staked out particular the acceptance of rationalization, including its position in electricity, a state-of-the-art science at by labor unions, who saw this process as a way to the time, by inventing techniques for systematically make their factories more competitive (REHFELDT designing machines. By playing a part in the country’s 1988). Rathenau showed, however, that the modern rapid electrification, AEG soon became the biggest firm is not to be reduced to this process. For him, what electricity company in Germany (RIEDLER 1916). characterized manufacturing firms at the start of the 20th century was their exceptional capacity for making Emil’s son, Walther, had a formal education in collective innovations: precisely because of their power electrochemical engineering, the only field of electricity to undertake social and economic transformations, in which AEG was wanting. In 1889, Walter defended, firms had new responsibilities to assume. in Berlin, a dissertation in physics on the absorption of light by metals. This marks the start of his career in For another, Rathenau stands out owing to his this field of engineering. He soon filed several patents proposals. He did not expect firms to spontaneously on the electrolysis of alkanes. His discoveries were place their power for making transformations at the apparently significant enough for him to be asked service of society; yet he did not propose assigning to present them to Emperor Wilhelm II. He founded them new obligations. The scope of transformations Electrochemische Werke, an AEG subsidiary, where he implied, in his opinion, redefining the corporation was broken in as a young top executive, before joining and changing the principles underlying corporate AEG’s board in 1899. He proved his mettle by piloting government. In the world they have created, firms several projects, such as having the group’s factories should, according to Rathenau, no longer be classi- rebuilt with the help of R. Behrens, a well-known fied as private persons. Nor should the economy be Bauhaus architect. Walther Rathenau successfully interpreted as a set of players interacting via the headed electrochemical plants in Austria and Germany, markets. These models needed to be overhauled including the one in Bitterfeld. After his father withdrew along with the corporation’s legal status and statutes. from business, he was in charge of AEG. However he Our rereading of Rathenau will enlighten us about quickly moved into the chairmanship of the supervisory how intellectuals and corporate leaders conceived of board and busied himself with public relations. He the modern firm at its birth and of its social responsi- devoted efforts to several other companies. On the bilities.(1) Questions will be raised about the history, as eve of World War I, he was sitting on the boards of usually recounted, of corporate social responsibility. 86 companies in Germany, and of 21 outside the This article opens with a quick presentation of Walther country! Walther Rathenau is better known for his other careers as essayist and politician. Put in charge of the Raw (1) This article has come out of a research program on the theory of the firm, which was supported by the Collège des Bernardins in Materials Department during WW I, he organized and Paris. It has been translated from French by Noal Mellott (Omaha coordinated supply chains. He also headed a company Beach, France). that produced substitutes for raw materials in many

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 29 fields. After the war, he sided with the Weimar Republic, “man with his contrary”: “At first, he was ignored. Then, and became minister of Reconstruction in 1921, then when he went on, in the ‘Critique of the Present Time’ minister of Foreign Affairs in 1922. He adopted certain and ‘Mechanics of the Spirit’, publishing his thoughts, positions, in particular his support for reaching an murmurs were heard, voicing the annoyance of seeing agreement with Russia, that were strongly criticized. A the member of eighty boards of directors still busy Jew, he was assassinated by the far right in 1922. writing books. This businessman preaching about the birth of the soul was considered ridiculous; this rich man A thinker pondering industrial transformations attacking luxury was an embarrassment” (KESSLER 1933:116). Rathenau’s principal legacy is his analysis of the transformations wrought by industrialization. But were Rathenau’s careers as an industrialist The concepts he molded in his writings have been and essayist all that contradictory? After all, his frequently borrowed in various fields. Keynes, the position as a corporate leader in a world in the economist, referred to Rathenau’s concept of the throes of change induced him, I would like to show, to “autonomy of firms” in a lecture in Berlin in 1926 propose an original interpretation of industrialization. (GELTER 2010). He also mentioned Rathenau when Mechanization and rationalization were not, in and of discussing the difference in corporate management themselves, vectors of servitude, impoverishment or between Germany and the United States: the power social violence. Instead, Rathenau saw them as bearing of managers tended to be feared in the United States an unparalleled potential for progress and a source of given the dispersion of shareholders, whereas the promises of social advancement. Consequently, a new power of controlling shareholders in Germany led system of thought and a new type of organization were Rathenau to criticize their eventual interference in required. management. Berle and Means (1932) also cited This formed the core of his writings, which were,

OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER Rathenau in their conclusion. as we understand, not well received, even less so Jurists have seen in Rathenau the harbinger of given that the translations of them (when they exist) are a conception of the firm that came under earnest often problem-ridden. His landmark, Von kommenden discussion in Germany during the 1920s and 1930s. Dingen, on which I have relied, was soon translated and His idea of the “enterprise as such [Unternehmen an widely commented. Although the German title means sich]” presents the firm not as a node of contracts but “the things to come” or, even better, “things still unknown” as a given entity pursuing its own finalities. or “things to imagine”, the title of the English translation is In Days to Come, which evokes a prediction. As for Rathenau has also been seen as a promoter of the title in French, Où va le monde? [Where is the world economic planning or “organized capitalism” going/headed?], it suggests another, perhaps more (SVENSON 1961, REHFELDT 1990). critical or polemical, connotation. Before presenting Rathenau’s ideas, a few points A controversial essayist of methodology and a few precautions are worth The various elaborations made in the course of mentioning. the 20th century on Rathenau’s writings in law, economics and management have had difficulty I have not consulted Rathenau’s complete writings, grasping this author’s thoughts. There are several mainly because they are not, to the best of explanations of this. my knowledge, all available in translation. In particular, I have not consulted the earlier Zur Mechanik First of all, Rathenau’s essays were very controversial. des Geistes (1913) to which Rathenau made many a For instance, in an opuscule on business and c reference. It seems to have given rise to a quid pro quo orporate law (RATHENAU 1917), he decried since “mechanics of the mind” refers to the creative shareholders’ inability to take part in managing modern spirit/genius, but the full title continues with Vom Reich firms and pointed out the contradictions between der Seele, “the realm of the soul”. However several their legal empowerment and their usual incompetence. other texts are available (KESSLER 1933, RATHENAU He also criticized the lawyers, courts and journalists 1913, 1917, 1918, 1921a & 1921b), and Létourneau who, failing to understand the watershed in economics, (1995) has provided an exhaustive bibliography. In too often exhorted corporate executives to follow French, La Triple Révolution (RATHENAU 1921b) or even anticipate what the general assemblies of brings together three essays that, to my knowledge, shareholders decided without any regard for the make no mention of the word “revolution”: Die neue consequences on the firm. In other writings, he was Wirtschaft (1918), Die neue Gesellschaft (1919) less on the offensive, but leaves the impression that he and Der neue Staat (1919). Thanks to colleagues,(2) was a utopian or even a mystic. access was obtained to Rathenau’s untranslated Vom When he wrote Von kommenden Dingen in 1917, Aktienwesen. Eine geschäftliche Betrachtung (1917), Europe was at war; and Rathenau was striving to build which might be rendered as “On the role of joint stock the future. Critics thus thought they saw enormous companies: Commercial considerations”. I have also contradictions between, on the one hand, his position relied on several studies (BUENSTORF & MURMANN as a partisan of industry and rationalization and, on the other hand, his social views and political commitments. (2) I cannot thank enough Regina Bornfeld, Guillemette de Contemporaries described him as a very paradoxical Courtivon and Pascal Le Masson for their patient, qualified help in figure. His biographer, Count Kessler, said he was like a deciphering Rathenau’s original 1917 text.

30 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 2005, GELTER 2011, KESSLER 1933; LÉTOURNEAU realistic imagination, the force of decision […]. It is not 1995, McGAUGHEY 2015 & TEUBNER 1985). surprising that the German language does not have a word to refer to this synthesis, this set of forces. I have Insofar as possible, I have compared different versions chosen the phrase ‘art of affairs’ based on the former of Rathenau’s texts and tried, if need be, to resort to the meaning of the word ‘affair’ [Geschäft], which comes meaning of the original terms in German. References from ‘create’ [Schaffen]” (RATHENAU 1919:327-328). are made to the (unpaginated) translations in French or English available on line, but page numbers refer to the original in German. Mechanization, its potential and risks

Mechanization thus had special significance. It was Blanche SEGRESTIN the defining feature of the modern era, but did not “Mechanization”, the defining feature refer just to a mechanized, routinized or rationalized of the modern world world. Quite to the contrary, Rathenau (1918:29) wrote about the “creative frontier where we are [auf der Schöpfungsgrenze, auf der wir stehen]” since the era Management, or the “art of creating”? of mechanization was, in fact, a period when collective A key concept in Rathenau’s essays is mekanisierung, action became able to change the face of the world. It translated as “mechanization” in the English version is, we might say, the era of what is man-made, as we or “machinism” in Kessler (1933). It is ambivalent. In enter a universe “created” by man. Kessler’s words, mankind is imprisoned in a world Several writers at the time thought that policies of “mechanized from top to bottom and amalgamated in innovation were a source of new responsibilities an iron organization by material interests”. Accordingly, for leaders (HATCHUEL 2016, SEGRESTIN 2016). Rathenau was seeking to augment freedom in the business world. My interpretation is quite different. According to Fayol (1917), leaders, facing the unknown, had to foresee contingencies and provide Owing to his experiences as an entrepreneur and for the cohesion of society. For Perkins (1908:394) too, executive in firms, Rathenau saw the 20th century the responsibility of corporate executives was future- as marked by technological changes. Considerable oriented: “The foresight, the planning ahead, the putting progress had been made in science and technolo- the house in order for the storms of the future, are the gy, and in the power to control things in nature and true measure of the best and highest stewardship, establish new infrastructures. All this was changing as well as of the highest order of managerial ability.” the face of the world. For management, this implied the capacity to imagine the future, to make things till Rathenau dwelled on the responsibility of leaders less then unknown happen. Rathenau conceived, therefore, than on the overall organization of the economy. Liberal of the firm’s function in terms of creativity. The word economics had made mechanization possible but, “create” in its various forms (creation, creative, creator, too, had left it up to the game of competing interests. creating, etc., in German: schöpfung, schaffen, etc.) Instead of reducing poverty, mechanization tended to crops up 179 times in the 360 pages of Von kommen- worsen inequality. What was to be reformed was not so den Dingen. Rathenau made recurrent analogies with much the process of mechanization as the framework the world of art. This means that, although scientific in which it fit. and technological progress was indispensable, since it was the source of development, today’s knowledge did not suffice for creating tomorrow’s world:“Nowadays, Toward a revamping of economic science itself is starting to realize that its most perfec- theory ted material is for the human will what a good map is for a traveler […]. But a map cannot tell me which Rathenau was not an economist and did not stake out road is prescribed for me, the one toward which my a position as such in economics. As a manager heart and sense of duty attract me” (RATHENAU: however, he seemed to have measured the distance 1918:14). Science and knowledge were not, therefore, between corporations and economic theories. A theory sufficient. of modern firms as agents independent of each other and a conception of production or consumption as The firm was society’s organ for adventuring into the functions of the choices made by individuals seemed unknown, exploring new possibilities and pushing back to him thoroughly out of step with the issues. For this the bounds of what was known; and the managerial reason, he inveighed against classical liberal theories: function was fundamentally creative. Significantly, “An economic and social science is but applied ethics Rathenau came to the conclusion that the German […]; a state, an economy, a society deserve to vanish language lacked a word for this; so he proposed a when they mean only a state of equilibrium of interests derivative of the word “creation”: “What is specific to held in check, when they are only associations for all these men [those capable of governing: politicians production and consumption, armed or unarmed” and, too, organizers and entrepreneurs] is the faculty (Rathenau 1918:167). of envisioning what does not yet exist, of feeling that they are in communication with the organic world Take note that he also rejected socialism. For him, and of undergoing [its] deep influence, of intuitively abolishing property or profits was nonsense. To explain grasping and comparing incommensurable effects his conception of profit-making, he asked: what if the and motives, of making the future emerge in their own state has a certain amount of money to invest in the minds. What characterizes their forms of action is the general interest? If it has to choose between several

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 31 development programs for different groups, what choice the firm, thus “depersonalized”, should be devoted to should it make? For Rathenau, it was not necessary a creativity useful for society. While retaining a private to want to make a choice. Instead, ask each program status, it should pursue a specifically public finality. to replenish the resources it consumes — to make a profit — so that the program is carried out while allowing Shareholder foundations: A community of interests for the realization of other programs. This is the true These proposals were not all that unrealistic; for function of profits: the firm needs to make a profit to Rathenau mentioned shareholder foundations. By replenish its resources and pursue its — useful — work. ceding their shares to a foundation, the partners in a This leads to the idea that property entails responsibility: business would be effectively “depersonalizing” the “the owner’s arbitrariness [must be] replaced with firm. They could assign the foundation its mission responsibility.” As Acquier and Gond (2007) have through its statutes. Rathenau probably had in mind pointed out, this idea was widespread at the turn of certain pioneering experiences in Germany, where the century, even among businessmen. It was highly shareholders had ceded their shares to a foundation for tinted with religion (BOWEN 1953). According to the purpose of ensuring through “impersonal property” Rathenau (1918:167), “the world is […] an association (the only means of doing so) an orientation and stability of creators [Schaffender]; whoever wastes work, (ABBE 1896). The Carl Zeiss Foundation was exempla- worktime or the means of work steals from the group. ry in this respect (See the boxed insert), but it was not Consumption is not a private matter: it is a matter for the only example. the group, for the state, for morals, for humanity.” For managers, setting up a foundation is a way to However the intent was not to orient the individual’s behavior through ethics or religion.

The deeper purpose was to revamp the theoretical The Carl Zeiss Foundation OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER grounds on which the modern firm had been built. The economy was not seen as a network of individual, Since the end of the 19th century, the firm Carl Zeiss, individualistic actors. Rathenau seems to beckon us to an international leader in optics and optoelectronics, has give thought to concepts such as “communal economy”, experimented with a quite original form of governance: where actors create a world in common and where the the shareholder foundation, of which there are several examples in Germany and Scandinavia (GOYDER 1951). responsibility for things to come (Von kommenden Dingen) is assumed. In 1846, Carl Zeiss set up a workshop of optical instruments. He soon recruited a physicist, Ernst Abbe, to help understand the distortion of images and produce Toward new statutes for firms microscopes. This was one of the first companies to have installed a system of management “by science” (BUENSTORF & MURMANN 2005). After Zeiss died The issue of the firm’s autonomy in 1888, Abbe was the senior partner in the company. According to Rathenau, firms are hemmed in by a set of In 1896, he set up a foundation and endowed it with all institutional arrangements that no longer fit them. The shares in the firm. As the single shareholder, the Carl Zeiss legal framework, in particular shareholder corporations, Foundation is bound by the very precise principles that was set up to organize trade but is still in use. What this Abbe set down in a long constitution of 122 paragraphs. framework regulates — collective actions — no longer Under this constitution, the firm has an innovative has anything to do with its reason for being. Rathenau assignment with respect to a community of interests: wrote about a “substitution of contents [Substitution des Grundes]”: corporations are no longer associations of — “Cultivate the branches of precise technical industry, merchants involved in a joint venture. These sharehol- which have been introduced into Jena by the Optical Works and the Glass Works” and thus guarantee the economic ders no longer manage the firm and are very often not security of wage-earners and serve “the scientific and even familiar with it. Their “shares” are, at best, a bet practical interest”; they have made on the state of health of a given branch — “Promote the general interests of the branches of precise of the economy. technical industry [… and] take part in organizations and measures designed for the public good of the working Rathenau (1918:141) called, therefore, for a thorough- population of Jena and its immediate neighborhood”; going reform of corporate governance, for “breaking — “Promote study in natural and mathematical sciences away from the convenience of liberal theories and both as regards research and teaching”. imagining institutions adapted to creation”. He set off a debate that the current of thought Unternhemen an This assignment carries implications for all levels of sich (“The firm as such”) would amplify during the management. For example, investments should not be 1920s (GELTER 2011). made as a function of profitability alone. Instead, they should contribute to the firm’s learning and long-term But what were the guidelines for this reform? viability by taking into account all dimensions, including Coherent with his view of profit-making, Rathenau the interest that wage-earners take in their work. The formulated two main proposals. First of all, the Foundation’s Council, which includes representatives firm should become “autonomous” by acquiring its of Saxe-Weimar and of the university, has the task of overseeing corporate management and seeing to it that own shares in equity. The need for capital was not management fulfills its assignment. so pressing that a firm could not rely on banks or foundations, or even, if need be, emit bonds. Secondly,

32 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 actually provide for the firm’s autonomy so that it and Means (1932), clearly understood the theoretical leads its life — like an artwork, which, once created, and institutional revolution suggested by Rathenau, his pursues its own existence independently of its maker ideas, in general, did not lead to concrete results; and (RATHENAU 1918:124). Rathenau thus considered the concept of corporate social responsibility ended up the firm to be a new type of institution. As private taking another road. Nevertheless, Rathenau pointed organizations pursuing a public purpose, firms had to out a major element in the way that managers in the be endowed with new structures so that mechaniza- early 20th century conceived of their firms. He also tion’s full potential could be realized. suggested an alternative way of understanding the firm’s social responsibility. A question remained to be settled for this “autonomous” Blanche SEGRESTIN firm, this private organization with a public interest: Rathenau clearly thought that a new social and indus- who would head the firm? How to understand the trial order was arising at the start of the 20th centu- function of leadership when shareholders are no longer ry. It was emerging neither out of a balance of power in control? nor owing to the growing size of corporations, even though this growth would entail a program of rationa- lization. For Rathenau, the modern world could not Creative government: The capacity for discussion be understood, nor oriented, without realizing the full For Rathenau, the “orientation of the world” should not import of “mechanization”, i.e., the capacity for collec- be left to the course of things, in particular the clash of tive actions to shape the world to the point of creating a individual interests. He argued against a government man-made universe. The modern era signaled, above by the people or by experts or even by the educated, all, the advent of an unparalleled capacity for innova- whose knowledge might turn out to be an impediment tion and collective creation. As a consequence, leaders to action. Leadership implies a creativity for forming a had a very strong responsibility for the world they were conception of the world to come, a capacity for shaping helping to create. and federating individuals’ actions into a productive collective action. Those who govern are in charge of Like other contemporaries, Rathenau did not think that making a projection of the world and defining its strate- firms should be likened to private parties pursuing their gic orientations. own interests. The classical economic theory about actors independent from each other was outdated. The Rathenau cited as example the political organiza- firm’s power to act should not be left to the free play of tion of the state. Parliament’s role in the political the market, nor to the contingency of the composition of system should not, in any case, be the same as the general assemblies of shareholders. Rathenau deemed government’s. Its function is not to make decisions it indispensable to reform the institutions of corporate but rather to serve as an “agency of consultation”. government. He considered the firm to be a private A parliament parleys [“Das Parlament redet”]. It is a institution, obviously, but one endowed with a finality place for debate; it is not an organ of representation. related to a community of interests. Consequently, he A parliament does not draw up political or strategic proposed drawing on concrete experiences to adapt orientations; instead, it debates them and makes them corporate governance. In particular, he suggested that public, disputes them and subjects them to sound, open the directors should guide the firm in line with the objec- criticism. tives related to this community of interests and under Rathenau thus suggested: a) setting an assignment a set of supervisory arrangements aligned with these related to the firm’s community of interests; b) naming objectives. directors capable of envisioning and organizing Given their power of innovation and their potential innovative collective actions; and c) submitting these impact on society, firms must be committed to programs plans for action to discussion in a council or “agency related to a “collective” interest. This reinterpretation of of consultation”. The firm’s leaders would be subject the grounds underlying the concept of corporate social to a form of democratic oversight, instead of a board responsibility is worthy of our full attention during this of directors. Their responsibility would no longer be a 21st century. matter for a code of professional conduct; nor would it be a strategic necessity for the firm’s development. It would be related, on the one hand, to the firm’s References assignment of general interest and, on the other, to the requirement to refer matters related to this interest to a ABBE (E.), Statute of the Carl Zeiss Stiftung in Jena, multiparty organ of supervision and discussion. translation of the revised version of the statutes of 1906 (Jena, DE: Carl Zeiss Stiftung, 1896). ACQUIER (A.) & AGGERI (F.), “Une généalogie de la Conclusion and perspectives pensée managériale sur la RSE”, Revue française de Rathenau’s writings were read and discussed in gestion, 180, pp. 131-157, 2009. Germany in the early 1920s. His views weighed on ACQUIER (A.L.) & GOND (J.P.), “Aux sources de la discussions for drafting the Weimar Constitution (1919) responsabilite sociale de l’entreprise: a la (re)decou- and for adopting the principles of wage-earner parti- verte d’un ouvrage fondateur, Social Responsibilities of cipation (“codetermination”) on supervisory boards the Businessman, d’Howard Bowen”, Finance Contrôle (McGAUGHEY 2015). Nonetheless, his direct influence Strategie, 10(2), pp. 5-35, 2007. has been limited. Although some authors, such as Berle

GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 33 BERLE (A.) & MEANS (G.), The Modern Corporation McGAUGHEY (E.), “The codetermination bargains: and Private Property (London: Transaction Publishers, The history of German corporate and labour law”, LSE 1932/1968/1991). Working Papers, 10/2015, London School of Economics and Political Science, 43p., 2015. BOWEN (H.R.), The Social Responsibilities of the Businessman (Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, NYLAND (C.), BRUCE (K.) & BURNS (P.), “Taylorism, 1953/2013). the International Labour Organization, and the genesis and diffusion of codetermination”,Organization Studies, BUENSTORF (G.) & MURMANN (J.P.), “Ernst Abbe’s 35(8), pp. 1149-1169 , 2014. scientific management: Theoretical insights from a nineteenth-century dynamic capabilities approach”, PERKINS (G.W.), “Corporations in modern business”, Industrial and Corporate Change, 14(4), pp. 543-578, The North American Review, 187(628), pp. 388-398, 2005. March 1908. Available at: https://archive.org/stream/moderncorporatio00perk/ CRANE (A.), PALAZZO (G.), SPENCE (L.J.) & moderncorporatio00perk_djvu.txt MATTEN (D.), “Contesting the value of ‘creating shared value’“, California Management Review, 56(2), RATHENAU (W.), Zur Mechanik des Geistes (Berlin: pp. 130-153, 2014. G. Fischer, 1913). FAYOL (H.), Administration Industrielle et Générale RATHENAU (W.), Vom Aktienwesen. Eine geschäftli- (Paris: Dunod et Pinat, 1917). che Betrachtung (Berlin: G. Fischer Verlag, 1917). FLEMING (P.) & JONES (M.T.), The End of Corporate RATHENAU (W.), Von kommenden Dingen (Berlin: Social Responsibility: Crisis and Critique (London: G. Fischer, 1918). English translation by E. & C. Paul, Sage, 2013). In Days to Come (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1921a).

OTHER TIMES, OTHER PLACES OTHER TIMES, OTHER Available at GELTER (M.), “Taming or protecting the modern corpo- ration? Shareholder-stakeholder debates in a compar- https://archive.org/details/bub_gb__p8W0Xl-U2UC ative light”, European Corporate Governance Institute, in German September 2010. Available at: and http://www.ecgi.global/working-paper/taming-or-pro- https://archive.org/details/indaystocome00paulgoog tecting-modern-corporation-shareholder-stakehold- in English. er-debates-comparative RATHENAU (W.), La Triple Révolution. Essais (Die GELTER (M.), “Taming or protecting the modern corpo- neue Wirtschaft. 1918, Die neue Gesellschaft. 1919, ration? Shareholder-stakeholder debates in a compar- Der neue Staat. 1919) (Paris: Éditions du Rhin, 1921b). ative light”, NYU Journal of Law & Business, 7(2), Available at pp. 640-730, 2011. https://archive.org/details/latriplerevoluti00rath. GOYDER (G.), The Future of Private Enterprise, a The second of these essays, “The new society” is avail- Study in Responsibility (Basel, CH: Blackwell, 1951). able in English at: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20936/20936- HATCHUEL (A.), “Henri Fayol et la théorie du chef h/20936-h.htm d’entreprise: une nouvelle figure de l’autorité au tournant du XXe siècle”, Entreprises et Histoire 2, pp. 108-120, REHFELDT (U.), “Les racines du consensus. Stratégies 2016. syndicales et ‘rationalisation’ en Allemagne de 1910 à 1933”, Gérer et Comprendre, 11, pp. 81-90, June 1988. HEALD (M.), “Management’s responsibility to society: The growth of an idea”, Business History Review, 31(4), REHFELDT (U.), “Démocratie économique et coges- pp. 375-384, 1957. tion: une mise en perspective historique”, Revue de l’IRES, 3, 1990, pp. 59-80. HEALD (M.), “Business thought in the twenties: Social responsibility”, American Quarterly, 13(2), pp. 126-139, RIEDLER (A.), Emil Rathenau, und das Werden der 1961. Grosswirtschaft (Heidelberg, DE: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1916). KARNAN (A.), “CSR stuck in a logical trap”, California SEGRESTIN (B.), “Le tournant fayolien: des révolutions Management Review, 53(2), pp. 105-111, 2011. industrielles à la naissance de l’entreprise moderne”, KESSLER (C.H.), Walther Rathenau, translated from Entreprises et Histoire, 83, pp. 5-12, 2016. German by D. Van Moppès (Paris: Grasset, 1933). SVENSON (A.L.), “Pioneers of management organi- LÉTOURNEAU (P.), Walther Rathenau (1867-1922) zation theory”, Management International, 5/6, (Strasbourg, FR: Presses Universitaires de Strasbourg, pp. 115-127, 1961. 1995). TEUBNER (G.), “Corporate fiduciary duties and their MARENS (R.), “Recovering the past: Reviving the legacy beneficiaries” in K.J. HOPT & G. TEUBNER (eds.), of the early scholars of corporate social responsibility”, Corporate Governance and Directors Liabilities, Journal of Management History, 14(1), pp. 55-72, 2008. pp. 149-177 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1985).

34 GÉRER & COMPRENDRE - ENGLISH LANGUAGE ONLINE SELECTION - 2016 - N° 2 certain difficulties at the heart of the management of transnational corporations. this themanagement of the heart at perspective, difficulties of certain comprehension sociological the permits account a ethnographic from Theorizing could that incompatibilities jeopardize thefactory’s smoothoperations. the by caused any obstacle avoid to order in accounts, the presenting whilst including accomplish, and to has expat an translation-betrayals that deceptions the highlight We together. ( Our analysis supports the theory of incompatible worlds technical, and legal services of corporate headquarters. table, and the good practices prescribed by the profi financial, factory the make to context an Mexican the in done make to try We in-depth factory.analysis of the gap between Mexican what needed to be a in engineer of French expatriated an of studies testimony the on based MNC institutionalist new the to contribution situation a is managerial a of account ethnographic This Introduction [French version:September2016-n°126] ESCP Europe François FOURCADE Centre MauriceHalbwachs,ENS/EHESS/CNRS Michel VILLETTE a Mexicanfactory The experienceofaFrenchexpatin a multinationalcorporation: The incompatibilityofworldswithin Lebenswelt ethics. and law of conception exogenous an of name the in police local to paid “tax” the or potentate powerful a of paternalism well-intentioned the the example, for avoid, to negotiate arrangements to had engineer the emphasize We operations. smooth factory’s the jeopardize could that incompatibilities the by caused obstacle any avoid to order in accounts, the presenting whilst We highlight the translation-betrayals and deceptions that an expat has to accomplish, including supportsthe ( worlds analysis incompatible of theory Our headquarters. ofcorporate services legal and technical, financial, the by prescribed practices good the and profitable, Mexican factory the a make in to done context in Mexican be the to engineer needed what between French gap the expatriated of analysis an in-depth an make of to try testimony We factory. the on based MNC of studies institutionalist new the to contribution a is situation managerial a of account ethnographic This ) that multinational corporations often bring GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 Lebenswelt ) that multinational corporations often bring together.bring often corporations multinational that ) - ht aaes ant ocie wa i unmana is what geable isessentialfortheorizingmanagement. conceive, cannot managers what words, other In not logos. do management world the with business concord the of aspects the of all Yet, and almostnevercameabout. offput perpetually thus was experience his of analysis tasks onerous less to himself commit to advised was he academia, in himself recycle and management in PhD a undertake to order in quit F. F. when Later, manager level upper could risktheirreputation,forthetruth. an and Company CostKillers like company a for rules and norms laws, the against accepted ideas of management. Too many details went the with inconsistent scandalously were details many Too lessons. useful draw to order in through lived he it corporation, what about publicly testifies he multinational that inconceivable was a ‟censorship” in a director As the years. managing 20 than fact: more for F.F. experienced theoretical that important First

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MICHEL VILLETTE ET FRANÇOIS Michel VILLETTE et François FOURCADE FOURCADE TRIAL BY FACT 36 D’IRIBARNE 1998; HAMPDEN-TURNER, and (TROMPENAARS management intercultural as well as NAUMANN 1992, 1993; BIRDESEYE and HILL, 1995), study a of also topic was behaviour Expatriates’ 1991). behaviour OLIVIER, subsidiaries’ speci 2002; KOSTOVAROTH, 1999; and GOVINDARAJAN, on more or, fically and 2011) BLAZEJEWSI 2011;BECKER-RITTERSPACH, BECKER-RITTERSPACH DÖRRENBÂCHER, and 1992-2011; and BARTLETT GHOSNAL, 2009; has BELANGER, relations MNC 1975; headquarters/subsidiaries (ZEIRA, on the tradition on focused research long-standing A local andheadquarterspressures Subsidiary managementresponsesto studies onmultinationalcompanies? tions (MNC) and particularly with the new Institutionalist corpora multinational on literature academic the with case this of study the connect to how is, question The too know to much aboutit. want not does probably and ground the on happening is what understand not does that owner dity of the management dictates of a distant and absent absur the from factory way,“their” own save their to in and locally do they what do expats, adventurous few a with allied bigwigs, Mexican that said be can it sum, In of globalizedcapitalism. light of the mental categories used in the power centers in judgement withhold uncommon to necessary is through it but channels, it to contribute They prosperity. its in interest direct a have they it; need They factory. their to attached very are illegal or legal informal, and formal both elites, local the while closing, its precipitate and Parisian profitability factory’s the the by jeopardize headquarters out spelled remedies orthodox The factory towork. the want they if negotiate must they whom with bosses union and mafias, local of leaders the responsibilities, political local on take who informally,those also, to but stockholders, and managers long-distance to belong only not does factory the that discover We experience. the of dimension political the element: theoretical Third bubble” that namesthemwithouttrulygraspingthem. “management a by standards to as conforming certified simply but mastered, known nor neither understood nor are that processes to aspect a rational provide that “conventions” simple narratives, nient in byheadquarters order to evaluate the the situation. It used is a question of conve of tools most accounting of financial nature unrealistic also the He demonstrates ground. the on adapting to impediment and obstacle shows epistemological an be Fourcade can viaticum François this that countries. far-off to expatriates sent the “supervise” then “train”, to tools, supposed These distance. a are (BERRY, at 1983) mechanisms” “management these govern to order in headquar ters corporate by used tools intellectual the of flaws the interrogations: fosters that fact second The

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 MNELK ad DO, 1985; ODDOU, and (MENDEHLAKK GPA and (GUPTA et - - - - - can mean the defiance of parent company pratices. company parent of defiance the mean can institutions local with Compromises institutions. local of avoidance the mean can pressures company parent to to requires often another“. of demands the defy or ignore Acquiescence constituent one of satisfaction the because impossible be may conformity different constituents, from demands competing and incompatible Oliver (1991:162) argues that where organizations face based. are they which in environment institutional local the to as well as practices company parent to conform to pressured are and duality institutional with faced are subsidiaries that us tell which companies multinational This paper is in line with the new institutionalist studies of THOENIG, 2008). CHANLAT,and (BABEAU 2008 workplace the on transgressions management on gate ehd cniu t dmnt i nw institutionalist new studies” (TEMPEL,EDWARDS in dominate such to yet continue be alone, methods methods cannot quantitative subsidiaries with captured in outcomes management resources human shape constituents pressuring with interdependence and pressures processes institutional which the by of dynamics and complexity ‟the that conclude they Consequently, but process”. event, continuous one-off a a not is interaction ‟Such tuents. consti pressurizing external and internal the and ment a as result of an interaction subsidiaries between the subsidiary manage in emerge outcomes HRM how on methodology, studies case Tempel, Edwards and qualitative a Using work or management action. unions subsidiary trade constrain to power the have which governments, councils as such ders stakehol local and management subsidiary between relationship close the from stem also may environment local the on dependence that show (2005) Zeitlin and Kristensen it. understanding difficulties have may who management company parent a for environment local the of interpreters as role their from can resources managers derive subsidiary that argue They important resource. an as environment knowledge institutional local the management of subsidiary identify others, Geppert (2000); Ferner practices. local the follow to context host its by pressurized subsidia is the ry hand, other the on ”home“; at used as adopt a particular set of the firm’s ”traditional“practices to headquarters the by pressurized is On it hand, duality.one the institutional of situation a in is subsidiary multinational the that argue (2002) Roth and Kostova ILTE 2014b) VILLETTE, 2011;NIELSEN, subsidiaries PARKERand compliance, (corporate multiple its in rights national of diversity the to conform to manages MNC a how studied trend 2014). (HEIDENREICH, companies multinational of embeddedness social the of understanding better Granovetter’s a get to endeavoured tradition following sociology economic new in a trend recently, HYUN, More and 2005). HASLBERGER, GENTRY 2001; and JUN, BHATT 1978; BHAL (NEWMAN, GUTTERIDGE, country host the to adaptation expatriates’ on focused have researchers al. ,1998, 2009). In a psychological perspective, some perspective, psychological a In 2009). ,1998, et al. , hlt te scooit investi sociologists other whilst (2006), concentrated their study

n oilg o lw another law, of sociology In et al. ; COURPASSONand ; 2006,p.1565). et al (06 and (2006) . - - - - - ves. Each situation is a unique and indivisible case in case indivisible and unique a is situation Each ves. themsel between whole a of elements constitutive link to Dewey by used is ‟diffused” of qualifier The whole”. diffused ‟a experiences, of world surrounding a aspect, object or event is in always a portion, a phase simul experience or a specific an is events. An nor is objects it isolated neither are there which that say situation can we 128-129), given p. the (1993, Dewey singular.Following testimony,and whole taneously this In control. always tendstoescapethemanager’s which situation, indeterminate and dynamic emerging, shall try to understand how he manages to deal with an himself. finds We expatriate the that action constrained of framework this in exactly is It 142). p. 1990, (GIRIN, judgment” external to subject is that result a to leading action collective a time, set a in accomplish, must and together brought management are participants a “the becomes when situation situation a that says who (1990), Girin by defined as situation management a of narrative the on based is article this headquarters, the and institutions local the management, subsidiary the between interactions the study to approach qualitative Following Tempel,Edwards partner. he inretrospect, analyze therefore deserves to be fully considered as a research an intellectual for fit be to proved he Since perspective. into experience his put to able someone rather but practitioner management a longer no F.F.was change, career successful a after that, reckoned we and place took events these since informer, co-author of this article. 17 years have main passed our F.,F. make to choice was methodological It a also depth. in it explore to as so case unique one present to chose deliberately We Russia). and Poland, China, Morocco, UAE, subsidiaries Brasil, (Mexico, countries rent diffe about eight in based run MCN European of management currently investigations series a of of one is paper, this in presented case The management sciences. MAANEN,1979). These affirmations remain true today, VAN in sociology as in also (See speak.” abundantly to general, so in they which of them, processes the appropriate concretely allow not processes, do of methods function their the but about talk toooften to love are logists “socio that situations 1966 in wrote Becker Howard “neglected”. these suggests Goffman their arguments. An article published in 1988 by Erwing justify to use they situations empirical the sufficient to pay attention not do sciences social in Researchers Methodology of methodologies”. types qualitative grouded’ that and ‘up-close more requires dependent) context endemic, systemic, (tacit, implicit, knowledge complex and traditional methods using quantitative researched unambiguous) be can simple universal, that knowledge between binary, distinguish explicit, to (codified, failed typically has that argue 575) p. (2011,Tung and Brannen YokoBirkinshaw, Similarly, ‟Research on knowledge in MNCs in knowledge on ‟Research GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 et al. ’s suggestion to use a use ’sto suggestion - - - -

national policybutaretolerated andunspokenof. to save the plant are incompatible with the current multi • contri butes totheeconomicsuccess ofthesubsidiary. it as long as management HQ and subsidiary between agreement tacit a is there since of unspoken host and and tolerated are they However, regulations. home countries both to according illegal sometimes • 2008) : THONIG, and COURPASSON 2008; CHANLAT, (BABEAU and literature transgression management and 2011) NIELSEN, and (PARKER corporate literature compliance both by but MNC of studies new institutionalist by theorized been not have case the of teristics • GEPPERT, GEPPERT andMAYER, 2006). and (DORRENBACHER interests.” different pursue to actors local of capability the by undermined is phism isomor towards headquarters MNC the from drive the which in ‘micro-politics’ of terms “in analyzed be could • and ZEITLIN, 2005). (KRISTENSEN action” constrain management to subsidiary power the have stakeholders local “the yet 1991), (OLIVER, incompatible are demands der’s • (DELANY, 1998). “ scout “boy a of that of instead behaviour strategist”’s “subversive a and self-confidence to him predisposed eet n ws oal ueuae i aaei lite academic in mana uneducated totally in was and training gement nor experience neither had expat • to thelatter. unfavorable and unbalanced highly thus and is HQ subsidiary between ratio power The reselling. or down shutting to exposed therefore is and HQ the by trategic • institution islarge”.(KOSTOVA 1999); country host and home between distance institutional is subsidiary the “the that country,means developing which a in located whereas country European loped • this case: of MNC allows us to identify some of the specificities of Referring to the works of the new institutionalist studies to explainthesituation. invoked be can that concepts very the on focus to and literature academic of concepts multiples the with case 2010, for an overview). It allows to challenge a singular REVEL, (see Ginzburg Carlo by particular in illustrated was paper prises this in used both by inspired methodology radical The date thesituation. eluci to researchers by made efforts the and witness and partial way, no matter the degree of sincerity of the incomplete both a in told only be can narrative a which aue n h sbet Hwvr hs riig s an as training French a his from graduated who However,engineer subject. the on rature The decisions made by the subsidiary management subsidiary the by made decisions The even and illegitimate are demands actor’s local The In addition to this list of specificities, two other charac Relations between expat, HQ, and local stakeholders stakehol local the and managers multinational The On the day of his arrival in the foreign country, the country, foreign the in arrival his of day the On nons and unprofitable be to considered is plant The deve a in located are headquarters worldwide The (VILLETTE 2014b) and the l’approche ethnographique des entre ethnographique l’approche microstoria Grande École traditions

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MICHEL VILLETTE ET FRANÇOIS Michel VILLETTE et François FOURCADE FOURCADE TRIAL BY FACT 38 for my of spite In fashion. difficult credible a in story this tell to me been always has it success, this Despite a lot of friends in Mexico with whom I am still in contact. years with the CostKillers Company group. I also made 10 than more for remained I experience, first this After entire the to thanks an left, team, it had become profitable and still functions today. I considering When was closing. Headquarters imminent arrived. I when losses heavy financial suffering was and factory The industrial view. of strictly point the from and view of dark that a note a is must story paint my I thus I world, that corporate the impression of picture the get might One arrived, and howIconfrontedthesituation. I once discovered I what see shall we Then, departure. my prepare to order arron in Paris, 17th of the dissement in headquarters corporate the3months at spent in I wastaught I what present first will I in control, management without in expatriation orinMexico. responsibility, industry, some in with experience position a c found a immediately I There, in cheap. is cost labour which low in ountry a at innovative, produced the very and in not unsophisticated sexy specialists, very automobile not is of that eyes product a is It American market. the for radiators car producing factory a in up show to going inevitably was I signed, contract The and semi-desert. adventure, an a of middle the such in live to willing engineer only the even for candidates willing of terrible the least the was I doubt, a and Without worked. Spanish it spoke I that insinuated I know. should controller management industrial an everything know to pretended I waves. fantastic with beaches are there and surfing, love I because Mexico in interested was I the managementcontrollerinafactory.” a VSN volunteer for for Mexico to occupy the looking job of deputy to is Company CostKillers “Urgent: ad: an a after 1991 answered I in Degree; began Engineering Telecommunications story this when old years 26 was I administration, business in master’s a Following Fourcade management situationbyFrançois Ethnographic accountofthe development.” of epistemic reflexivity and a critical trajectory for theory management field seems to have engaged in a continuous international disavowal “The reads: which (2008) Callas Jack, account into take we so, (HAYEK,doing critics In numerous 1952). of object the been has sciences social in scientism that fact the on and 1945) (SCHULZ, tradition phenomenological the on approach this base We ground. the on experience the on research transgres academic the focusing at thereby aim we facto ry, a save forces, to order in prescriptions political HQ many sing local the with alliance an forms who expat an of story the telling By

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 success story, both from a human point human a from both et al. s remark ’s - - -

quarters? • • two mainquestions: During my training period, I learned to respond to these factories throughouttheglobe. all in implemented be to supposed then are processes These world. the around makers automobile to prices competitive at equipment competitive of delivery and production conception, the for processes standard the coordinating worldwide operations and work on defining CostKillers Company’s headquarters are responsible for are builders directly exposedtointernationalcompetition. equipment makers, automobile to rison tive in terms of price, conception and quality. In compa automobile maker in the world, so long as it is competi equipment makers that are its clients. A radiator can be sold to any automobile automobile the than internationalized of an more producer, is inculcation Company CostKillers the departure: management norms for Preparing pleasant and atypical adventure. an as tomeseriously, it regarding than what happened rather totake is difficulty study.The case school business serious a than rather fiction police bad is it that thinks audience the efforts, etc. clients, insolvent to selling bills, fake writing corruption, to clients, to succumbing even or employees, to increases salary discounts significant overly to example, consenting for as such control, of keep out getting and from director him factory controllers the oversee management They people. that sales expected and manufacturers to power counter a exercise also is It respects the AFM. pers. They are asked to oversee that the factory strictly gatekee the be to supposed are factory each of lers Manual Financial the called of and languages terms 18 into in respected be translated ‟bible” a in defined are control management must that norms Those house. the of values and principles the with line” ‟in is factory verifying everything they can, in order to insure that the week, a staying factory, a in five of teams in up show world, commandos of the auditors intervene regularly. They around establishments Company’s CostKillers of all in rules the of implementation the verify to order In management corporate and promoting them. norms and of values those integrating on member depends a Becoming integration”, etc. “supplier control”, “management management”, “lean implication”, “personal innovation”, “constant “customer service”, quality”, CostKillers ”total respect: to by norms are there hired managers Company that corporate culture is very strong, and that young teach We What kind of information does a factory send to head What does headquarters require of the local factory? AM. h mngmn control management The (AFM). Administrative and Administrative ------

otilr Cmay eurs src rset of respect strict financial a the requires Company CostKillers Authorization Proposal investments? for « as understood like something goes « conversation language. hallway coded typical in A speak people headquarters, At by diminish jargon. corporate the Alearn to needs quickly beginner should products sold 30% every4years. on costs that accepted is it Additionally, car. a of the span life average is norm The amortization of any investment in less circumstances. than 4 years: the to profitability the acceptable capacity of an its regardless obtain for and known costs well reduce is corporation The now integratedintoitsSAP system. histo software, excellent developed its Company ry,CostKillers in on early very reason, this For management controller. the through goes subsidiaries and ters headquar between exchanged information the of Most o icsin i hlwy ad h avc o more of advice the and hallways in thanks discussions and to headquarters at months 3 spent Having semester toanother. one from over carried be to revenues and/or expenses allow that nets safety constitute They dissimulate ones. good to the how know to has also controller ment In order to deal with the unhappy surprises, the manage knowledge, stressandthemoraleofpersonnel. employees, technical on of consequences number adverse As possible the bankrupt). despite reducing going means up end it they well, if even (and suppliers late paying means it if even necessary, means all by reduced are costs revenues, low of case the In how is that share pricesremainstable. addition, In environment. external the of hazards the what matter no promises its to sticks that CostKillers corporation resilient a that investment, safe investors a is Company showed they how accounting. is quarterly That the in management incidents of factories’ minimize visibility to the the order in of publish expedients invented all controllers to words, other previsions. managed with In corresponded collapsed. that still States results United bi-annual Company the in cars CostKillers 2001, 11, of September sales On the circumstances. the what stockholders) matter the no factory, his for results good showing always him, student”, ‟model beyond a as acts controller management the and group, the of above CFO the (and, reassure always to order In expectations. analysts’ to correspond will stockholders results semester to the that guarantees what is This respected. it been has budget and the that deadlines, demonstrate always the should within sent that be imperative information is the it happens, Whatever controllers. of accounting. He who reports disappointing numbers disappointing reports who He accounting. of principals theoretical the to oneself confine not should one controller, management a is one when group, of kind this in that learned had I colleagues, experienced ae o dn yu IAP? your done you Have reporting Have you finished writing you request you writing finished you Have » otherwise known as the as known otherwise » GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 . calendar from management management from calendar , hc sol be should which », Investment - - -

following the breakdown of a machine. The personnel in they after euros machines million a lost factory the down. in result, break a As fix to concept prefer they unheard where an Mexico is maintenance Preventive college, withoutanythinginreturn. them. technical local a hired as served salaries, factory the Consequently, attractive more offered which nearby,plant Bosch the trained, were they as soon as Unfortunately,training. workers in invested factory The foreman the while found astoragesolution. courtyard the in baseball played and working stopped workers the manufactured, being radiators the store to left space no was there example, for If, urgency. the matter no working, stop to feasible eatet udr h drcin f h financial of the500Mexicanfactoryworkers. charge the in main expatriates French the 3 the by of faced of problems some discover to direction me allowed the controller control under themanagement in department, atrainee as job first My in arrival Mexico occurredonDecember12th,1991. My Spain. Saragossa, in stay one-month a during happened which Spanish, learn to needed still I Adaptation inaMexicanFactory management terrible a controller. was I that concluding risked Director Resources Human major Corporate The expected problems. I norms, global reported below regularly well factory numbers the that fact the of Aware positive. be to have always they moreover, and point, decimal the to down right correct be always numbers the that requires that system a in survive to necessary reflexes the learns the quickly very data One save. to only accepts software the rules: the with accordance in data coherent supply always to needed was imagination of in as infringements such of the rules, I would quickly learn problems, that a lot numerous Mexico, with with unreliable data, numerous disruptions and factory a In the grouprisksbeingbrief. in career his he and consequences the suffer will that controls factory The controller. management bad a is t h fcoy of factory the At minute theclient’s assemblylineisshutdown). per ($20,000 delays of case in contract the in detailed penalties enormous the avoid to order in time on ring The problem for the equipment manufacturers is delive are makers a with minimum amount of stock held by time, the assembly chains. on equipment right clients their sector, deliver to supposed automobile the In injuries. at barely a 10% return and runs the risk of work-related functions factory The drunk. got Friday paid were who workers those pinnacle: its at is Monday, absenteeism whom theywork. for and them trained who men, armed these are who the Under an armoured car conveys the machine-guns, cash. money. One with quickly wonders armed in guards 6 paid of protection are workers the Fridays, San LuisPotisi ay xue was excuse any ,

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MICHEL VILLETTE ET FRANÇOIS Michel VILLETTE et François FOURCADE FOURCADE TRIAL BY FACT 40 diversifying without him, through copper exclusively its supplies procure should Company CostKillers that me to explaining before lunch sumptuous a me offered He menagerie. tiger his as well as collection car his of tour a on me took and politely me welcomed governor The hacienda. a to me took and arrived helicopter The and gave me an appointment of in the middle of nowhere. diversification type each the of supply.for suppliers What a 3 bad idea! least The at governor of called have me to tried I suppliers. principle the AFM, particularly the by prescribed principals the apply to tried I arrival, my headquarters, corporate of teachings the by reinforced On exclusivity. which demanded who supplier, province copper a later discovered used factory The our for managers. corporate the of eyes the in me slightly improved factory congratulated the of image the productivity,and in gains spectacular financial quickly corporate The costs. department general of category increasing an accounting the into fell while costs personnel of abruptly,percentage increased capita per revenues of ratio our trick, accounting this to Thanks factory. the Company, of but by the company in charge of cleaning running the number CostKillers by the directly paid be of longer The no insure would factory numbers to country. necessary the the workers adjust of in to declared me to employees came idea The headquarters? How could the factory be defended against the wrath of even vitalones,invokingourlowproductivity. investments all refused and down factory the close to threatened in group the Consequently, employee per conditions. such revenues in million a of criteria the that other the read, knew how to to pilot the machine. No how factory could respect knew that one day; next the cousins his of two even or cousin, his by replaced be could operator trained per Athat. of half barely income at was in factory the Potisi, Francs Luis San in arrival my million At employee. a Company CostKillers generated good factory a time, the at France In have would that been usedtobuysuppliesatthecompany’s expense. logo Company CostKillers the with for large sums of money in exchange for blank invoices propositions received employees Certain corruption. of In Mexico, as everyone knows, there is a strong tradition the Pacific Coast, ended up on Veracruz on the Atlantic. Japan for destined delivery a or train, entire an up held mafia local the Sometimes, railroads. Mexican chaotic or winter, in impracticable sometimes roads of km 1200 including problems tical logis resolving supposed also delivery time on Right its lubricationsystem. of deterioration progressive the despite function to nue by deactivating alarms so that the machine could conti The workers had thought they were doing the right thing order. of out finally was machine costly lubrication. The insure to two still were there up, stopped were jets oil 8 charge of its maintenance considered that when 6 of the

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 - eogd o h gvro o the of governor the to belonged via the port of Acapulco on of Acapulco port the - we - -

From that point on, I learned to consider the police as police the consider to learned I on, point that From were movingagain. trucks our of all followed, that hour half the within and choice, other no having accepted, I invention. own his of insurance anti-blockade an risks”, transportation for ‟provision of sort a was It police. the for suitable bribes He proposed a tailor-made solution designed to pay the the minute. by stressed increasingly became I long,friendly while a help. conversation into his and launched for asked tea me and offered governor He the see to went I What todo? a with working of sick supplier thatdoesn’tdeliverontime. get could away, miles 4000 some Detroit, in factories automobile the that mind in client’s the time any kept be also should It stopped. is assembly automobile minute per 000 the $20 remember of to penalty have we event, this of the importance grasp to order In were barrages. police trucks at Company’s immobilized CostKillers by of colleagues all their and alerted radio, police the reprisal, a As The fiscalgainrealizedwas enormous. pay 5%intaxes”. there. only Youis you product and jobs new two create the that insure to door a close and open given men the that territory Mexican to value because added an Mexican, bring they considered be can merchandise the fast, as just them close then and truck the of doors the open they that border,and the of side Mexican the on guys two put you if law, Mexican to according that know Youtaxes. should import in 44% pay you trucks, famous your with Mexico, to US the from Grande Rio the across go you when François, ‟Youknow, me told still to was attempts my that create new gains in productivity. One day the governor continued factory I closing, the with save threatened to decided Having I becamedirectorin1995. my time, same the French expat colleagues left the At factory one by one and life. Mexican and into integrated auditors I the to nor certainly nottotheFrenchEmbassyinMexico. headquarters Company corporate CostKillers to communicated be not could Of course, my arrangement with my friend, the governor, imaginative. be hazards”. to turn transportation for ‟provision discrete new, my a invented I was It requirements? implemented corporate be global, and AFM the of arrangement prescription the with local this could How assistance toatruckthatbrokedown. the police became very cooperative. They even brought place, in was system the Once evident. was result the However, accounting. the verify to come auditors, rate another supplier, which was difficult to explain to corpo xseae, a rfsd bie drn a routine ( police a highway the during by bribe, control a refused had exasperated, drivers, our of one that told was I later, months few A supplying us. risk would supplier copper Effectively, other market. no copper country’s the controls he that given suppliers, Fédéral deCaminos ). -

The French conception ofhowtodobusiness. the on fixated remain than rather culture and economy local the in effect in exchange of forms the in making the factory work. It was thus better to participate in interest common a shared Wedanger. the of aware be perfectly was government would provincial The families unemployed. 2000 least at and employees 500 and it close would Company CostKillers this, reach not the that did we profitability. If its show to years considered two had factory headquarters corporate World Fourcade beinterpreted? How canthetestimonyofFrançois for with theMexicanswhohadwelcomedme. friend good remained I factories and factory the profitable developing of satisfaction most immense the had and the I Company. CostKillers modernized of developed, one factory became The years. 7 for Mexico in stayed I and contract 14-month a on left I for designed norms and them? laws of amount large protected a accountants, by professional and lawyers by defended owners, distant and absent of those as way same the in account into taken be should factory the of running proper the to contributed who people those of rights customary that say also we not Could click? one do in rights who property their sell and buy stockholders than more nothing faraway of advantages those than immoral more or illegitimate more are company the by drawn local police, the governor or the advantages director of the cleaning the that say we towhat can up point corruption, as qualified be would spoke I which of practices those of certain language, legal in If the defenceoftheirowninterests. buted to saving it, in their own way, assuring incidentally contri they Thus, work. to it wanted really and factory the in invested Company CostKillers little, by little that, noticed Mexicans The owners. former its than factory the with concerned more were French the that proved Company CostKillers Americans, the followed Having efficiency incommonaction. obstacle to any understanding, any negotiation and any an be even could it Toointerpreted, use. rigidly little of was it world, the of conception another held who those with negotiating to comes it When lawyers. corporate and accountants consultants, other graduates, school business to only familiar applicable is which but countries, and 25 in overall comprehensive an conveyed supposedly text thought the feeble reality, very of a with description Endowed this type resulted. inwhich document of reality of simplification of around degree contained the reflected perfectly poverty bible, lexical The words. global 400 the became which English, into translated and headquarters Parisian by Madre in the 1990s. An expat that would have wanted have would that expat An 1990s. the in Madre Sierra Western of province Mexican the in had force capitalism little global of centers decision-making by used management and law,accounting of notions The Administrative andFinancialManual GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 imagined -

elte poal eit Eeyn tns o consider to tends Everyone exist. probably realities infinite that follows It contradicted. not is it as long as real, is perceive we that all that affirm immediately to is impulse first Our us. to relationship in is it that signifies s rsl, h rltosi bten parent between to relationship order in towards opacity towards times sometimes the other transparency, tend result, will company-subsidiaries a As the stockholdersandrespect ofthelaw. of interest superior the pursuing of perspective the in the guarantor of the integration of individual behaviours be to supposed is he since juniors his be from protected must boss The manage. to supposed is he those with relationships egalitarian and symmetrical develop of diversity business. do to to the himself allow cannot he However,position, his which given in way admit the and view intellectually of points can leader A 1973 LAUVERGEON 1988 ;RIVELINE,1991). (MINTZBERG, have time not any does he the making because is transmitted avoids it if he statements even judgements, which the over ignore subsidiaries can by to corporation multinational chose large thus a of head The executing thedetails. for responsible managers the by experienced one the from differ to tends world always leaders the by the experienced which by processes the resumes perfectly which formula a are up”, pulled is credit ‟details and down pushed organizations, in that writes he when up it sums (1988) with Jackall Robert phenomenon consequences. social serious fundamental a is It nature. psychological a of epiphenomena an as considered distinct be between (SCHUTZ, 1945) should not be taken lightly and should foreign incompatibility experiences The of reality the to them. doubt to and the universe in which they find themselves an evidence at bt rltosi. aig ht oehn is something that Saying of relationship. state a but a fact, not thus is Reality interest. our is stimulates him, For constituted. is most who those William of the subject, one reality of sense our which in way the formulated clearly doubt, a discuss without to is, James first the not While multiple between realities incompatibility the Managing by financial markets. expected goals the realizing to contributes it end, the in that given transgression”, ‟functional call we that CHANLAT,and 2008) (BABEAU transgression of form a under falls behaviour of type This information. legal and accounting including disinformation, and treason translation- through worlds, these separating of work methodical a requires It 1990). WEICK, and (ORDON translation or a by even or headquarters by determined prescriptions efficiency managerial applying means, the classical by obtained be that proves imperative, Fourcade so dear to engineers and financiers, can not François of 1979) would have almost certainly failed. The testimony ZEIRA, 1974; HEEMAN, and (PERLMUTTER posture ethnocentric an adopting all, it of spite in them apply to loose coupling of these same prescriptions real ht wkn and awakens what DLEC and DELPEUCH ; Lebenswelt

real 41

MICHEL VILLETTE ET FRANÇOIS Michel VILLETTE et François FOURCADE FOURCADE TRIAL BY FACT 42 the highlights Fourcade François of testimony The the ANTHONY, 1988;SIMONS,1995) correct to 1954; (DRUCKER, previsions time to relation in differences necessary the managers to leave order in reporting detailed too and frequent overly in Researchers avoid to necessity the 2012). on insisted control management GETZ, 2008; VELTZ, 1960; TRIST,and (EMERY motivation workplace for ground the on teams the to left autonomy of role positive the on insisted management resources Human and work of Sociology in Researchers (PAVÉ, 1989). general direction the and units between data in of exchange transparency the of abuse the denounced specialists as well as the abuse of procedures. Computer systems controls, and decisions of centralization the criticized Specialists of diverse management subjects have often control andallowbaseunitssufficientautonomy. excess avoid must governance double corporate that believe a sociology, and possess sciences management who in competency others like authors, These (1997). Gulati Ranjay and Nohria Nitin of article the in tional slack of concept the or 2010) GALLAGHER, and 1989 (RAYNAUD, game the of rules the in tradition, loose-coupling of managerial notion the to normative corrections contribute authors this critical to reaction In lure ofgain. options…) are supposed to motivate agents through the mistrust. The incentive salary formulas (bonuses, stock both lacking express systems control These work. hard of and loyalty suspected (stockholders), principal the of service the In theory, in agents are employees performances. company significant achieve to sary neces appears experts, and consultants by modelled practices, good ciency.with alignment behavioural The ineffi of pockets multiplying of risk the running avoid to order in will, free his with accordance in act to left be should one no that affirms tradition management The audits, reporting, control, executive committeesandtransversalprojects. management means: planning, different many through call Anglo-Saxons the What cial establishments. and the running of operations in industrial and commer headquarters, at experts and directors by of conceived strategy, the between coupling optimal an management, insure to in is researchers of majority large a and managers for both ideal, The possible. as transparent and fluid as be must organization the of levels different is also seen as obvious that communication between the units, is to insure coordination, control and cohesion. It of role operational to relationship in the considered headquarters, that acknowledges literature Managerial in thefactorymanagingincompatibilities reality and reality corporate between Decoupling subsidiaries’ employees. of reality correct corporate headquarters with the daily experience of the politically the compromising avoid

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 , which finds its application in multinationals in application its finds which , (ORDON and WEICK, 1990), elasticity 1990), WEICK, and (ORDON alignment

optr systems, computer s obtained is organiza PARKS ; - - - -

n wud rue ocr, hc wud have would which this concern, recognized, arouse but would known, and only not organization the in crisis a cause would incompatibility was it If inthis and translation, thereisagoodportionoftreason. translate, to efforts considerable without in country work doesn’t values fromheadquarters and damage. Reciprocally,of procedures the application country without taking precautions.That would do in thehost what heunderstands about information ‟ Or: have beenaccused,obviously. affair the If happen. to became public,itwasthelocalmanagerthatwould things allow to blinkers was atthefactory,was happening but theruleofgame conversation ‟ a during remarks F.F. regarding hisexperience: what is This hermetic implement walls inordertoavoidacrisis. to attempt must He decoupling. his at own must, risk and peril, interface organize a disconnection, the a complete for responsible person the Thus, factory. the in and headquarters in world the of reality the between exists incompatibility an which the to according the thesis radical echoes allows more even and It an of (1984) formulation Goldratt warnings. of work these well-known all of pertinence rcs, rnig e mtos f production – problem given a with faced of factory, Mexican the In methods new (SINGHAL, 2009). bringing creative a be process, can impossible rebellion Thus, constructive”. with dissenters are tie-wearing subordinates the Nonetheless, its challenges. confronts ment manage ‟hegemonic a that write (2008) Thoenig and Courpasson (1996). issue the treated already quote) not do they (whom Grosjean and Girin of organizations. dimension forgotten us a be remind could (2008) transgression Chanlat that and Babeau late it. was realize literature to academic if even engineers, and management to applies equally it workers, regarding first theorized and was work norms official real of work, transgression the prescribed between gap the If workers foremen. of complicity benevolent the with time save to dates. by prescribed fought factory a undertaken is in workers how described what (1954) Roy work beyond and the above goes that idea The work at transgression and work real work, Prescribed both was maintain innumerouscircumstances. showed to impossible practicably and societies, (1985) contemporary our Brunsson in organization of legitimation the to indispensable Nils that societies would requirement rationality the satisfy to able corporation be developed longer no the most fundamentally, More the require. that principles and rules the respecting of incapable them deem would it appear as incoherent, unserious and immoral, because disastrous effects on the company’s reputation. It would The expatisatranslator. He shouldn’tthrowout knew.Headquarters what knew people At leastcertain ” ” -

Nicolas Dodier(1995). ‟technical solidarity” to use the expression proposed by 2009 DURA, STERNIN and (SINGHAL, deviance” ‟positive its (1980); of service the Friedberg and Crozier by noted at as interests egocentric only not is intelligence improvised intelligent as This rules. anonymous with faced quality when beings human their showcase work at people that logical thus is It cases. imaginable all envision to tries he if inapplicable or illegible, or do, to what know situated to general too either circumstanced, is text The 1993). (SUCHMANN, unique, is action An relationship matic. the proble often that is representation its and remember action between to Lacan or Freud software. Yet,and schemas invoke to unnecessary is it texts, with actions conforming is procedure a Following a breachortrickery? as worse, or transgression a as treated be rules the of Should any gap between the actions taken and the text off technocrats. mob boss than an abstract rule written in English by far local the of jurisdiction the under more human fall resources that consider can we government, the provincial by approved arrangement an and headquarters, faraway some by required is respect whose rule rate corpo a between Caught power. of balance local a to We could also see in his behaviour a realistic adaptation involved. is he which in situation (DEWEY, 1993)” dynamic and emergent ‟indeterminate, the the of account years) into (seven length take we if only understand view we pedagogical that a also and rules the of application tothe approach aconsequentialist has for He concern efficiency. the by guided attitude entirely is the engineer the factory, of Mexican the local the At according and circumstances. involved ruleexist, is one which a in activity the to of following ways Different only ifwestartbyadmittingit and littleby little, we manageto modify behaviourbut tenured worker trains hisreplacement.Mediumterm workers, sothatthe between mutual training encourage then tryto First, tolerateit,and accompanied. and answer isno.Thislocalpracticeneedstobeaccepted The be sanctioned? his behaviour Should done? ‟ his behaviour: Faced with the complexity of the situation, F.F. explains group in work a order tolivetogetherandinsureproduc0tion. of members by efforts of normative” born ‟autonomous rules to and seek hazards that moral management reduce by made rules between (1989) Reynaud Daniel Jean by proposed distinction conceptual the or rules, informal and formal between opposition classic the observe legitimacy.We possibly claiming each other, each confront rules of number a cousin his by work a of replacement impromptu the If a worker isreplacedbyhiscousin,whatcanbe . t a as b a te evc of service the at be also can It ). GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 .” - - -

management models. with do to little have which methods, and means own their to according factory the of running smooth the to the factory’s closing, in light of its utility. They contribute avoiding of necessity the of conscious are allies These productivity. improve to necessary coalition a build to himself forced is expatriate the headquarters, Parisian faraway weighing without unethical, some of concepts moral and legal technical, with down and ethical what is right, is who and wrong is who judging Without a which to corporation isabovealla‟politicalcoalition”. according (1962) theory March’s James of illustration perfect a is function factory the make to Potosi ofthis of factory the concerning solidarity example technical a good F.F. offers of testimony The all, andwhateverhappens. it despite works” ‟it that sure make to everything doing by another or way one in finish and syndrome” Kwai River the Over ‟Bridge the with stricken less or more all are They work. influence, want they which over and involved are they which in system socio-technical the production making workers, to itself devotes that group a comprise agents) maintenance factory, HR, the (engineers, operators technicians, in the how shows happening (1995) Dodier was what Considering Technical solidaritytomakethe factoryfunction neemnt ad yai ntr o management of situations inaprecisemanner. nature dynamic and indeterminate diffuse, the account into taking in rather but of practice, difficulties the properly about learn can to one that ethics and learn can we interpret them. It is not with abstract conceptions of law that ignoring phenomena by not these is it However, and enterprises. success of the failure of analyses the into arrangements Management sciences have difficulties integrating local local these behaviours andcustomsasdisgraceful. branded have would judgements These agreements assets, between clients and suppliers and black-market labour. corporate of misuse blackmail, corruption, the denouncing factory, the in undertaken of made regularly local arrangements. Certainly, condemnations an audit could have been the the and of capitalism, legitimacy globalized of contradictions the Publishing these facts is also an opportunity to examine of reprimanding it. instead invention their developing of capable was same category of innovators once factory management the in put be also can cousins or brothers their with job same the share who Workers productive. factory the as an innovator and his inventions contribute to making organization mafia governor sustain their insure and (CALLON operation smooth to and human mobilized behaviour align non-human to exist and manage “innovators” do if themselves networks Sociotechnical . The need to reconcile all of the allies needed allies the of all reconcile to need The . - who is also a businessman and the head of a - behaves in a number of instances of number a in behaves LATOUR , 2006). The 2006). , San Luis

43

MICHEL VILLETTE ET FRANÇOIS Michel VILLETTE et François FOURCADE FOURCADE TRIAL BY FACT 44 studied not has theory closely enough. organizational that circuits short- screens, avoidance, of strategies implementing requires crisis, of situation a in organization the putting Internalizing and all of these contradictory demands, without rules desire bankers who looking for money-making deals, experts is a challenge. legal achievements, technical for looking scientists and engineers the plus NGO’s, of heads leaders, union politicians, diverse of the South is not easy. Taking into account the demands of country a in peasant poor or worker a Simultaneously of those and incompatible. stakeholder billionaire a of expectations the are satisfying promises these country,each within living of standards in disparity the and cultures world of nature heterogeneous the Given internalized. are globalization Searching for allies, leaders promise of things to everyone. contradictions which the in organization an is large corporation A incompatibilities. multinational the hide to work cost serious the of at only coexist that realities heterogeneous between also contradictions the controlling, it viable but making of comprises operations, consist integrating and simply coordinating not does Managing serve better to those whoseruleshedoesnotrespect. is objective his but transgresses, He business. local in intervene not does headquarters that In order to better serve headquarters, he organizes it so costs. all at avoided be must meeting whose those ting he consecrates a good portion of his efforts on dissocia arranger should not be confused with the assembler, as The situation”. management a in realities incompatible of Delany (1998), but more precisely as an ‟arranger of terminology the to according strategist” “subversive a as only not type ideal expatriate this defining suggest I the of governor the province, localpolice,railroadworkersandtruckers. including operation, its to bute a contri who of people those emergence between the solidarity technical him: to important most is what block not do headquarters Parisian the from Mexican province the separate that realities heteroclite incompatible the and that so way as such in to headquarters, factory the link that communication of methods all factory. To do so, he does not hesitate to cut or sidestep that the bosses back at headquarters consider it a good so factory Potisi Luis San the in productivity sufficient insuring goal, single one towards acting functionalist a is He work”. to it for necessary is ‟whatever does who F.F.end, expat the the In of paragon the be to appears contradictions oftheexternalenvironmentworldwide. the with deal to 1991) (BRUNSON, hypocrisy zational oforgani amount a sufficient maintain to ways efficient expat developed have of MNC that testimonies suggest managers other middle and testimony F.F. The MNC of lack legitimacy, a as argued implies by this Morgan and that Kristensen (2006)? conclude we Should demands. global and subsidiary local to for comply to impossibility management the and subsidiaries, on clearly has MNC of established the duality of institutional theory pressures exerted institutionalist new The Conclusion

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 - - - References become anacademic. to career his of middle the in decided doxa, managerial insuring the despite and costs, to all at Fourcade, function corporation’s that years many François so that consecrated having understandable after thus is It is that responsible. actor, unitary morally and legalist a coherent, rational, simultaneously as corporation the always almost present doctrines management more when the all difficult and task, laden anxiety an communication is subtle strategies by contradictions of proof the Hiding vigilance. constant requires circumstance every in D’INGUIMBERT, appropriate and audience and each to adapted 2014a) VILLETTE p.142-143; 1988, (VILLETTE, image ideal an corporation the Giving tors. interlocu their of demands different the satisfy to order functions their given produced representations the their the work, Lebenswelt they inseparating which in world have the they of representation difficulty the doubt, a without to, refer also we evoked, is 1993) (DEJOURS, When the work-related stress of managers and leaders most intensely. place take operations managed is image IDSY M G & il . . 19) ‟Individual, (1995), S. on Influences J. Environmental and Organizational/Work Hill & G. M. BIRDESEYE humains des systèmes des instrumentsdegestionsur l’évolution (1983), M. BERRY Canada”, Human Relations in multinationals foreign-controlled among policy relations employment in ‟Discretion (2012), G. BÉLANGER J., LÉVESQUE C., JALETTE P. & MURRAY Willey andSons,pp.193-216. (eds.) G. MORGAN & D. COLLINSON in Terrain”,Contested a as Firm P.Multinational E. ‟The BELANGER (2009), J. Corporations”,Management InternationalReview in Multinational Competition Intrafirm on Perspective DÖRRENBACHER Politics Organizational ‟An (2011), & C. F. BECKER-RITTERSPACH Press. Clifford R. Shaw, (1966), S. H. BECKER Readings inCross-BorderManagement 2011) ed. 6th – (1992 (Eds), S. GHOSHAL & C. BARTLETT Française deGestion l’organisation”. de oubliée dimension une sion, transgres “La (2008), J.F. CHANLAT & O. BABEAU function (1988), R.N. ANTHONY It is at the interface between the headquarters the between interface the at is It Transnational Management, Text, Cases and , Boston:HarvardUniversityPress. , Paris,EcolePolytechnique. Images of the Multinational Firm Images oftheMultinational as referred to by Alfred Schutz (1945), and by (1945), to Schutz referred Alfred as

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MICHEL VILLETTE ET FRANÇOIS Michel VILLETTE et François FOURCADE FOURCADE TRIAL BY FACT 46 pp. 82-92. Annales desMines,Géreret Comprendre « (1991), C. RIVELINE 2 tomes,FolioHistoire,t.1,pp.529-534. concepts etdébats Historiographies, (dir.), N. OFFENSTADTP.F., & GARCIA DOSSE C., « (2010), J. REVEL Armand Colin. (1989), J.-D. RAYNAUD Business Review be?”, organization your should Multinational “How (1974), A. D. HEEMAN & V. H. PERLMUTTER L’Harmattan. (1989), F. Exploring PAVÉ game: the of pp. 701-730. rules expedience”, the organizational in (2010), G. “Elasticity D. GALLAGHER L., MA J.M.L., PARKS Management Review Reconceptualization”, A Coupled Systems: “Loosely (1990), K. WEICK & J.D. ORDON pp. 145-79. processes”, nal institutio to responses in “Strategic (1991), C. OLIVIER innovation and 15 (6),pp.603-611. slack the firms”, of multinational study between A relationship Slack? Organizational of Optimum the Amount is “What (1997), R. GULATI N., NITIN Review Vacuum”,Empirical and (1978), “Determinants T.of Expatriate Effectiveness: GUTTERIDGE A & Theoretical B. BHATT J., NEWMAN Business Studies Satisfaction”, of Job Predictors Expatriate “Organizational (1993), E. NAUMANN of Model Conceptual Studies, “A (1992), Turnover”,Expatriate E. NAUMANN pp. 1467-1490. capitalism”, of institutionalism, varieties of Varieties multinationals. of space contested “The (2006), P.H. Kristensen & G. Morgan Work (1973), H. MINTZBERG “The (1985), Review”, G. A Academy ofManagementReview Acculturation: ODDOU Expatriate of & Dimensions M. MENDEHHALL

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rto, vlain Atoiain n Rsrcin f Chemicals of (REACH), establishingaEuropean Chemicals Agency. Restriction and Authorization Evaluation, tration, Regis the concerning 2006 December 18 of Council the of and (1) the was controlling of it intent the with 1976, instrument regulatory first October in Ford Gerald by ever President Signed laws substances. ambitious toxic controlling most for the imagined of one is TSCA The risks their and taskof (JOUZEL &LASCOUMES2011). molecules the on firms information on producing it places differs REACH because However significantly scope. their to regard with other,TSCAeach to likened particular frequently in are substances. chemical of thousands of chemicals(REACH) and restriction authorization “registration, evaluation, chemical industry. Like the TSCA, this regulation on the the by produced substances over controls far-reaching of set a 2006 December in adopted Union European Control Act (henceforth TSCA) in the United States, the Toxicthe of Substances passage the after years Thirty [French version:December2016-n°126] Santé Mentale,Société(CERMES3) PhD inSociologyandpostdoctoralresearchattheCentredeRechercheMédecine,Sciences,Santé, Henri authorization” The REACHof“prohibitionthrough Regulating molecules“withoutdata”: the marketplacetooutrightprohibition. “prohibition throughauthorization”,whichprefersa gradual withdrawal of toxic substances from particular,in owing, chemicals high-risk for its regulation to of form new a deploys thus REACH benefits. socioeconomic have business their to essential deemed chemicals the that and risks dangerous regulate health control they to that proving of burden the authorities firms on placing by enables data new without molecules procedure authorization Its blockage. this lifted has 2006, in adopted regulation, information REACH EU’s of The firms. asymmetry and the authorities regulatory of between out arose stalemate a Union, European and the States both in United time long a For market. the on chemicals of haveencountered thousands the control authorities to trying that public while out pointed are difficulties the 1976, of Act Control data the of confidentiality or available lack (but unequally so) absence, to authorities the and companies? despite Starting with substances the US high-risk Toxic control Substances to How Regulation (EC) No. (EC) Regulation BOULLIER 1907/2006 of the European Parliament European the of 1907/2006 GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 ” is intended to regulate several regulate to intended is ” , (1) REACH and the and REACH - 00 VGL RBRS 01. h EA has EPA The 2011). ROBERTS & (O’REILLY VOGEL analysts several 2010; of opinion the in failure regulatory a been has act American the other, each to likened frequently TSCAare the and REACH Although these reduce to risks. steps necessary the has take to chemical is duty the a If its environment, that the or market. health for risks determine “unreasonable” the to on manages chemicals EPA new placing requests handling for for procedure a has also act This insufficient. is agency the when to cases, provided information certain the in tests, and studies additional EPA to propose requirements for companies to conduct the enables also It market. the on already chemicals of information on the production, uses and harmful effects present market. The TSCAEPAthe the on authorizes chemicals collect to the authorities, for federal identifying, by of control task the assigned been has EPA) (henceforth Agency Protection Environmental the law, of registration, assessment and prohibition. To apply this procedures its through chemicals of thousands several

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Henri BOULLIER IN QUEST OF A THEORY 48 LEX%3A02006R1907-20140410. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/?uri=CE of EuropeanUnionlawareavailable at Texts60. article in reformulated is recital this in expressed intent monitoring. and normallybesubjectto including conditions, view whoseperiodswouldbedetermined onacase-by-casebasis re be subjecttotime-limited should Furthermore, authorizations to undertake. or intends is undertaking the applicant development on anyresearchand information of substitution,including sibility fea and economic their risksandthetechnical considering natives should provide ananalysisofalter for authorization all applicants or technologies, substances alternative concern bysuitable high “To ofsubstancesvery replacement theaimofeventual support article: this of reading the to relevant highly is which REACH, of recital from quote to like would who France), Beach, (Omaha (2) being of process the regulatory in the molecules several traced of I circuits wherein studies case two of findings the on drawn have I TSCA, the between and filiation REACH the for As reports. and publications EPA manages Center which Service Publications, National Environmental the for of archives the on and employees EPA former with interviews on based are papers working sciences: the particular during the drafting of (in REACH). My remarks social on archives the TSCA the from the documents of analysis the as and in nonparticipant) as well (participant observation research interviews, classical semidirective three of using collected methods were Data 2016a). (BOULLIER dissertation doctoral a for 2014 and 2011 article This and firms. authorities public between relations the reconfigured has (authorization), procedure control new a to thanks I would like to explain how this Herein, shift type. in EU industrial policy-making, an of procedures regulatory in role key a play firms contrast, In decision-making. and expertise of work the government of most do to through had that agencies substances toxic charge controlling in a were of authorities For administrative regulation. time, industrial long an to administrative an from shift a of part 2012; are 2006) JOLY HESS & “ways GAUDILLIÈRE & (GAUDILLIÈRE new drugs” that regulating failed? is of herein control has explored TSCA to hypothesis the able The been while regulation chemicals EU dangerous the has How its negativeeconomiceffects(CATOIRE to drawn been also has (FUCHS attention though chemicals even 2009), managing for and paradigm” innovation for “new opportunity a an both be to said is REACH whereas failed, has to TSCA the unanimous: be tended have critics the and 2008), TSCA (APPLEGATE the REACH of 2006), comparison systematic VOGEL a or 2010, ASHFORD 2012) (KARLSSON & principle information precautionary (KOCH to referring management Whether “unreasonable operational. of concept risk” the making for or studies for authority the requiring lacks manufacturers to carry out additional scientific it because substances more prohibited not EPAhas The issued. was it after years two than less asbestos on ban the overturned courts the Furthermore, chromium. hexavalent and asbestos this act dioxin, chlorofluorocarbons, PCBs, under adoption: its agents since chemical five only prohibited

This article has been translated from French by Noal Mellott Noal by French from translated been has article This GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 (2) eis n eerh odce between conducted research on relies et al . 2012). - ” The ” 72 - - -

of allthis,thecreationEPA. out coming and, agencies federal rationalizing to Nixon President by given priority the issues, environmental of politicization increasing an TSCA: the to led factors public the health problems caused handling by pollution. for Three major nor such, as pollution environmental managing for responsible was agency time, government no the At 1938). of Federal Act Cosmetic (the and Drug, drugs Food, or 1910) of Act Rodenticide and Fungicide, Insecticide, Federal (the pesticides as uses their targeted chemicals controlling for only arrangements the then, Till chemicals. dangerous of issue the address to approach sectoral) a of (instead disciplinary In the 1960s, American authorities started using a multi The EPA, firmsandthelackofdata industrial forms ofregulation. and administrative between borderline the on approach new this in role key a play Firms zation”. authori through “prohibition its notedly REACH, under ofregula sets two tions will be described along with the innovations made the between filiation the United the States, in regulated are chemicals industrial how regulated in the EU has deeply changed. After recalling and REACH suggest a similarity, the way chemicals are TSCA the both of procedures regulatory the Although plasticizer, well-known the bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate(DEHP). particular, in prohibited, to Washington. In the last chapter, he raised questions raised chapter,he last the Washington.In to back him bring soon would book this substances, toxic and pollution 1970). to related DAVIES programs federal & on Focused (DAVIES his OMB from the drawn in book experience a environmen wrote assessing Davies programs, to tal devoted years two After programs. federal out carry agencies government how examine employees its policies; presidential the with comply services government other that it to sees also OMB The budget. United States), federal the the drafting for of responsible of President Office Executive ofthe part (OMB, andBudget of Management Office the joined Davies when mid-1960s the in started all It ofthe theevolution TSCA duringitsinitialyears. for tracing aguideline is offices, federal various and University Princeton between time draft help would sharing by started law.career,had of His which bill the reform, a such imagine to persons J. arose. reform a making of question The pollution. manage to unable was government out federal the pointed why TSCA reasons the the drafting in involved be would who persons several Meanwhile, concern. catalyzed Rachel environment. the Carson’s in substances toxic raised being about were questions more and more 1960s, the During coordina charge. in agencies of federal the among lack tion a to owing applied, unevenly were programs existing The environment. the on programs few very had government federal EPA,the the the to Prior of regardless source substances toxic Managing Silent Spring lrne Try Dve, n o te first the of one Davies, “Terry” Clarence (1962) sounded the alarm and alarm the sounded (1962) - - - - - hmcl opn) i ws o eiet ht h two the that evident not was it Company), Chemical Dow of employee former a vs. academia from scientist bill’s political (a careers the different quite their Given draft. write first would Davies whom with a expert Lettow, legal Charles and Davies between relations were the as thorny, were Negotiations issue. sensitive a was substances toxic on law of bill the start, the From Preserving theasymmetryofinformation later, the Toxic SubstancesControl Act. years six become, would what chemicals. on started Negotiations now regulate to agency power the The without but board. existed the across chemicals ling control for agency an — soil or air water, in whether a about single federal body to be in charge of toxic substances, Costle, and Davies by adopted position, the vindicated that event major a EPAwas the up Setting TSCA startedin1971. in the become up would what on set talks and 1970, December was EPA The sorts. all to of agency pollution control an creating for called Nixon Congress, to message special govern a In programs. environmental federal ment’s the in reorganizing ripe massively were for Conditions 1970 election. 1972 the during it this on him badger would opposition The priorities. his among figure not did it and topic, this with familiar not was He problems. pollution on needed he advice the have not did he realized Nixon President Meanwhile, regulatory independent of problems sort authority. a environmental board: handling the across for powers commission a with be to was agency future the whereby counterproposal a drafted he administrator, EPA’sfirst not was feasibility. or Along with Douglas relevance Costle, Davies who would later become the proposal’s this Services. of Health, convinced Social of charge and in services Education the too, the and, of Interior and Resources Agriculture Natural of departments of the Department include to a up set to was idea first environmental, group’s The for policies. social and responsible agricultural agencies federal of number the reduce to soon how on Davies working group policy,a joined environmental on expert an As of newchemicals. through new regulations, a procedure for the marketing or radiation charge. Davies’ to second proposal was to institutionalize, related in being actually them of any without safety workplace problems health handled agencies and services government several while tion, air of charge in pollution; and was the Department of Interior, of water pollu Service Health Public US The pollution board. the across handled be to problem a as pollution managing seen previously had of one No source. charge its of regardless in agency federal set up a to was first The market. American the on cals chemi controlling for proposals two formulated Davies present inthehumanbodyandenvironment? government to control the multitude of toxic substances they have? What sort of reform would enable the federal about environmental programs. What objectives should GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 - - - -

in Europe. Before taking effect, the TSCA had a TSCA the effect, taking Before Europe. in lasted later, years thirty REACH, on negotiations a that for quest adopting the TSCA in 1976 — nearly the same duration the before years six Congress complicated take would It compromise. further issues other Hill, legal Capitol on obstruction political from Apart went firms and asymmetry authorities untouched. the between information compromise, of this As a of negative relationship. byestablishing dose-effect consequence the a on of chemicals based proof causality of bring effects to physiological have the that would obtained the EPA Lynn industry, placing on of proof of principle burden the Despite Commerce. attorney chief at Lynn, James with text the renegotiate first this authors two raised the that arbitrating required OMB at the objections Commerce, by of the look of charge closer cognizance Taking (in a version. OMB take the to led disagreements) bill the to Commerce of Department the from opposition Strong by Congress. REACH of core on proof of burden — principle second this However manufacturers. the placed that a labor and of market division the on chemicals place to permission requesting for procedure a pesticides: and drugs ting based on two key principles in line with those for regula law of bill a drafted they chemicals, of, perceptions and Hardy on20 October2009. (3) team wasaccusedofbeing pro-industry. Gorsuch the The formaldehyde. to about related cancer of Ruckelshaus, risks under then Gorsuch under conclusions, opposite reached agency the then), since similar data (which, by (GRAHAM the way, have not changed agency much Gorsuch (1983-1985) the Ruckelshaus Anne headed William when and particular (1981-1983) in administration, Reagan the during EPA the by endured times difficult D. John chemicals, nic carcinoge surrounding controversies the on book a In (1981-1989) becamepresident. Reagan after happened what with compared much amount to not did this all inafederal But office challenge. a was a new agency, up the organizatio to of setting added difficulties nal feat, first This list. the on chemicals thousand seventy nearly are there present, at — nightmare a as work inventory this described tors chemicals. administra new the control time, and the At identify to used be inventory,would this which make to therefore, was, difficulty major first country.The the in and update a list of all chemicals manufactured or used the act. Under the law, the EPA was to compile, publish a hard time during the first months following passage of The EPA office in charge of implementing the TSCA had The impossibilityofprohibitingchemicals the“Toxic it nicknamed pundits Substances Conversation Act”. some that so flawed being as it saw which EPA, the in reputation poor would get along. get would J. Clarence Davies interviewed by Jody Roberts and Kavita and Roberts Jody by interviewed Davies Clarence — would be left out of the act passed act the of out left be would — (3) Despite their variant approaches to, approaches variant their Despite rhm a dsrbd the described has Graham et al 18) Using 1988). . at the at

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Henri BOULLIER IN QUEST OF A THEORY 50 F2/947/1201/153685/ (consulted 17/6/17). http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ at Available (4) dangerous molecules. rers — REACH under proof of burden the of reversal the thousands But: chemicals. to of apply that prohibition and assessment registration, of procedures regulation, single a under foresees, REACH TSCA’s: has the 2006 to pretensions in similar adopted regulation EU The 1970. adopted after gradually EU the those to similar the are TSCA under foreseen arrangements been The have reconfigured. firms and authorities regulatory between of glimpse how, a in the management provides of risky materials, TSCAthe relations the of history brief This the market. on already chemicals regulating on up gave less or more EPA the 1992), (JASANOFF chemicals toxic prohibition. Following a period of namely “adversarial procedures” involving decision, ultimate allowed the that making option for only the of agency the deprived the But courts, deeming such a prohibition to uses. be too radical, their of regardless chemicals such prohibit to TSCA the use to tried EPA the molecules, toxic of “uses” precise the assess to data, of want for Unable, substance wouldbetakenafterthisruling. toxic a prohibiting for action other No TSCA. the of 6 end an put the costsideofTSCA equation ignored to bananyandallasbestosproducts,basically as mandated by TSCA regulation that would achieveanacceptablelevelof risk whether stated clearly EPAnot had overturned was (STADLER decision 1992). In 1991, the court concluded that the this manufacturers, of tion coali a by courts the in Challenged asbestos. buting distri or processing importing, manufacturing, on tion section under EPAopted, the chemicals, controlling for adopt to approach regulatory best the on investigations and the market. After ten years of research, public meetings on introduction their restrict or chemicals toxic prohibit evidence that it was nearly impossible for the agency to was setback This tools. analysis risk on asbestos relied 1989 in regulate to attempt unfortunate EPA’s The firms toprovidedata. force to possible not was it and chemicals, existing on available were available data enough not authorities: facing problem key the up covered analysis risk toward process from analysis, risk under shift, a to owing science the “pure” a deconstructing of hypothesis to led publication This Sciences. of Academy National the by published analysis risk on These differences were partly at the origin of a Red Book

Corrosion Proof Fittings v. — has fundamentally altered the management of management the altered fundamentally has — GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 ” (JASANOFF 1992:202, JOLY 1992:202, (JASANOFF ” 1999). shift The 6 of the TSCA, for a gradual but total prohibi total but gradual a for TSCA, the of 6 de facto from public authorities to manufactu to authorities public from “reliance on facts to reliance on on facts to reliance “reliance o h EAs eore o section to EPA’s recourse the to ”; and that and ”; EPA, 947 ”. F.2d 1201 (5t “the EPA, in its zeal (4) “there is any other The court’s ruling Cir. 1991). - - - - thousands ofchemicalsalreadyonthemarket. systematically provide data on the toxicity of the tens of past”: the of “burden the was loopholes important most the of 1986). One (EWALD framework regulatory existing gaps the on in insisting by role major a played Council the Accordingly, 1998. in Environment”) the of “ministers in itsconfiguration Union the of Council the of fically, (speci states member of Environment the of ministers the REACH, of origins the process of reform was set in motion at a meeting of the on story a to According REACH andthe TSCA: Similarpretensions came tofigureontheagenda. thus chemicals targeting regulations EU of reform The ministers of the Environment to the Council of the Union. their through reforms, demanding were states member several another, For thereof. number the decreasing effectiveness of EU directives and regulations and then the assessing toward pushed which agreement”, king law-ma “better the rationalization, of policy a was pursing Commission European the thing, one For 2006. in REACH the of adoption the stimulated to lead factors would that major process Two 1990s. late the in The idea of a far-reaching reform like REACH emerged substances? A newparadigmformanaging toxic 758EC drcie 839EC rglto 739 and 793/93 regulation 88/379/EEC, directive 76/769/EEC,Brussels,18 November 1998”. directive 67/548/EEC, (6) mendationscopy.pdf (consulted17/6/17). www.chemicalspolicy.org/downloads/Brainstorming-WRCRecom 1999. Available at: 24-25 Brussel, European the Union, for strategy “chemicals” future the a on of workshop development stakeholder A future”, the for challenge past, (5) substances toxic of thousands of tens several to control pretension the out, pointed already as was, There TSCA’s.the of us remind enough often REACH in set objectives for a future European strategy. The objectives on work to decided Commission the failure, this Given the 1960swasoverpowering. of end the since adopted directives and regulations of dozens the of application the this of assessment substances, concrete toxic controlling of start turn to the century till the waited not had EU the Although cals! 100,000 than more listed inventory European the that mind had in Bear them. of risks 14 for formulated reducing been for recommendations and ment; assess risk full a to subjected been had report, the to according 19, only regulation, this in priority a as listed 110the of Out assessment. risk of matters in wanting be to found was 1981) before market the on the risksofexistingsubstances 793/93 lar,regulation particu In management. risk in shortcomings identified the evaluated and chemicals on report regulations EU existing of operation this Council, the to 1998. Presented in report a publish to Commission the European led Environment the of ministers of meeting This European Commission, “Report on the operation of directive of operation the on “Report Commission, European European Commission, “Industrial chemicals: burden of the of burden chemicals: “Industrial Commission, European (5) firms were not under the obligation to theobligation under not were firms eray 99 DOC 1999, February “on the evaluation andcontrolof ” ( ” i.e. , substances placed I63/9 April XI/6337/99, substances chemi (6) ------

ersnaie h to pr i peiiay eoitos on negotiations the 100,000incirculation(BOULLIER &LAURENT 2015). preliminary in part REACH. Approximately 1,500 took who representative industry chemical European former a interviewee, one of words (7) of reach the beyond still was products, everyday many in omnipresent chemical, widespread extremely rous, dange this evidence, this all Despite studies. previous an additional document to add onto the large number of was subjected to a risk assessment phthalate by EU this authorities — produced, volumes large the Given tor. to (especially fertility children) owing to its properties human as an endocrine disrup for risks carries DEHP decision, this for grounds the as serving studies the to 1980s century.the of turn the till toxic “probably” as According the to back date (THOMAS toxicity its proving studies Although consequence. in classified and reproduction” for “toxic as recognized was molecule this before time till controls few long a took to it products, other many recently.Like quite subject was DEHP exposure, of risk high the and uses its to related risks the Despite and fordialysisevensextoys. blood for used bags the too, and, coverings floor vinyl toys, cables, electric curtains, shower products DEHP: most contain the manufactured of Many one phtalates. is widespread it applications, many and production costs low its Given 1930s. the during scale cial is DEHP) first time in the as 1920s, and produced on a known large commer often the for synthesized was It life. everyday in omnipresent (more phthalate hexyl) REACH regulatory authorities. Used as a plasticizer, how bis(2-ethyl illustrates clearly prohibits chemicals that used to lie beyond the reach of DEHP of case The this procedure works, let us look at a concrete example. time. short a such in moreover, result, a such achieved has chemicals controlling for on the “list subject to authorization”. No other procedure authorization” at the start of 2016; and 31 168 adoption, its after Tenyears molecules. toxic most the prohibit to hard was it REACH, of adoption the Before request. to a files that firm a to authorization case, by case granted, is them use temporary a unless prohibited, then are authorization” to “subject declared thus chemicals — data chemicals dangerous may prohibit authorities whereby “authorization”, procedure, new a foresees REACH that notice we however, look closer a Upon dangerous. most the of prohibition the and market the on chemicals of thousands the of ment very assess and registration the with is do to have principles regulation European the underlying three its counterpart: its American to similar that insist us Let Prohibit chemicalswhileauthorizinguses risks relatedtothemcouldnotbecontrolled. the when substances dangerous most the prohibit and assess and chemicals, of REACH inventory an up draw TSCA, to was the Like sources. their of regardless However the scope of this authorization is “moderate” in the in “moderate” is authorization this of scope the However chemicals figured on the “candidate list subject to subject list “candidate the on figured chemicals — on the grounds of their general properties. The properties. general their of grounds the on — etal . 1984), DEHP would not be classified be not would DEHP 1984), . GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 chemicals could be targeted among (7) o nesad how understand To ihu ay new any without of them were - - - - - o uhrzto.Atcptn ti dcso,Akm, a Arkema, decision, this Anticipating authorization. to subject substance a as DEHP of listing this by affected are firms big Several authorization. an without market February Since 2015, this molecule may not be placed on the toauthorization”. be“subject to chemicals first the among it placed ECHA the of states member of the committee the 2009, of As (SVHC)”. concern high in very of authorities “substance a declared was Swedish DEHP 2008, June from demand the Following procedure wasappliedtoDEHP. This time. limited a and use stated a for but molecule request can hope to be authorized to continue using the a filing firm REACH. The applying of charge in is which (ECHA), Agency Chemicals authori European the an from zation request to molecules these of one using continue to like would that firms the for is step second The case. by case granted there authorization unless precise market a is the on placed being from bited be made “subject to authorization”. to They are then prohi may subject molecules these list of toxic most “candidate the authorization”, the on placed being After tonnes produced. of the number of and classification its of grounds the on mainly concern”, high “very of be to chemical a declare to authorities national for is first The steps. major two has procedure authorization The procedure. authorities decided to submit DEHP to the authorization Swedish enactment, its after Shortly 2006. in REACH the law. The situation changed following the adoption of 2013. clothing children, regulations), EU other by under (restricted material contact food and cosmetics toys, also swallowed skin; bare the be against worn be to can intended that (<10cm) items to moulding household small toys, sex injection erasers, except articles PVC produce extrusion, by coating, processing spread polymer in calendering, use industrial for (DEHP) phthalate (8) substance onthemarket. the keeping temporarily for grounds adequate contains that the socioeconomic analysis or submitted in its request measures risk-management suitable implemented has it that prove to manages and a request files firm a that condition on time and use given a for market the on placed being chemical continue may authorization to A subject procedure. authorization an for provides REACH dispensation, a for possibility any without cals, chemi dangerous most the on prohibition outright an foresees TSCA the Whereas ban. EPA’sasbestos the of pitfall the avoided has REACH used, be longer no may substance toxic a which beyond limit time a cular parti in horizon,” “regulatory the conditions, setting By four years. to limited period a for and authorization the in declared uses the for only but chemical this use to authorization the obtained Arkema measures, risk-management its about firm the by provided information and data nomic PVC. in articles two make to 2013 August in requests with the ECHA filed for authorizations to use DEHP DEHP, of manufacturers European major the of one and firm chemical French rea plcto fr uhrzto fr i (2-ethylhexyl) Bis for authorization for Application Arkema, (8) n h bss f socioeco of basis the On

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Henri BOULLIER IN QUEST OF A THEORY 52 Table 1: Regulatingchemicalsbeforeand afterREACH expertise andcontroltogovernmentagencies. of tasks most adminis assigns which regulation, an of type trative was industry chemical the by produced the during agents therapeutic 20th to applied were public) that and juridical industrial, administrative, sional, Hess (profes regulation of forms five Volkerdescribed have (2012) and Gaudillière Jean-Paul knowing”, of “ways (2001) Pickstone’s John JOLYBorrowing 2006). & (GAUDILLIÈRE regulation” of “form new a to ponds corres procedure authorization its of deployment The chemicals. over control exercise to manages REACH their pretensions despite and the adoption of the TSCA in the 1970s, procedures, regulatory previous Unlike regulation of form new A authorization: through Prohibition that nopreviousregulatorypolicyhadachieved. procedure allows for prohibiting molecules — something procedure. Despite authorization these exemptions, the authorization the by concerned not is EU the outside production its all exports and phtalates makes that firm a consequence, a exported. As are it containing goods in question has no use on the European market since all substance the that fact the from benefit firms exporting market, European the on chemical a placing for “use” a state to manufacturer the requires procedure rization who export their goods outside the EU. Since the autho manufacturers European concerns exemption EU. Another the outside manufactured products many of tion composi the into enter which phtalates, contain for case they the if often even very is This authorization. not to subject substances goods, imported example, to for apply not, does procedure authorization The exemptions. many for provides REACH Furthermore, LAURENT 2015). & (BOULLIER the market chemicals the organize to power interests private to delegating fully to nor rement requi regulatory apurely to to a solution neither reduced finding simply be can that position “hybrid” numerous a in for are authorities regulatory allows result, a As cases. “special” procedure authorization this chemicals, of uses and properties the on focusing By Regulatory know-how Regulatory Data What tocontrol Intent andscope

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 century. For a long time, the control of substances The creationoflists. are substance toxic toxicological data. a prohibiting for grounds The of want for toxiocological data,fewprohibitionsarepronounced. administration: the on burden heavy A already on the market are subject to few or no controls. New chemicals to be placed defined on the market. Chemicals Narrowly policy. prohibitions, irrevocabledecisions. restrictive coercive, A (as undertheTSCA) Earlier procedures

------the same: directives and regulations mainly concerned mainly regulations and directives same: the to 2006, the European regulatory framework was much Prior uses. new or chemicals new concerning requests chemicals already on the market, controls are limited to fails to obtain data on the uses of potentially dangerous new chemicals. It is a coercive policy.controlling on Insofar focuses as the act EPAUS the asbestos), as (such market the on already chemicals over power Lacking different. quite are scope and TSCA’sintent The tage. advan competitive industry’s chemical European the of improvement the with compatible environment the and health human of protection the make to claims it particular, In TSCA. the including policies, regulatory previous most from scope and intent in differs REACH one underthe TSCA intheUnitedStates. the as such prohibition, rectify,of and policies previous how the characteristics presented in this table follow on, out point to like would I works, procedure authorization the how Tounderstand chemicals. risky controlling for process, decision-making Table the during know-how tory regula of production the in firms involves shift this how Toprocedure. authorization describe the of level the at play a key role. In the EU, this change can be observed clearly firms which in type, industrial an of regulation a being to of close comes thus the requirement It health. human protecting to to productivity related and objectives profit-making adds regula REACH by authorities, interventions tory for providing clearly While and destined for the list “subject to authorization”. The authorization”. to “subject list the for destined and concern” high “very of be to them declaring (DODIER by 1993) out them single they prohibited; be to cals chemi the selecting and of job the authorities have Authorities firms. regulatory between labor the of alters division procedure, authorization the in enshrined distinguishes REACH controls, between substances and no their uses. or This new approach, few to subject adoption, its to prior were, chemicals existing Whereas rized forcertainuses. autho is chemical the which during period the of end to the easier at but away right effect take not does it is since make chemical a prohibit to decision the dure, proce authorization REACH’s Under chemicals. new eioie te hrceitc o procedures of characteristics the epitomizes 1 between publicauthoritiesandmanufacturers. collaboration a of out Variousarise know-how of sorts socioeconomic data andinformationontheusesofchemical. submit must firm the authorization, an for request a filing When danger. its of basis the on authorization” to “subject as listed is chemical A the with possibility oftemporaryauthorizations. but substances toxic all of prohibition The tions fortemporary, specifieduses. Under apolicyof“responsibility-making”,authoriza REACH’s authorizationprocedure ------“without data”, “without even substance dangerous a prohibit to possible now is It prohibition. a pronounce to available information be burden could a prohibitions pronounced. Under REACH, few heavy authorities use the general that so administration imposed the on themselves This provide. authorities to had regulatory toxic on that information substances required procedures Previous should be temporarily authorized. “uses” whycertain to explain requests file must chemicals these using continue to want that firms (9) the that request filed by a firm for an authorization be accepted. condition on uses, certain for authorized rily tempora be may they but properties, grounds general their the of on authorization” to “subject made now of this asymmetry of information. These substances are spite in molecules dangerous certain prohibit to power the authorities regulatory granting by problems to settle is procedure authorization REACH’s of intent The agency tooutlawexistingchemicals. prohibiting in failure Its asbestos marked the end of any attempt by this federal molecules. toxic prohibit to regulation of chemical substances, the EPA was unable the in prevailed long that information of asymmetry the Given for manufacturers. on provisions proof of of burden TSCA the placing the stripped adoption its leading to negotiations thorny The reviewed. been has imagined been ever has that chemicals controlling — Act 1976 Control of Substances Toxic US the of history The role. an industrial form of regulation, wherein firms play a key to an chemicals risk from high of control shift of type administrative a of hypothesis the explored have We Conclusion are that now beingreplaced. chemicals old are authorization” to “subject classified molecules which most effect, for In exist). those substitutes with of (starting chemicals aprocess prohibiting dangerous gradually of purpose during the for authorities, collaboration with by along constructed is firms, Knowledge substitute. a invent to R&D for needed time the and theauthorization benefits socioeconomic Under dangerous market. procedure, attention is also take given to both the chemical’s the to off necessary to chemicals is used it evidence key whether the decide longer no are data such REACH, Under available. always not were data logical toxico relevant but risk-assessment, a on based was chemical existing an prohibit to decision a Previously, requests anauthorization. it when firm a by provided are benefits economic their on and molecules toxic of uses the on data the effect, classificatory criteria. any without authorization to generic of basis the on out singled are chemicals since data, new subject made be may chemical a implies, phrase this As 2012. September in interview an during In the words of a representative of the Ministry of Ecology of Ministry the of representative a of words the In n o te ot miiu plce for policies ambitious most the of one i.e. , without any detailed data on it. on data detailed any without , GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 (9) In — - -

and EnvironmentReports Risks of Chemical Management (Olivier), FUCHS 1986). (François), EWALD 1993). sur l’exercicedujugement sociologie (Nicolas), DODIER Politics ofPollution l’annexe par du règlementREACH. Lebental Catoire Houghton Mifflin,RiversidePress,1962). (Rachel), CARSON pp. 30-53, 2015. techniques”, objets des gouvernement de européen mode un réglementaire: BOULLIER (Henri) & LAURENT (Brice), “La précaution ‘vides’: Terrains &travaux dossiers des d’information”, asymétries aux face REACH l’expertise “Évaluer (Henri), BOULLIER 2016a. Paris, Paris-Est, Université Sociology, in dissertation BOULLIER (Henri), reform”, regulation Ecology LawQuarterly chemical for principles Practical APPLEGATE (John), “Synthesizing TSCA and REACH: References the not toupendindustryordisruptourwayoflife. from withdrawn as so introduced, be are substitutes as gradually, to market are dangers known with molecules defined: clearly is procedure authorization dangerous are the life. of everyday framework of The part are they but they know We ambivalent. are authorization” them to “subject as are well-known, everyday products. listed Our attitudes toward chemicals manufacturing The all about knowledge of the facts, whether to prohibit a substance. full with and decide, to last, at levels able, be to as so risks) processes onexposure related all tests (and and studies scientific relevant from information exhaustive with base data a managing past: the dangerous chemicals with no longer entails hurriedly making break a signals procedure authorization the case, any In procedure. authorization the under knowing” of “ways the of and firms and ties authori regulatory between relationship the of guration position a strong reconfi this about arise firms questions 2016b), (BOULLIER assigns REACH that Given AIS (J. DAVIES and Development Energy, Sustainable October2012. Ecology, of Ministry n° report Finances, and Economy n° risques et leurs sur lesmolécules des savoirs 011/GE/G o h Fec Mnsiy of Ministiry French the to 2011/17/CGIET/SG S) Fu e Kerdaniel de Fou (S.), (B.), lrne & AIS (Barbara DAVIES & Clarence) Mise en œuvre de l’autorisation au titre Mise enœuvredel’autorisation I d rgeet 1907/2006 règlement du XIV , 28,pp. 41-61,2016b. REACH: A New Paradigmfor the (New York: Pegasus,1970). Autoriser pourinterdire.Lafabrique L’État providence L’Expertise médicale:essaide , 35,pp. 721-770,2008. Silent Spring Les substances concernées Les substances Politique européenne Politique (4),2009. IR, Paris: IFRI, , F) Guillet (F.), 0810 t the to 007841-01 Bso, MA: (Boston, (Paris: Grasset, (Paris: Prs Métailié, (Paris, S.), report , 49(3), , R) & (R.) Health PhD ,

The 53 - -

Henri BOULLIER IN QUEST OF A THEORY 54 NL: Springer, 2010). Risks: EuropeanandGlobalChallenges M. pp. legislation”, chemicals al industri policy: of Achemicals comparison US and EU in principle precautionary “The (Mikael), KARLSSON January 2011. chimiques”, tain. Un détour de régulation pour la gestion des risques “Le (Pierre), règlement REACH: une LASCOUMES politique européenne de l’incer & (Jean-Noël) JOUZEL affaires sociales pour procédures scientifique?”, quelles l’expertise réguler nouvelle: quête légitimité et d’une d’expertise “Besoin (Pierre-Benoît), JOLY tiation of expertise at EPA”, JASANOFF (Sheila), “Science, politics and the renego (Cambridge, MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1988). and Cancer In SearchofSafety:Chemicals (Marc), ROBERTS & (Laura) GREW (John), GRAHAM transatlantique”, Sociologie dutravail comparaison une pour nologiques: biotech innovations des régulation et (Pierre-Benoît), “Appropriation JOLY & (Jean-Paul) GAUDILLIÈRE York: PalgraveMacmillan,2012). Drugs inthe19thand20th Centuries Regulating (Volker), HESS & (Jean-Paul) GAUDILLIÈRE

IE & C. & GILEK GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 Politique européenne Politique , 1,pp. 45-53,1999. UE (eds.), RUDEN , 48(3),pp. 330-349,2006. Osiris 239-265 in J. in 239-265 , 7, pp. Regulating Chemical Regulating Revue françaisedes 3, pp. 33, , 195-217, 1992. (Dordrecht, , ERIKSSON, 185-214, Ways of (New Risk - - - - Affairs strengthen oversight of chemicals in the interim”, Substances Control Act needs an overhaul, and how to VOGEL Press, 2012). the UnitedStates Health, Safety, and EnvironmentalRisksinEurope VOGEL(David), esters”, acid phthalic Reviews inToxicology other and ate phthal dI-(2-ethylhexyl) of effects GANGOLLI “Biological (Sharat), & (Michael) THOMAS (John), THOMAS p. 423-438, 1992. unreason ableness”, of battle A — Circuit Fifth the in v.Asbestos Fittings Proof “Corrosion (Linda), STADLER University ofChicagoPress,2001). of Science,Technology, andMedicine (John), PICKSTONE pp. 43-47, 2010. statute”, failed O’REILLY 14(1), pp. 31-46,2006. SA n REACH”, and TSCA for Implications policy: chemicals in information of role the “Rethinking (Nicholas), ASHFORD & (Lars) KOCH , 30(5),pp. 898-905,2011.

SA) ROBERTS & (S.A.)

(J.T.),“Torture a of Retrospectives by TSCA: TulaneJournal Law Environmental Natural Resources & Environment Natural Resources The Politicsof Precaution: Regulating (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Princeton NJ: (Princeton, Ways ofKnowing: AHistory New , 13(4),pp. 283-317,1984. Journal of Cleaner Production of Cleaner Journal JA) “h te Toxic the “Why (J.A.), Ciao IL: (Chicago, CRC Critical 6(2), , Health EPA: , 25, , - - , M u ato rsac porm cnutd t the association at the organization, ( NQT conducted nonprofit a program, of request research action Our whom theyareaccompanying. ofthose toemployment orreturn, access, the affects examples and, thus, are a positive source of motivation that ultimately they Furthermore, 2011). (CHAUVAC decision-makers corporate with contact in them putting (HOUDÉ wards their for opportunities job identifying of capable are and status rela social high a tively have often mentors the programs”, to paniment France unemployment. in youth authorities curb public by proposed toolkit environments tions to occupational young peoplewithoutapersonalnetworkof rela [French version:December2016-n°126] research associate(CentredeRechercheenGestion,ÉcolePolytechnique). Laure & Université deParis-EstMarnelaVallée); adjunct professor(NeomaBusinessSchool)&associateresearcher(InstitutdeRechercheenGestion, Jean-Baptiste Polytechnique); associate professor(IAEdeParis I)&researcher(CentreRechercheenGestion,École Nathalie Organisations, UniversitédeBourgogne); associate professor(UniversitédeFranche-Comté)&researcher(CenreRchercheenGestiondes Damien The followuponyounggraduates mentoring relationship: The conditionsforasuccessful together, theyformthe“magicsquare”ofsuccessfulmentoring effect; (expectations) relationship: mentoring the of effects psychosocial major four identified has program research” “action an firms, in working white-collars with contact into social or residency of place tothe graduates young brings that organization nonprofit a of request the at Conducted their background). to open access (owing underprivileged and are who discrimination youth for against work fight of to world is aim Its work. for looking are who education higher of graduates young on up follows herein described program mentoring The Nos Quartiersont des Talents AMAR, panying, in their search for employment, in their search panying, for especially work, of world the to, returning or entering, for programs entoring COLLARD, RAULET-CROSET, SUQUET, GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 3) (1)

ne tee “accom these Under the improvement of relational skills; and skills; relational of improvement the ), has inquired into inquired has ), ae at f the of part are ” 1996 “accom and ) - - - -

n n negnrtoa bn wt te etrs cin t the at action mentor’s the “articulation oftheoccupationaland socialfields with bond intergenerational an on based is mentoring (2002:50), Paul Maela For 1993. December (1) NQT hasgrownfast. the and scale, large a on expanded been has program experienced in the world of work. with Owing to its success, this mentoring contact white-collars, the goal being into to facilitate their integration backgrounds social (classified as “priority neighborhoods”) or disadvantaged neighborhoods underprivileged bring from to graduates is young activity core NQT’s the 2006, in mentors Founded between level. operational organization’s the at interactions and wards and psychosocial the of terms in both mentoring successful for conditions the iclr f 8 of Circular 1)

the “Wow!”the effect;

oebr 96 n plcto o a at of act an of application in 1996 November 4)

the network effect. effect. Taken network the (1) 2)

the Pygmalion the ”.

55

Damien COLLARD, Nathalie RAULET-CROSET et al. TRIAL BY FACT... 56 (Omaha Beach,France). (3) NQT’s whitebook(RAULET-CROSET et al. 2015). NIER & RAULET-CROSET 2016) and to the research report in the 3 of work or business model, are referred to the minutes of its meeting (2) underprivileged on focused have programs mentoring Other socialization. their in role a play will who adults, capital” tional — need programs mentoring by targeted people young the (2006), Frimousse and Dufour to According 2006). (CLÉMENT work of world de lajeunesse of services the (by control judicial under people young for designed been have programs Other 2001). LANLO & the FLEJEURY DE are CORVISART who people 2002; young (WAHBI market labor the from removed for farthest locally have up Programs set qualifications. been no or few with targeted youth mainly have France in programs Mentoring Integration inemploymentasanobjective world ofwork Mentoring foropeningaccesstothe too, itslimits. and, research our through made advances the discuss 1963) as a gird of interpretation. In conclusion, we shall (BECKER theory labeling using by presented be then the methodology adopted in response. Our findings will and research for request latter’s NQT,the the field in work our describe then shall We mentoring. of limits access to the world of work, analyze the objectives and gain people helping for programs mentoring on made that, studies the of account brief a with start shall We account foreffectivementoring. studied case the In herein, they were the principal psychosocial mentorship. factors that of square” “magic d) effect, tions) a) ring: mento successful for secrets psychosocial four light to to be evidence of its success. Our research has brought relationship, since the association’s mentorship model seemed mentoring to us the in interactions psychosocial of the aspects explore to herein chosen have We vising thefrequencyofmeetings. then to manage these mentorships over time, by super has been to successfully match mentors with wards and relationships. Its special talent, in its work with partners, “conta mentoring maintain and create as to tries NQT the gious”, partners its by described often energy an deploying By association. the by organized events the in participates or level local the at facilitator and relay a as serves work, for looking graduates young among offers job circulates mentoring, organizes a with partnership Such etc. NGOs, partnerships organizations, public multiparty and private establishes NQT The

the network effect. Taken together, they form the form they together, Taken effect. network the Readers who want more information about the NQT, its social This article has been translated from French by Noal Mellott Noal by French from translated been has article This eray 06 t cl d Prs u aaeet (FOUR Management du Paris de École at 2016 February GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 the “Wow!” effect, “Wow!” the (3) c) ), the aim being to help them enter the enter them help to being aim the ),

t b sosrd y experienced by sponsored be to — h acul f neatoa sil and skills interactional of accrual the b)

the Pygmalion (expecta Pygmalion the ie ter o “educa low their given (2) Protection judiciaire ------

(COULANGEON 1999:696). The ward is thus endowed renown inthe magicvirtuesofthementor’s by belief conveyed gestures, ritual of effectiveness generis sui thus has,inaway,achieved throughsponsorship the a “insofar asit has to do withbeliefs,thetransfer of fame be to said been “transfer of fame” in the case of French jazz musicians: has phenomenon This Philippe recommended the recommenderispartlyconferredonperson effective thevalueattributedto of value’,whereby ‘contagion proven have to which creditable (BARON integration application for networks local on studies in shown job been has This employers. the potential the ward, makes his/her mentor recommending By 1974). Granovetter (1973, Mark to dear ties” weak of “strength the provide illustrates This wards. to their for books opportunities job find to address volunteers their use on mentors These rely counseling. programs these All (KROHMER or books” address their “open to pledged minorities have that firms “visible in work who from mentors with neighborhoods” lower-class graduates contact into l’Intégration Professionelle) runs a program for bringing diplomas. with Besides the NQT, people the AFIP (Association pour Favoriser young of categories targeted have organizations, nonprofit by run programs, few A of workwerenotassessed. effects on orientation after high school and integration in the world orientation of students were barely the cogent. However on the long-term program latter the of effects medium-term and short- the association al., et Behaghel 2013). to al. the (BEHAGHELAccording et Actenses and 2015) (BANCEL-CHARENSOL Ensemble (4) whereby increasing contacts between two social 1954), groups (ALLPORT contact” of “hypothesis the with do to has reason third Rebzani’s commitments. their keep employers that it to see mentors when effective more (CIALDINI priming of technique” “low-ball the Secondly, efforts. their on up motivates people them to reconsider young their perceptions of firms andin these double placed confidence the Rebzani, the to According open them. to and doors company’s people young disadvantaged toward open-mindedness his prove to has then he mentoring; on charter national the sign to is step first employer’s favor big The one. a smaller a requesting by obtain start someone, from to 1987): BEAUVOIS and & step” first Thefirst (JOULE the wards taking of “technique the reasons. young with do three to has the for effective both is employers, from commitment a obtaining by mentoring, (2000), Rebzani to According effects ofdiscrimination(BERENI2009). the counter to is work of world the to, return or enter, people help that programs mentoring of purpose One The fightagainstdiscriminationasapurpose with anotherwiseunattainable“symboliccapital”. them finishhighschoolandfindajob. help to being purpose the students, school secondary xmls r te rgas f h fudto U Avenir Un foundation the of programs the are Examples etal. (UEU MRHL 2009:183). MARCHAL & (BUREAU ” 2010). etal 17) ae mentoring makes 1978) . “partly becauseofa (4) et al . 1995), . ”

struggle’s objectives but that, discrimination inactualpractice,deviatesthis against forfighting programs social to specific is that on relies heavily (2011:67), whose criticism goes even farther, mentoring & (MASSON defined VAN DE WALLE 2001). clearly According to Milena Doytcheva not is go-between a role as mentor’s the and are understood; objectives poorly the sometimes broad; too often is programs ring mento by targeted jobs public the to Furthermore, youth. priority for grant to order in background the pushed into often isthus discrimination against fight The who are expected to modify their attitudes toward firms. people, young onto discrimination against fighting for responsibility push to tends it Besides, 2003). MOYER practices (MASSON & VAN DE WALLE 2001, GARNER- and this hardly motivates them to alter their recruitment or even criticized it. Mentoring lets employers off lightly, mentoring about reservations had have scholars Other the from drawn hypotheses literature in social psychology on obtaining compliance. working are reasons three these that mind in bear us Let other. each about will, under certain conditions, attenuate their prejudices in real-lifesituations. mentoring successful for accounting factors many the discover to sought has approach, pragmatic and nist interactio an via inquiry, Our one. by one mentoring separately, in This active processes experiments. the see design to them leads to a how or about remarks theoretical discussion to limited usually are itself studies that do take a look at the mentoring relationship those another, For market. labor the in discrimination on concentrated mainly and approach macrosocial mentoring a analyzing For one thing, some of the critical for studies have adopted paths programs, the aforementioned studies have drawbacks. opening Though of mentoringprogramsis,aswesee,keen. as abacking. The NQT’s mentoringprogramtriestoactonthesethreepoints. network codes. Thirdly,occupational its no and have business they of world the of and market labor the of knowledge lack Secondly,they search. job the conducting for methodology no have and themselves in confidence lack they all, of First a job. for look they as people young these by encountered difficulties the for to account According Yazidreasons main NQT’sthree the founders, Rimbault, Raynald and Chir THEIR DIFFICULTIES contact theassociation. withuniversity themajority degrees, have people, trouble finding a job on par young with their qualifications. They These are often demoralized law, when they insurance. the or resources, finances a human management, business/marketing, accountancy, was: communications, profile in education frequent an most had people the NQT,young the the of 50% fact, to In communications. in education According postsecondary of women. years five with woman were 26-year-old recruits of 64,4% 2014, In PROFILE OFRECRUITS “rural revitalization”)orsocialbackgrounds(underprivilegedgroups). higher of years of zones or neighborhoods “priority” (in three residence of place their of function a as recruited are education) least (at diplomas postsecondary with old, years thirty than less people, Young TARGET Young peopleintheNQT’s mentoringprogram “an ‘adaptive’to ‘publics’ approach ”. The controversy on the cogency the on controversy The ”. GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 - - eul potnte” te Q hs olwd up followed has of pursuit NQT a the as program opportunities”, mentors its “equal to 7,800 Referring program, search jobs. their for this in graduates young of accompanied have start the Since their from come personnel. mentors since resources”, “human too, and, funding providing by association the support partners These firms. and etc.) offices, unemployment local universities, authorities, (local institutions with public partnerships on relies program large-scale This collars with at least eight years of on-the-job experience. white- are unpaid, are who Mentors, mentoring graduates. young a of integration occupational France the promoting for throughout program conducts 2015, in wage-earners NQT,forty The approximately had which with 200 younggraduates. carried out in 2005 in Seine-Saint-Denis, north of Paris, in association experiment successful a of France. NQTout The came employers’ main the of branch local a respectively, Ouest, 93 MEDEF were, of delegate time, general and president the at who, commitments Raynald Rimbault and YazidChir of initiative the on 2006 in created tion Nos QuartiersOntdesTalents by conducted actions mentoring the studied have We The artofmentoringonalargescale: The NQT Fieldwork andmethodology vrg wti sx ots sed jb (contracts qualifications. their with par jobs on the more) or months steady a six on of duration a months, of found, over six have within them people average of young 69% period: 30,000 10-year approximately on , two entrepreneurs with strong social , a nonprofit organiza nonprofit a ,

57

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Damien COLLARD, Nathalie RAULET-CROSET et al. TRIAL BY FACT... 58 to corresponds clearly It representations. cognitive and social phenomena from the angles of social interactions on focuses 1969) (BLUMER interactionism symbolic of current This 1963). (BECKER theory labeling findings on relied the consequence, a we orientation, this 2011:30).For (AYACHEDUMEZ & as and, material the not toshape enough loose the data,frameworks in avoid to hypotheses but of frameworks for orienting one’s self necessary data: was the in lost being framework theoretical A main four these combines psychosocial effects. mentorship of square” the access of young people to employment. The “magic facilitate observed, situations mentoring the in present usually that, effects several identify to able been have theory,and data between forth and back shifting By we Findings toward theworldofwork. people young accompanying for program NQT’s the in case, a study of the conditions for successful mentoring emerges from the analysis of the phenomenon — in our that data, collected the examining on grounded is that concept or theory a propose to disprove but theory or existing an prove to not is purpose the Accordingly, emerge fromthedata begins withanareaof study andallowsthetheoryto […] Rather,theory inmind preconceived theresearcher method inductive whereby: empirical, an 1967), STRAUSS & Underlying this research is “grounded theory” (GLASER asked Adrien Constant, one of its members, to conduct. a of survey by questionnaire findings of mentors, which the the NQT had used also We mentors). with seven and graduates young with twenty than more members, NQT with dozen (a interviews and organized) it events NQT’s the with staff, observationsin the association(mainly duringthe meetings in participation several methods: combined that program research action long relationship. mentoring the of An issue the on while verging model business and foundations the association’s analyze and describe research: alead our for members, emerged staff with meeting first a Following us inFebruary2015. mobility”. This was the NQT’s outlook when it contacted social of “activation the the on about book white thinking this of contents start to time was it meeting, a the for After request Palace. the to positively Élysée responded Office President’s the at Hollande François President to personally it delivering and book white a writing of 2015, the in idea, the had founders association’s work, of world the in from backgrounds social graduates modest young integrating of importance the of aware office-holders political Tomake employment. 100,000 the accompanying of as goal set its association France. this anniversary, in over tenth an its all start-up”, For operations from “thriving with evolved words, a NQT president’s to the setup period, experimental ten-year a In The NQT’s requestandourmethodology

ad hoc GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 “Awith a a project not begin does researcher eerh em omltd n 8-month an formulated team research ” (STRAUSS & CORBIN “It isamatternotoftheoretical on pol toward people young 1998:12 ). ” graduate recalled: young One mentors. their on label positive a fastened people young these a consequence, As effect. Wow! the unleash helped elements the these listening… of mentor experience the or workplace, the of layout the (often a big firm with an exceptional force of attraction), work they where company the question), in youth the for model role a often thus white-collars, (experienced mentors of image and status NQT). The the by set rule (a works mentor the where firm the in mentor his/her the time first the when for met job triggered a for looking was graduate young effect this research, our In concept practical a rather thananacademicconstruct. is it (1994), Peters by theorized orapprecia admiration surprise, ‘Wow!’ by theinterjection tion translated of effect an mers service oradvertizingcampaignarousesamongconsu “Wow!” marketing, In The “Wow!” effect show howtheyareinterdependent. research from the viewpoint of labeling theory and then inour identified effects psychosocial four the present shall We relationship. mentoring the in happens what nition/ [consultedon2June2017]. (5) words: they attached a positive label whereby to their wards. In one mentor’s process a aptitu — deserving had were and potential, des, had accompanying were whom they people young the that convinced deeply were Mentors mentorships. in play full into came effect This less successful. are pupils why reason a as expectations low teachers’ to pointed who (1952), Becker Howard was idea this of harbinger Aperformance. scholastic latter’s the ves impro pupil a of success the in believing teacher a of As fact mere the showed, (1968) Jacobson and 2003). Rosenthal &SARRAZIN (TROUILLAUD effect” tions “expecta the to what called usually refers have effect psychosociologists this sphere, educational the In The Pygmalioneffect self-labeling. positive of process a through — self-image graduate’s landing a job. of All this had chances a positive impact the on the young enhancing was mentorship that belief the even or recognition of feeling hope, motivation, a spin-off: psychological positive a had effect Wow! The From the website: http://www.definitions-marketing.com/defiwebsite: the From His job is to help run Coca-Cola. His jobisto I help runCoca-Cola. remember: it was such a position! He’s not paid for it [for mentoring]. in It was reallyastrokeoflucktohavesomeone at Coca-Cola. of logistics He wasdirector “I called. offices of an American sort. People were coolat were work, relaxed;theyfeltgood.” People sort. anAmerican of offices elevator. It was verymodern,alittlelikeGoogle, the to next was football table a floor, fourth the on “refers to the fact that a product, “refers tothefactthataproduct, ”. (5) Though ------the personsininteraction. on therelationsthat form as aconsequence, between qualities butontheapplicant’s ability to show themand, defined abstractly on not depending varies judgment] to makeajudgment[insofarasthis ability recruiter’s the overwhelm might skills relational flawed applicant’s (1999:45-46), Marchal Emmanuelle to According Improved relationalskills As ayounggraduatedeclared, their self-labeling. positive of process of a — experiences own perception their graduates’ modify helped young and the attitudes affected positively belief This ( neighborhoods” our in “talents the about name) (and slogan performative outstandingly NQT’s evinces This young people: the about talking while say to this had another as And This example clearly shows how feedback on the young a to According recruiter. mentor: the on impression a lasting making meant was it that, Beyond employer application. job points a the strong on his/her what to attention draw to to and ability remarks saying ward’s his the adjust setting: to interview the in inherent “codes” the learning meant skills relational Improving interviews. job for people young prepare helps it important: is ring attitude conducivetothejob search. ledher and (through a process of positive self-labeling) to adopt an attitude latter’s the affected ward) the of labeling positive graduate’smentor’s (the comportment Nos quartiersontdestalents “Aexample: Ididtheaterforten smallpersonal themselves!” than they of theiraptitudes are moreconvinced our tenacity, and aresometimessurprisedthat we to themand by ourattention “They areamazed with agoodreputation.” or inschools neighborhoods not onlyinprivileged “It supportsmyideathattherearegemseverywhere, head ofaprojectinmarketing-communication.” suddenly got it; and now, two weeks today, she’s forMelanie.She I think ittriggered something her it was outstanding. But I admit it was rough. So Itold everything! right away;andthatchanged the interview redid we debriefing, the after Then, apart, wewentovereverything! in herpresentation lose herconcentration[…] We pickedeverything not did She terrific. really was it and interactions, just as an observer. There weretwenty minutes of and Iwasthere tion withtwoothercolleagues, because shewastooshy.a simula So,Iorganized “It was necessarytomake Melanieprogress, was tellingmyself,‘Ohyea,butevenso…’.” on ateam’,etc. working for improvising, And me,I amazing. It’s fantastic!It means alot: the aptitude end of my résumé. He [his mentor] told me, ‘That’s ‘miscellany’years, andsoIputthatunder atthe GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 ” This is a reason why mento ). “an - -

As this example shows, the road to a job was opened was job a to road the shows, example this As accept toreceiveayounggraduate who persons the words, his In off. pays ultimately that practice a go-between, as serves then He meet. to like would they whom network Linkedin his in persons five choose to wards his of each to proposes he Linkedin, via contacts hundred of nine than more network and experience his opened professional of years thirty With wards. his he to relations because mentoring ful Jean accompany. they success so been has association, the in icon an Khiat, whom graduates young the with share can they relations of network extended an have program NQT the for volunteer who mentors The The networkeffect Aude putit: as decisive, be to out turned contact One network. his in persons with contact into her brought mentor Aude’s conference, the after cocktail the During spaces. urban and urbanization issue: 21st-century major a on works Foundation this 2008, in up Set Foundation. Palladio mentor The decided to take her along to a conference organized by Allianz. at working jurist a mentor: found a quickly her which APEC NQT, success, the to toward Aude lead oriented not did association’s program this six-month When Cadres). des in l’Emploi specialized pour association (an APEC employment opportunities for white-collars: Association to then office and pay unemployment the to to went just she job before rent to the job in from graduating went After Aude. Aude of architecture, case the in saw we as However this road was not always so simple or straight, the contactlabelyoungperson. too, and, mentor the whereby processes the through view, they’reusuallyhired.” they’re supple…Whenthey have a real jobinter view,prepared, they’ve been more sosince even youth, they can make the difference during the inter to have aninterview, because thesearetalented enormous! manages person And then,iftheyoung in yourapplication.’to applyisalready Beingable to seeif you canput for someone.So,I’mgoing is looking young person,‘Ithinksuch-and-such the tell they And way…’ a find to got I something! they tellthemselves,‘It would bestupidnottodo worked, isstriving,whowantssohard. And so, who has worth it.Theyseeayoungperson really who’swith someone they’re dealing “soon realize contacts] with the words ‘recommended by’. One ‘recommended words the contacts] with other people. After an interview, I wrote e-mails[to network interviewswithpeople whorecommended five think, I had, I another. to leads thing One ned. job interview.real That’s moreorlesswhathappe network. Someday, potentially, that wouldleadto a references for other contacts, for fortifying my never leaveaninterviewwithouthavingobtained me othernames.Mymentorhadadvisedto andgave anagency, and office consultancy a to you neverknow.’such-and-such, Hesentme who toldmeattheendofinterview, ‘Gosee network[at tant personinthearchitecture Allianz] “I had aninterviewwith,inparticular, an impor

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Damien COLLARD, Nathalie RAULET-CROSET et al. TRIAL BY FACT... 60 research our in observed effects psychosocial four The program. mentoring this of success the explaining for decisive are and interactions positive to rise give that skills) relational of improvement the as well as effects and Pygmalion Wow! (the effects other identifying by farther go they However effect). network the (through value” of “contagion a and commitment a both created program, NQT the in mentorship, since results these MARCHAL 2009). Our empirical findings are in line with (BARON integration for networks social local in value” of “contagion weak a of and “strength ties” the on studies empirical more the (2000) purely theoretical approach to commitments and Rebzani’s from apart this, of made been have studies ring relationship implies in psychosocial terms. Not many This article helps us better understand what the mento Discussion provethis to hypothesis. us enable not do findings our However labeling processes more effective in future mentorships. within his/her network, thus making the aforementioned onto the mentor, whose own image would be enhanced back reflect would job a found has who person young ofthe image improved the Accordingly, first. the onto back chains a effect fourth mentors, the whereby certain circle, virtuous of reputation the given imagine, mento can We effects. four all successful of combination a involves ring that emphasizes four. the metaphor of chaining This the to refers square magic the Instead, mentoring. of effectiveness the for accounts that separately taken effects four the of each not is It (the networkeffect). on them and recommended them to potential recruiters label positive a fastened who people mentors) their to (thanks met work, graduates young of the when so world more even the in integration for decisive proved often skills relational of improvement network this contacts, mentor’s of the of opening the with Combined positive feedback to wards is an act of positive labeling. mentor’s the mentoring; to thanks improved then skills of self-labeling through the Pygmalion effect. Relational process the — light positive a in past their perceive to came They themselves. in confidence regained people young these accompanying, are they graduates the in with the high mentor’s expectations and positive beliefs mentors by their wards (the Wow! effect) in combination magic of labeling positive the to Owing mentorship. the of square form theory, labeling of prism the through The four psychosocial effects, which we have analyzed The magicsquare ties” (Granovetter1973,1974). weak of strength “the on drawing and resource, key a the way toward employment by tapping his/her network, opening in role key mentor’s the illustrates clearly This

and a half ago, I have a position in a firm: I’m an architect inanagencythesouthwestofParis.” I’m firm: a in position a have I ago, half a and job interview.I hadayear an interview Following to another,thing leading I managed tolandareal GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 etal. 95 BRA & BUREAU 1995, - - Our research has another limitation. Although the magic person andmentor. young the between distance the to proportion in works be could taken to mentorship be a reason why positive labeling a is effective: it to parties the of market labor onthe the“value” in thewide we observed) (which ofitself: differential and in finding a be might what out of certain sorts (experienced white-collars). Let us point mentors by (graduates) people young certain of ment accompani the to applies mainly mentorship of square We however.findings our generalize cannot magic The labor market. the in position person’s young the modifying to shown, have we as leads, labeling positive of process repeated the a In graduates, young but and mentors inclusion. between interactions discrimination, and integration and social stigmatization to to not in lead, Becker by (studied Outsiders labeling negative Alongside into play in most social interactions and affect behavior. come self-labeling and explain labeling to of processes serve the can how It use. our wider to in put can, be opinion, it deviance, social producing on processes the on literature concentrated has theory the this Although theory. labeling to through topic this contributes approaching by mentoring also article This the worldofwork. in integration facilitated that dynamics group a off set e n prpit slto fr nepiiee young underprivileged for solution appropriate an helping be to for seems work of world the mentoring to, return or enter, people reservations, these Despite and volunteer, that provide financialandhuman resources. firms are “clients” program’s the of most when so more even adaptation, of goal lizing finalities of mentoring. Such programs have the norma and prerequisites the both are these interview… job a during them “sell” and assets one’s and to attention opportunities draw recruitment seize to how codes, knowing corporate learning self-confidence, acquiring self, one’s on Working it. to them adapt and situation current the for graduates young prepare they Instead, game. the of rules the change ultimately and source its at discrimination attack thus and practices recruitment corporate modify to intended not are NQT’s. programs These the as such aimof programs the entrepreneurial underlying of the philosophy of broadly, acritique more to and, us mentoring brings lead first The further studiesonmentoring. for leads two propose to like would we conclusion, In Conclusion the each younggraduatewhomtheyaccompany. case, this of situation occupational the In to adapt to is art mentor’s self-confidence. restored or skills relational improved of instead résumé or plans career his/her else: something be might work of world the in person young given a integrating for crucial be to out turns what example, For mentorships. specific in into play come might that phenomena other on light to shed fails it staff, NQT’s the for useful been has square , hr ae oiie aeig rcse that processes labeling positive are there ), - - Evaluation del’impactdu programme deparrainage BEHAGHEL 1985). Études desociologiela déviance J.P.by translation Deviance BECKER 25, pp. 451-466,1952. relationship”, pupil BECKER d’un l’exemple pp. 213-240, 1995. qualification: la GEIQ”, et l’insertion pour NIVOLLE BARON in Grenoble, 2015). service?” pp. de des services de performance tion etévaluation production (eds.), la M. piloter pour BANCEL-CHARENSOL tative”, réponses: à propos du codage dans la recherche quali AYACHE MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954). ALLPORT References its “stock”ofmentors? of value the to and reputation its to add can that circle of thevirtuous aware fully association the Is effects? psychosocial four the of advantage take organization the does How practices? regular organization’s the in the “right” practices shared, discussed and incorporated are How mentoring. of cases successful on capitalize to order practices association’smanagerial the in how understand issues these into would inquiring It worthwhile be itself. mento mentorship view beyond the into extending brought issues has within that focus interactions a relationship, delibe ring on research focused Our organized. rately is mentoring the with do way to has study further for lead second The built upthroughschooling. had they capital educational the to thanks “deserving” 1980) (BOURDIEU capital social and vileged — objectively,who, people underpri young were targeted for action “mending” It opportunities. equal for conditions actual the creating a was observed we the Finally, mentoring house. in benefits measurable concrete, brings and personnel, their for meaning has This lity. responsibi social corporate of programs to committed also are NQT’sprogram the for mentors volunteer ding provi firms the credit, their qualifications. To their with par on job a find to order in lack they what acquire to them enables Mentoring well. as self-confidence often, people who have diplomas but lack a network and, very BAOII S. ABRAMOVICI, 0-2 (rnbe Pess nvriars de Universitaires Presses (Grenoble: 107-128 Management des services:conception,produc Management Le Libelliod’AEGIS Cahiers duCentred’étudesdel’emploi Cahiers Gece I: re rs, 93. French 1963). Press, Free IL: (Glencoe, C) BUREAU (C.), (M.) & DUMEZ & (M.) (H.), “Social class variations in the teacher- the in variations class “Social (H.),

(H.), due to their very low endowment in economic P) “a osrcin e éeu locaux réseaux de construction “La (P.), (G.W.),

L) CHIODI (L.), Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Outsiders: StudiesintheSociology Briand & J.M. & Briand The NatureofPrejudice Journal of Educational Sociology GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 HVIR M. & CHEVRIER

L) “ul otl d’analyse outils “Quels (L.), (H.), “Réflexions en forme de forme en “Réflexions (H.), MC) LEYMARIE (M.C.), , 7(3),pp. 29-34,2011. V) GURGAND & (V.) Chapoulie: Prs Métailié, (Paris: — but who were who but — JOUGLEUX (Reading, Outsiders. C) & (C.) 34, , (M.), ------, ,

Cahiers Dynamiques justice”, de main sous jeunes des l’insertion pour CLÉMENT 1978. cost”, then Personality andSocialPsychology Commitment compliance: MILLER CIALDINI the to parrainage presented paper l’emploi. Intérêt, plus-value et difficultés du parrainage”, CHAUVAC travail”, du marché française desociologie du cœur au médiations BUREAU recherche ensciencessociales managériale”, catégorie en l’entreprise. La transformation d’une contrainte juridique BERENI 2013. January Paris, de d’Économie École report, research Chicago Press,1974). Careers Contacts and GRANOVETTER 1973. of Sociology Journal American GRANOVETTER (Chicago, IL: Aldine PublishingCompany, 1967). Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research GLASER 2003. de lalittérature GARNER-MOYER le du Management,3 February2016. nous Paris de association École sens”, et une “Économie seminar prouve”, talents, des ont quartiers FOURNIER & Avenir Management scolaire”, capital faible à jeunes des organisationnelle DUFOUR entreprises”, des Sociologies pratiques politiques les dans diversité’ la de DOYTCHEVA 1999. français”, jazz de française desociologie Revue musiciens des cas Le salariat. du COULANGEON 2001. Education permanente l’emploi”, vers d’accompagnement outil un Parrainage, FLEJURY DE CORVISART BOURDIEU and Method BLUMER pp. 87-105, 2009. del’association d’aide à l’orientation Actenses (L.), “Faire de la diversité une richesse pour richesse une diversité la de “Faire (L.), JA) “o-al rcdr fr producing for procedure “Low-ball (J.A.), (B.G.) & STRAUSS & (B.G.)

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(R.) & JACOBSON D) SARRAZIN & (D.) n eiin Tosn Ok, CA: Oaks, (Thousand edition 2nd

(N.), BORZEIX L) “Q, n ucs quel succès, un “NQT, (L.), Actualité delaformation Basics of Qualitative (L.), (A.), COLLARD Pygmalion in the in Pygmalion P) “Les (P.), Revue 16(3), (D.), - - esn drn ruie ciiis r n unforeseen TILLEMENT 2008, in or RAULET-CROSET & activities (JOURNÉ situations problematic routine during persons al WEICK 1993, ROBERTS & (WEICK mindfulness” “collective a from stems reliability them, to According conduct operations with potentially catastrophic effects. [French version:December2016-n°126] assistant professorofIndustrialSociology(ÉcoledesMinesdeNantes,InstitutMines-Télécom) Stéphanie & (École desMinesdeNantes,InstitutMines-Télécom), university professorofManagerialSciences(UniversitédeNantes,IEMN-IAE)andassociate Benoît J doctoral studentinManagerialSciences(ÉcoledesMinesdeNantes,InstitutMines-Télécom), Jérémy through interstitialactivities High-reliability organizationseen however, paid little heed to activities that, though closely SUTCLIFFE 2001, GENTIL & 2013). These studies have, (WEICK rooms operating and services emergency hospital (ROBERTS and 1999) JOURNÉ stations 1999, BOURRIER 1990, power nuclear of maintenance carriers (WEICK & ROBERTS 1993), the operation and aircraft on decks flight reliability: to related directly and concentrated visible are that activities have with installations high-risk on organizations high-reliability on refer tothemas“interstitialactivities”. therefore, shall, We organization. the of interstices the fledged part thereof, thus remaining on the boundary, in full- a not are 1996), (HUGHES tasks” “noble to related A 2008 . of utmostimportance. for research on “distributed organizations”, where questions of coordination and cooperation are handling bulk reinforce in high-reliability activities organization boundary overall. these The concept plants, of the “interstitial at activity” activities could prove of useful decompartmentalization the on and supervisors and operatives of vigilance the on effects their to Owing symbolic. and spatial temporal, organizational, fourdimensions: on activities interstitial of definition original on pragmatic theories and communication studies on organizations, this approach proposes an been used to analyze “interstitial” activities along the boundary with visible “noble tasks”. Based and theoperation carriers, The findings of fieldworkon intwo heavyhandlingoperations firms inthe nuclearindustryhave on aircraft decks flight etc. rooms, operating and services emergency hospital stations, power nuclear of maintenance reliability: visible to most the related on directly focused usually activities have organizations high-reliability of studies Empirical ta dvlp ot f neatos between interactions of out develops that ) hg lvl f eiblt i idsre that industries in reliability of level high a attaining for conditions the on focused have n increasing number of studies since the 1990s EYDIEUX, OURNÉ, TILLEMENT, et al GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 . 2009). Most empirical studies empirical Most 2009). . et (Omaha Beach,France). work. field This article has been translated doing from French by Noal Mellott observers as presence our accepted and time their shared who etc.) shippers, packers, (crane-operators, field the in persons all thank to like would We IRSN. and DCNS Areva, try: indus in partners its and Nantes/LEMNA) de Mines des (École (1) processes the on light working shed persons shall We the production. in from recognition activities: compel production they to crucial are organization, about the discourses and texts formal in missing though article This has (2009) Bourrier described as“organizationalrisks”. what to correspond operations these consequences, human and economic industrial, serious With submarines. nuclear and stations nuclear power for pressurizers) generators, steam vessels, pressure (reactor parts critical produce that companies two in meters) cubic several and tons bulky (several objects heavy, positioning and handling for operations analyzed have reliability,we organization’s an and ties activi interstitial between relation the understand To This research was undertaken under the auspices of RESOH (1) intends to show that interstitial activities, interstitial that show to intends

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Jérémy EYDIEUX, Benoît JOURNÉ et Stéphanie TILLEMENT TRIAL BY FACT 64 practices” and for forms of coordination in real-life situa of “communities within interactions of analysis detailed 2008), COCHOYa for concern the share classics, these on up & following (BORZEIX studies recent More the a “workwelldone”or“realjob”(BIDET 2015). of function a as tasks its to assigns group occupational (re) each “value” as continuously interactions are during assignments negotiated task and 2003) also a moral question. Zones of competence (BECHKY is it matter; technical a just not is labor of division the groups with shifting bounds (TILLEMENT 2011). Thirdly, of interactions and arrangements between occupational division of labor is a dynamic process that emerges out (HUGUES 1971, BECKER 1982, STRAUSS 1988), the interactionists for Secondly,other. the from separately same work” the (HUGHES “dirty 1971), the since we and at could not tasks” understand “noble the and one so-called the symmetry time, in observing, entailed research this all, of First reasons. three for approach interactionist an on research our grounded we groups, occupational higher-status by performed tasks “nobler” Tothe of boundary the on activities interstitial the study (TILLEMENT 2011, LLORY profit-making efficiency, and safety, security, readiness 2003:200). Reliability involves several aspects, such as exigencies economic and requirements compatible withbothsafety maintain alevelofreliability system to organized a complex that enable conditions to refers organization andnurses) High-reliability 2009). BOURRIER 2001, SUTCLIFFE doctors ROCHLIN pilots, 1993, (SCHULMAN airplane firefighters, and errors technicians, maintenance rooms, control in (operatives analyze to professionals recognized was by performed shortcomings) intent the when (even usually focused on the most visible and valued activities Research on the reliability of high-risk organizations has activities theoretical frameworkofboundary Interstitiality asaresearchtopic: The temporal, spatialandsymbolic. organizational, dimensions: key four from activities tial intersti describe concretely and activities tial/boundary EVERY intersti VANof theory a building for & points raise we (TAYLOR2009), organizations of studies communication and valuation to approach pragmatic Dewey’s John both on grounded definition a proposing By organization? reliability high of theory a into fit activi ties such do How activities. actual to than such as or boundary, activities is less related to the organization From a theoretical viewpoint, our definition of interstitial, “decompartmentalization” oftheorganization. they alone coordination among persons in workshops, they — organization the generating by which Furthermore, neglected. risks, previously had critical to regard with “vigilance” aroused they effect, In fieldwork. conducted we where plants the at organization high-reliability in whereby handling and porterage activities played a part

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 — managed to effect a spatial and functional “studying the organizational “studying et al . 2001). et al 18, EC & WEICK 1987, . (BOURRIER ” and - - - - in” TYO & A EEY 09. rm this From 2009). EVERY VAN “conversa & and (TAYLOR “texts” tions” between interrelation the of terms in organization the see studies Communication the settingofaruleforfutureaction. and action past a about judgement value a of making the as defined formally be can Valuation set. is value how explains valuation of theory His justified. socially being by “true” turn beliefs how studied Dewey 1979). avoid risks that they do not even perceive (WILDAVSKY will have to do so in the firm belief that the rules will help them apply who those and designed; as applied be will to work, those who make them have to believe that they rules the For regulations. and rules safety in belief the any like instance for Attention, “beliefs”, involves action, an of component processes. thought are action of forms conversely, and action; of form a are processes thought philosophers, pragmatist the For valuation. to communication of whereby such forms activities become subject the of function a as activities interstitial bing determine involved persons descri the propose We important. opinion, their in is, what how see it us since activities, helps interstitial interpreting for grid ting Dewey’s (1939) theory of valuation provides an interes 2014)? at (LORINO persons tasks “distributed” do coordinate workplace How the invisible. partly routine are everyday, that to actions attention special pay to sought have we them, with line In work. Dewey’s John of lar particu in pragmatism, of extension an are They tions. to a quarter of total production time; at the other plant, other the at time; production total of quarter a to amounted made was what controlling to devoted time the plants, the of one At assembly. and boilermaking tightly skilled, highly soldering, welding, machining, of operations controlled involved conducted was work field where workshops the in process production The hereafter hadaworkforceof450. described shop The industries. weapons and energy nuclear the for equipment heavy state-of-the-art make that firms two in activities porterage and handling ved obser we activities, interstitial describe Toempirically Fieldwork Methodology admits inconversationsthattheyareindispensable. everyone Nevertheless, invisible. are they sense, this In them. to refer not do texts organization’s the words, other In texts. in never conversations, in only valuation to subject activities as activities interstitial of definition initial an propose we framework, theoretical this Within high-reliability organization. produces that intelligence” in “collective 2001), the (MURPHY developing workplace the at operatives or whether 2004) conversations, (COOREN directors between exchanges by verbal played part decisive the 2008, KUHN PHILLIPS 2007, JOURNÉ & (DETCHESSAHAR agency, with it etc. dures, — texts perspective, et al cnttt te raiain n endow and organization the constitute — i.e 20) Suis ae lo shown also have Studies 2004). . ., the capacity for undertaking action undertaking for capacity the ., annual reports, evaluation proce evaluation reports, annual ------iue : lcn sig o a yidr ie eto t hit it hoist to section pipe cylinder a (drawing madeduringfieldwork). on slings Placing 1: Figure be mademorereliable. to have groups occupational other with interactions the general, in handling reliability organization’s the bulk like operations, of reliability the For processes 1999). production (PERROW major with coupled operations tightly moving are and Handling demands. these to related contingencies and priorities frequently the is to schedule readjusted weekly the and moved; be to workshop has irregular, Each unexpected needs pressure. for bulky, of heavy source objects a demands, ting these in “texts” fluctua to adapt must activity this Besides, companies. detailed of subject the not is heavy objects of handling the risks, visible quite the Despite long thesolderedmaterialsshouldbelefttocool. well how and solder to what indicating designs detailed are are there performed example, an be as soldering take to To documented. operations The half. the operations, etc. theperforming for available equipment the moved, be to object the of characteristics and shapes the and organized: handling operatives’s know-how and skills (CRU and DEJOURS 1983, DODIER planned are 1995),they how on weigh operations handling heavy of exigencies material and technical The from the principal contractor (who are assigned to five teams) and of five persons from In the a workshop where subcontractor.we did fieldwork, the group of handling operatives was made up of ten persons object tobeunsteady. moved. The most frequent mistake made by operatives is to leave slack in the tackle, which causes the hoisted fieldwork occurred when a machinist forgot to unclench a machine’s jaw and marks were left on the object being during witnessed event worst The operations. handling to related catastrophes human and economic potential 31 on During maintenance work on one of the reactors at the nuclear power station in Paluel (Eure Department, France) danger forworkersistobehitbyanobjectwhileitbeingmoved. workers. kill or injure also but shop the in machines damage only not might it drops, object an If mortal Another hoisted. being while bumped or scratched be might objects the However damage. without manipulated be they that requires installed be will objects these where plants the at Safety risks. carry operations handling These needed tomovetheobjectsbeingmadeaswellbinsandtools. be made was loaded and moved so that workers to have access to it. Such bulk handling operations were frequently object bulky heavy, Each project. by organized was fieldwork during observed process production The Box 1:Heavyhandlingoperations March 2016, a steam generator was dropped. This accident served as a reminder to everyone of the of everyone to reminder a as served accident This dropped. was generator steam a 2016, March GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 - observer (drawingmadeduringfieldwork). Figure 2: Hoisting a bin located behind a partition in relation to the The operations of handling and porterage are planned are porterage and handling of operations The o e oe n h cmn dy (DETCHESSAHAR days coming the 2013, LAROCHE1995). to in done occasions be to several on those and away right do to those operations, schedule place addition, take In discussions software. demand-management using

65

Jérémy EYDIEUX, Benoît JOURNÉ et Stéphanie TILLEMENT TRIAL BY FACT 66 mainly We operations. during exchanges oral and etc.) workers, other to and manipulated being object the to (tools, both relation done in operatives of work positioning the gestures, the of aspects material the concrete, both analyzed we organization, high-reliability to contribute operations handling how see To disrup etc.). tive, routine, (whether conditions working the and contents of the work done by heavy handling operatives the both employees, for and us for visible, make to as so analysis content a undergone has material this All collected we copies of documents used for Furthermore, communication purposes. 1996). (BEAUD handling heavy to assigned observed group the in we immersion of our whom during experiences production, in subjective working the persons detect to us interviews helped conducted also We observing. to were we workplace assigned situations the persons these the meaning the at understand interviews Informal Figure 3:Pagefromanotebook. texts to us enabled forms other in collected data with along observations direct These activities. their organize and plan to make we tives observations, opera handling that arrangements these the of sight caught (VAN Through operations 1979). handling MAANEN after and during before, other each to said they what and doing actually workers were what both describe to notes took JOURNÉ We 2012). 2012, (FOURNIER fieldwork in immersion of weeks fifteen during conducted were Observations Data collectionandanalysis

” (ARNAUD2007). GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 “gain access to conversations and access toconversations “gain - - nesiil ciiis ih epc t high-reliability decompartmentalize activities. to respect of organization: with functions two activities light to interstitial brought has analysis This asling from and field the in notes). operator’s made an (drawing to sling handle a join object’s to instance, for used, link Coupling 4: Figure language ofactors;andviceversa. material and the in reflected social were environment work the the of aspects how understand to wanted adig prtos W sal s te t describe to interstitial activities and gauge their impact them on reliability. use shall We operations. handling heavy about findings our presents table The symbolic. and spatial temporal, organizational, dimensions: four as activities ofboundary being invisible and indispensable by taking into account definition initial the to and refine us operations enabled research handling our reliability, heavy organizational on set focus With Four dimensionsofinterstitialactivities Findings during fieldwork). made (drawing cylinder a on beam lifting a Positioning 5: Figure a ) hy rue iiac and vigilance arouse they b ) they eiul udrsiae (s oprd ih h time the with compared (as underestimated seriously is needed time the Furthermore, operations. handling heavy for aside set to is time the specifying There schedule no time. with do to has dimension second The hard toobtainofficialrecognitionforthemintheshop. consequently, and, operations handling heavy during accomplished work the evaluate to hard is it exist, not of the organization as a whole. Given that indicators do reliability the impair might that problems production, in texts causes difficulties during interactions with persons formal of absence The invisibility. organizational handling their heavy that operations contribute to the admission work process is at odds with This performance. supervisors consider that their activities affect the handling workshop’s global the Furthermore, and reliability performance. to contributes and production in part plays a handling heavy that said shop the in everyone Nonetheless, production. in activities other for unlike operations, handling heavy for controls quality specific there are Nor value. numerical consequence, a assigned a be cannot as which, to performance, fail measuring even or precise for indicators no are all There requirements. the describe at are not workers, exist) the they of or (when supervisor the of level the at whether operations, such managing or conducting heavy for (guidelines) “texts” describing The such. procedures as operations formal handling no are isorganizational. There of interstitiality dimension first The Table: Interstitial(boundary) activities:Heavyhandlingoperations Symbolic Spatial Temporal Organizational Dimensions GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 control andofindicatorsfor — Absence ofquality activity. procedures describingthe — Absence offormal be “dirtywork”. — An activityconsideredto production. as afunctionoftheneeds spread outintheworkshop — These operationsare for toolsisunused. these operations;theplace — Noplacereservedfor production. as afunctionofneedsin such operationsissplitup — The timedevotedto is informallyassessed. operations: thetimeneeded spent onheavyhandling — Noplanningforthetime measuring performance. Invisible Characteristics ofinterstitiality promote theorganization’s — An activityusedto into productive. changed fromunproductive — Spaceontheshopflooris operations isdangerous. — The spaceusedforthese periods inproduction. operations reducewaiting — Whendonefast,such productive time. — Deadtimeisturnedinto the plant. performance ofworkshopsat — Impactontheglobal — Impactonproduction. communication campaigns). products andimage(in vroe ges oc aan ta hay handling heavy that again, once agrees, Everyone together. back brought then are and they scattered continually about; move to them forces job their given place, a assigned are they when Even production. to operatives often temporarily occupy a very space normally devoted are handling job, their of (self-service) nature very the to Owing ignored. material and tools arranging the for places The handling. heavy to devoted The third dimension is spatial. There is no specific place “lost or preparatory a be phase”, andthusseenasawasteoftime. to said is handling Heavy ultimately see them as disturbing production schedules. much supervisors production take allotted, is what than time more often operations handling Since them. of realization actual of the talk from disconnected of completely invisibility” is sort this “temporal however, operations the handling heavy Given waiting. these spend fast, production done in workers that When time the reduce possible. operations as soon as done a shop when it insists on having its handling operations by used argument an is This periods. waiting reducing heavy example, by,for time productive into time dead turning that stated handling interviews, operations are, by their very nature, capable of during supervisors, production Nonetheless, evolve. production of needs the as splintered, up, split is handling heavy on spent be to time The emphasized. managers production and scheduled for production activities), as both the handling Indispensable place” intheorganization, — An activity“lookingforits of time. operations isseenasawaste distribution ofhandling — Planningthespatial and theorganization. interstices oftheworkshop — An activityatthe production schedules. time, asafactordisturbing organization asawasteof are seenbytherestof — Heavyhandlingoperations accomplished. and recognizingthework — Difficultiesinevaluating with production. — Difficultiesofcoordination time andspace. Impact onreliability

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Jérémy EYDIEUX, Benoît JOURNÉ et Stéphanie TILLEMENT TRIAL BY FACT 68 be to example, for notes). objects, attached toatravelingcrane(from aslingoperator’s hoisting for used Tackle 7: Figure made (drawing during fieldwork). hoisting for prepared crane Traveling 6: Figure trying tofind“theirplace”. symbolically are continually thus are spectacular.They yet but operations invisible handling Heavy crane. traveling a by hoisted cylinder a features photograph of the firm’s products and vaunt its “technicity”: a classic Communication campaigns use it to enhance the image paradoxically, draws attention because it is spectacular. work, this shop, the in heavy,objects handling bulky of operations handling supervisors they and that handling, declare with help to reluctant are last jobintheshop,justbeforemaintenance to a handling operative, this work is seen as (HUGHES-1971). work” “dirty According be to handling heavy consider production in blue-collars and White- The fourth dimension of boundary activities is symbolic. a whole. as plant the in activities from them disconnecting shop, the in operations handling compartmentalize to tends it since shop’s reliability the affects negatively pressure that “their” request for heavy handling be a priority. This so pressure exert supervisors production why reason strong a is distribution spatial this workshop, the over room supervisor production the helping by productive, space unproductive an make can they time, productive into time dead turn operations handling heavy as Just into certainareas. production workersarenotallowed areexecuted;thisisthereason maneuvers when the supervisor, production a space devoted to such operations of words the In space. up take inevitably operations objects such manipulated, the be to of dimensions large the Given shop. the in space organizing for indispensable are operations

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 ”. Since handling operations might be scattered all “don’t havethetimetothinkabout ”. Though little store is set on the job “becomes dangerous “next tothe ”. Workers ”. “gain ” uevsr a h codnts euss oig from operations coming requests handling coordinates handling he The as persons. heavy supervisor, several on making depends of reliable work The Heavy handling,afactorforincreasingvigilance the about there workshop asadynamicwhole. employees of vigilance the arouses also that production in jobs of decompartmentalization a and operations; handling heavy about production in and production that arouses the vigilance of employees handling both of decompartmentalization a ways: two in reliability organization’s the to contributes thus and involved parties the of actions and beliefs the modifies What is said in conversations about handling operations organization. high-reliability to activity boundary this by made contribution positive the light to brings research harm more our reliability.However organization’s the to good do than operations all these that to impression whence safety, the worker visible affects incident become an whenever operations handling Heavy High-reliability organization more or less invisible, affect the organization’s reliability. activities, which are indispensable for the workshop but implicitly recognized in (as conversations). These boundary indispensability their and value”) “little of as seen being handling heavy to their leads (which invisibility formal between tension the on light four sheds these dimensions along activities interstitial of analysis The recheck his information on the handling operations he operations handling the on information supervisor his recheck production the that suggested supervisor pushed to take risks. In the example cited, the handling pressure exerted by the production supervisors, allay lest his to operatives be needs also supervisor handling The performed. be to operations the about details cal techni with and taken be to precautions the about tion informa — operatives handling the to on it pass and information gather to had they that production in gues collea his reminded frequently supervisor handling the Box in reported example the In stakes. the of aware — “clients” his keep to needs supervisor handling the interventions, plan To colleagues inproduction. his of vigilance the arouse helped supervisor handling Box production supervisors. the from information with supervisor their The from information operations. the in fill to planned need operatives handling the of reliability the their in realize part finally supervisors production the work, When the handling operatives come to the shop to start that part they the themselves have in making of the operations reliable. start, operations handling the before aware, not are they and communicate; to information pertinent the have yet not do supervisor,they handling supervisor. But when they formulate their request are to the handling that the of hands operations the in those the than detailed more about texts to access have handling, heavy request who supervisors, production The etc. layout, the weight, and size its moved, be to object date the of position ending and starting performed: the time, and be to operations the for it formulate and information for look to has plant, the in shops all dsrbs stain hr the where situation a describes 2 h pouto supervisors production the — 2, - - - seby ok n toig, ah f them of its on focuses group Each reliability. of level high each own jobs, their tooling), their attain to of organized are groups occupational these stakes the and Given compartmentalized. work assembly (boilermaking, categories job specialized several are there fieldwork, conducted we where workshop the In tion decompartmentaliza of factor a handling, Heavy crane traveling a by hoisting (drawing madeduringfieldwork). for prepared Cylinder 8: Figure their attentiontopartinthehandlingoperations. draw to as so vigilance their arouse to tries supervisor handling the the difficulty, that no cause feel operations they requested when or emergency an facing are supervisors production when cases In requesting. was requested, whichwerethenperformedwithoutanyrush. of the handling and lifting equipment. The production workshop thus hisduly prepared the two with operations could, he that informed enough workers, adequately prepare for the operations and well satisfactorily coordinate them with the operatives was supervisor production operations. the requested came, the time of the outs When and ins the the workers; understand his better with thus “conversations” would his supervisor from production and “texts” the reading from drawn information the beyondlook to colleague his asking was He recognized. unanimously shop the which expertise, own By advising the production supervisor to recheck his information, the handling supervisor drew on his formal no but later, much for was other The date. schedule hadyetbeenset. exact the him gave he and week, following the shippedbe to was objects the of One urgent. that all not were operations requested two the that say later.back call later,and hour so an todo of back would quarters called he Three he said supervisor information. productionhis The recheck to him asked He true. time. was take This would that priority the wasted, uselessly be to time cause and handling supervisor told risky his colleague that all his be operatives were already busy on other might jobs of equal that operation an starting than Rather too fastwasrisky. the prepare account of the information from the production supervisor, to the handling supervisor thought that going had workers production but supervisor; objects production to be moved requested(an the activity taking the time), and tell a reviewed lifting bar not had mentally to be installed did supervisor (more time…). Taking handling He The operations. fast. done being job the on insisted he The requested operations heavy would not, of he supervisor thought, take the workers.his too to talked and telephoned hand long. on information the all While collected supervisor already had He talking operations. handling production to the a handling supervisor, moved, objects two have to Needing Box 2: Arousing aproductionsupervisor’svigilance GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 - oee ti wr o pann ad hs better thus occupational and of compartmentalization aforementioned planning of preparing heavy handling operations work ran up against the this However this overbookingthroughplanning. of assignments “dispersion” (DATCHARY 2012). a The issue was to limit and pressure much too operations, handling for requests many too were there plant, the of scale the At “firefighters”. like intervened operatives when the whistle blows”, in a supervisor’s words. These “function to operatives handling expected supervisors Production possible. as soon as for planned be to it for negotiated and done be to operation handling heavy a wanted he as soon as supervisor handling the called supervisor production Each needs. local own, operations their to handling of schedule the possible as fast as adjust to as so exchanges verbal direct on store set visors to discuss their requests. Production supervisors supervisor handling the super by production with contacts telephone of consisted done work the of much they are unaware of the general situation. As we noticed, supervisor — supervisors production Since category. job another from requests satisfying busy already are operatives handling when meet to hard is demand This materials, cooling. before hot fast moved be to object very an need might on work who welders, example, conflicts spark For categories. job different in workers skilled can between “specificities” these operations, Given the relative scarcity of groups. resources for occupational bulk handling other the of “specificities” the to the blind are members its supervisors, production of words in that, complicated so are which problems, own — do not have an overall view of the plant, the of view overall an have not do — nie h handling the unlike

69 -

Jérémy EYDIEUX, Benoît JOURNÉ et Stéphanie TILLEMENT TRIAL BY FACT 70 tion. situa global the of sight losing without but conditions and needs party’s each of account took possible, best mal exchanges led him to propose adjustments that, as his own work. His “interactional cleverness” during infor plan him helped turn, in this, supervisors; production of cooperation the obtained supervisor handling way,the this In problems. shop’s own his beyond awareness reached that an to latter the bring compartmenta thus and view less lized, global, a supervisor production Box in described case the In incompatibilities. and interdependencies its with plant, the in situation global the of awareness an arousing and drawbacks explaining by situation the of aware them make to tried dealings he “colleagues”, these in with Vulnerable supervisors. production from supervisor was in no position to limit the requests coming other occupational groups in the the workshop, the as handling rank hierarchical same the has handling Since to productionsupervisorsindifferentshops. how messages pass to being aim on his compartmentalization, this around light skirt to sheds managed supervisor that handling the conversations of series a Box collaborated. supervisors production several if only lifted be could impediment This groups. prtos te adig uevsr aae t wn i oe b mkn hm wr o te other during the incident for theotheroperationsplannedinshopwithleewayanythingunexpectedthatmightcropup. of aware an improved him were conditions of advance, making in operation by risk this accomplishing over By operations. the him planned already win about to supervisor managed supervisor production handling the the operations, with conversation a opening By handling operatives. accomplished reduced the pressure that other production supervisors would inevitably try to exert on been just had that operation The foreseen. as escalated, operations handling other the Afterwards, worker andahandlingoperativeperformedtheoperationtogetherwithouttakinganyrisks. thisworker.time, assigned appointed the the for At planned had supervisor production the that work supervisor’s suggestion was clever, since the heavy handling operation would not impede the loading handlingThe week. coming the during do to and week previous the during done work the discuss to The timing made sense: six o’clock is the usual time when the production supervisor meets his workers the shift. The productionsupervisoragreedandassignedhimaworkerforsixo’clockthenextday. of start very the at teams, work their for day next the meeting a plan he that suggested he request, requested. being one athe file doing quickly from to him supervisor keep production the asking After likely very would operations handling to assigned priority of order the that was however, colleague, coming the in shop his days. The in production supervisor did not movement know about that. of What the handling lot supervisor did not a tell his be would there that him informed supervisor handling nearby.Theleft been had needed everything that said supervisor production The shift). current the a whether confirm to supervisor production given operation a still had to called be done in operations his workshop handling (for the second heavy object in a of pair to be supervisor moved during The Box 3:Decompartmentalizingaproductionsupervisor’sapproach

GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 3, he managed to construct with the with construct to managed he 3, recounts 3 - - - intelligence” emerged. The planning for heavy handling “collective a thus and issues and constraints of vision global a and reduced; were compartmentalization nal doing By organizational/occupatio with itself. associated risks the shop so, the on focus narrow a beyond employees moving thus — whole a as plant the of and categories job other of particular in environment, larger the of aware them making and workshops of production vigilance the arousing while performed were tions and (KELLOG translation negotiation explanation, of interactions Through for risksandcontingencies. planning in part key a play appearance, in insignificant though handling, heavy as such operations that shown has processes work everyday on research this tions, organiza high-reliability of and accidents of studies to Contrary aware. fully not are employees which of role a organization, an of performance reliable the in role play, activities boundary how owing to their very interstitiality, out an ambiguous but major pointed have through We seen organization interstitial activities the and Reliability Conclusion et al 20) hnln opera handling 2006), . - - - too, incombinationsthereof. and, symbolic) and spatial dimensions temporal, four (organizational, the of each on up crop interstitiality of problems would how examining it thoroughly worthwhile aspects, be material and social environment’s a work the on studies with as line In itself. activity the of less ty interstitiality proper a as on than organization the of activity boundary focus should research decomparmentalization and coordination of their and operatives) practices handling (herein group tional interstitial activity — an how shows it that is research our of originality The articulation” of organizational arrangement,anindividualorobject. “work the an on depend they how showing by 1992), (STRAUSS and describe to activities formulated boundary been have 2004) CARLILE 2010, (STAR objects” “boundary or 1981), SCANLAN & (TUSHMAN individuals” KELLOG “boundary-spanning 2006), 1999, (GALISON zones” “trading of concepts The occupational. or spatial temporal, tional, organiza whether boundaries, the along interactions of investigating imply They practitioners. and researchers attention the attracted have organizations” “distri buted” in cooperation and coordination of Questions formal texts. and territories groups, organi occupational practices, the zation’s through set clearly are that contents and boundaries with activities the between in exists activity interstitial An symbolic. and spatial temporal, zational, organi dimensions: interrelated four to reference with it accompanying tension the and interstitiality this bed descri have We contextualized). more and informal and less or verbal always is but conversations during admitted is (which usefulness their hand, and, other the on value) numerical measurable a assigned from being them keeps (which invisibility textual this one hand, the on between, tension of state permanent a in caught are activities Such texts. formal in not but tions conversa through evaluated are operations) handling us to understand how interstitial activities (herein heavy enables approach communication-based pragmatic, A “noble” activitydescribedbyBourrier. the than vulnerable more of respect, this in are, activities “texts” the of (DANIELLOU regulations safety backing the Without experiences. learning of diffusion the and experience from feedback as allow, such the procedures formal which block for “reflexivity” can opacity very this all, After symbolic. or financial whether recompense, any of lack the despite their willingness (and acceptance) to commit themselves made by first-line operatives and, therefore,commitments depends on unrecognized but strong the on relies It autonomy”. “opaque called has (1999) Bourrier what to owing vulnerable is reliability of system This fragile. very is operations, interstitial handling heavy through as such activities, produced reliability the However seeable, fluctuatingsituations both of them necessary for coping with complex, unfore 2001) SUTCLIFFE & (WEICK variety” “requisite the decompartmenta stimulated cognitive that lization a to led also operations — serves as the grounds the as serves — seen in relation to both an occupa and “slack” (SCHULMAN 1993), (SCHULMAN “slack” and GÉRER &COMPRENDRE -LANGUAGEONLINEENGLISHSELECTION - 2016 -N° 2 . et al for the emergence the for . 2011),boundary . Further . et al ------. management can either “dissolve” them in production in them “dissolve” either can management account of how such activities reach across boundaries, as to organize a dialog on interstitial activities. By taking is what processes work formalize to problems, much so not is necessary managerial two these handle To with its“visibility”. This workplace. vigilance response by management confuses the an of activity’s “value” source at a decompartmentalization be and to that them enables characteristic that and very conversations) in least the (at recognition their — for allows activities these of interstitiality the abolishing to amounts response this might consequently, and, Besides, workplace. the at “conversations” from firms) vanish both in noticed mark, we the (as misses takers any find not this might procedures formal since opinion, our In “textual” procedures. visible, other or indicators through we did activities where interstitial formalize firms to is problem first the to both fieldwork) in (observed response A skills anddelimitmanagerialauthority. place”, their for “looking whence questions about how are to define occupations and they jobs”, “real of ries process. production Secondly, located along the the margins, along the in bounda time “dead” as dismissed easily be therefore, can, and invisible mostly are they raise at least two problems for management. herein First of all, defined and observed activities interstitial The Implications formanagement n pouto floor”, pp. 312-330, 2003. production understanding a of on transformation The communities: BECHKY Politix ethnographique’“, l’‘entretien pour Plaidoyer sociales. BEAUD 2007. de textes”, situation aux et conversation en la à accéder comment ou gestion, organisationnelle communication ARNAUD References bute morevaluetotheseinterstitialactivities. attri organization the in activities principal the that too, and, organization the by oversight to control of zones certain relinquish handling heavy in personnel the that discus for sions (DETCHESSAHAR 2001, ROCHA “spaces” of management necessi active This an tates constraints. and practices dialog their two about the that so occupations “noble” so-called the and operations handling between comprehension A global vision of the organization depends on an inter vision global a (COUTAREL stimulating for capacity its of activity interstitial the depriving risks solutions these But of either groups). occupational other with boundaries the bolstering (by independence their assert else or tion) produc with authority single a under them placing (by , 9,pp. 226-257,1996. Communication et Organisation Communication

S) “’sg d letein n sciences en l’entretien de “L’usage (S.), B) “hrn maig cos occupational across meaning “Sharing (B.), N) “tde, eee e aaye la analyser et relever “Étudier, (N.), et al . 2015). Organization Science Organization , pp. , et al . 2015) so 168-191, 14, ,

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Jérémy EYDIEUX, Benoît JOURNÉ et Stéphanie TILLEMENT TRIAL BY FACT 72 transla Universitaires deFrance,1993). French 1938); Company, tion: and Holt Henry DEWEY gestion gestion”, de outils des narrative DETCHESSAHAR par ladiscussion”, management d’un éléments quelques psycho-sociaux: DETCHESSAHAR 132, pp. 32-43,2001. gestion”, de situation en discussion de l’espace de théorie une Pour produire… DETCHESSAHAR pp. 1-125, 2011. state : art”, safety the of of factors organizational and “Human DANIELLOU FR: Octares,2012). DATCHARY bâtiment”, du métiers Médicaux-Sociaux les dans prudence CRU mique”, ergono l’intervention à concepts des d’agir: pouvoir et DANIELLOU COUTAREL meeting board pp. 517-551, 2004. of Analysis excerpts”, minding: collective of COOREN pp. 555-568, 2004. boundaries”, across edge knowl managing for framework forming: integrative An CARLILE Sécurité enaction I. fiabilité TERSSAC, et G. in exploration” risque première une organisationnelle: “Maintenance, (M.), BOURRIER pp. 199-215 (Paris,L’Harmattan, 2003). et sociales de larechercheenscienceshumaines (ed.), C. in lieux” des état d’un choisis morceaux BOURRIER sation BOURRIER travail l’activité: vers des BORZEIX France, 2015). que levraiboulot? BIDET de l’art California Press, 1982); French translation: BECKER

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Jérémy EYDIEUX, Benoît JOURNÉ et Stéphanie TILLEMENT