SELF-AWARENESS OF Lao by transmitting their own folk LUANG PHRABANG literature— for instance, local legends and 1 hero tales, and rituals. Such ethnic LAONESS IN : transmission has been interpreted as an A CASE STUDY OF MYTH important mechanism for ethnic AND RITUAL2 maintenance. Repeatedly reproduced in a discourse of myth telling in the context of 3 spirit offering rituals, this transmission Bourin Wungkeeree helps the community realize and remember that they are from Luang Phrabang, Abstract Lanxang, which was once a prosperous Buddhist centre in ancient times. This article offers a study of Lao people who migrated from Luang Phrabang to Introduction settle in Thailand, especially at Lom Kao and Lom Sak, A legend or a myth is an ancient story that Province and Amphoe Dan Sai, has been passed on over many generations Province. These migrants have maintained in a given culture. As such, it is a vital tool their self-awareness as Luang Phrabang in recording the events, attitudes, and thoughts of the society. Most legends are 1 The Lao identity here means, in the context generally related to supernatural or of the research, the fact that they are aware that mysterious things. They might be variably they are from Lao Luang Phrabang in the interpreted across the course of their Kingdom of Lanxang. The tradition, history. There are several types of legends: ceremonies, beliefs, religions, and languages emphasize their identity and language. In this most notably, the legend of the origin of context, the awareness of being Luang the world and the universe; the ghost Phrabang Lao is part of their identity. legend; the ritual legend; and the local However, as they have lived in Thailand for a legend. Ritual and local legends are long time, they call themselves “Thai people of distinctive in their purposes to show Luang Phrabang ancestry.” cultural origins, to explain local geography and how to build a community, or to 2 This article is a part of a Ph.D. thesis entitled, explain the background of each ritual. “Folk Literature in Luang Phrabang Laotian Thus, legends and myths make it possible Communities and Its Role in Transmitting for people in the community to understand Luang Phrabang Laoness in Thai Social their culture as well as to create mutual Context,” Ph.D. Program in Literature and appreciation of their history. Comparative Literature, Faculty of Arts, University. An earlier version was presented to the International conference Luang Phrabang Laotians have migrated “ and Literature: Wisdom and into Thailand since the reign of King of Dynamism in the Global Context,” November Thon Buri, who led the military conquest 10–12, 2006, at the Imperial Queen’s Park, of , then under King Siriboonsan. , Thailand. I would like to thank After his victory, King of Thon Buri Associate Professor Dr. Siraporn Nathalang for appointed two noblemen, Chaophraya her guidance and for inviting me to join this Chakkri and Phraya Phichai, to lead the conference. 3 Luang Phrabang Laotians to the city of Lecturer, Department of Thai, Faculty of Nam Pat, Lom, and Loei. There were Humanities, Chiangmai University.

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subsequent migrations into Thailand beliefs, culture, and their sense of Luang between the reigns of King and Phrabang Laoness are obviously derived King Rama III, especially during the war from their motherland, the Kingdom of of Chao Anuwong of Vientiane which saw Lanxang Luang Phrabang. This area used the largest single wave of Laotian to be highly prosperous both in terms of migration. Even after resettlement, the society and culture. Therefore, people Luang Phrabang Laotians maintained carried a rosy perception of their happy much of their lifestyle, society, culture, homeland. Away from home in Thailand, and attitude in their new home. and surrounded by different ethnicities including Thai, Lanna, , Hmong, and Two key issues emerge out of a Chinese, the latter two groups having consideration of this history of Lao-Thai moved into Thailand over the past eighty migration. Firstly, why do the Luang years, they try harder to keep their identity Phrabang Laotians in the city of Lom Kao and culture. One of the methods of and Lom Sak (excluding the Vientiane maintaining their culture is to distinguish Laotians in Ban Tio, Ban Rai, and themselves from other groups. In Ban Wai) in Petchabun Province and in particular, they feel that their culture is the city of Dan Sai in still superior to others (the Chinese, Hmong, have a strong sense of Luang Phrabang and Thai Tai4) because they used to be the Lao identity even though they have lived people of the capital city of . This in Thailand for more than two hundred kind of thinking still remains prevalent years? Secondly, how is it that these among the Luang Phrabang Laotians in people continue to pass on the Luang Thailand. This attitude can also be noticed Phrabang Laoness from one generation to in their folklore, especially comic tales. the next? The competing character traits and differences between each culture are the The importance of Luang topics most frequently criticized and Phrabang Laoness in the context pilloried. This is interesting and implies a of Thai society sense of cultural separation. For example, Hmong people migrated to settle down in

Lom Kao and after In preliminary research for this study, it the communists were defeated. Due to was found that there were two factors cultural and ethnic differences, Hmong driving these people to try to maintain people are often perceived as uncivilized, their identity. The first reason is that dirty, and different. They have a lower Luang Phrabang Laotians in Thailand social status compared to Luang Phrabang retain strong pride in the glorious past of Lao people. This can be seen in a the Kingdom of Lanxang Luang Phrabang. The second reason is the desire to resist the influence of Thai society and to 4 Luang Phrabang Laotians residing in these maintain a sense of cultural distinction. three still call Isan people “Thai Tai” Therefore, they try to keep their culture as their ancestors used to do while living in and maintain beliefs and attitudes through Luang Phrabang. In the past, they did not realize that “Thai Tai” was the same as Isan such things as ghost feast rituals or local people. They only identify those living on the legends. The first point offers a good case right side of the Mekong River as Thai Tai or to illustrate the causes of this practice. people living in the South of the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang Laotians’ thoughts, Laos.

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humorous tale called “Yak Dai Mia Maeo” the community. The feeling of strong (“Wanting to have a Maeo Wife”) and ethnic difference can still be found in the “Kin Khao Ban Maeo” (“Having a Maeo Luang Phrabang community. Meal”). These stories foreground ethnic and cultural differences as a source of In this way, the pride of being Lao comic effect. In addition, Luang Phrabang descendants of a great and prosperous Lao people have a better social status in royal culture has largely taken root in their every respect. Similarly, Isan Lao people mind. Because of their pride in their who mostly come to be workers in Lom origins, it is not strange for them to Kao and Lom Sak, have been perceived as continue to identify themselves as Luang inferior to Luang Phrabang Lao people. Phrabang Laotians and to use this identity Institutionalized further via the differential to separate from other groups of people. relationship of an employer and an Considered more deeply, even though they employee, the unequal status encourages have moved to Thailand, the sense of criticism and making fun of the culture being Luang Phrabang Laotians still and lifestyle of Isan Lao people. They are remains. They have tried to maintain the perceived to be people who like drinking, culture, thoughts, lifestyle, and customs of arguing, being cheerful and being poor. Luang Phrabang. The pride in Luang On the other hand, the Luang Phrabang Phrabang Laoness can be today seen from Lao people think of themselves as their acting, tone of voice and reaction peaceful, neat, and civilized. This toward people from different groups. This perception can be seen in the humorous clearly shows their feelings of difference tale “Tai Tai Kin Khi Maphrao” (“Thai and separation. Tai eat coconut dregs”). Chinese people, by contrast, generally have high influence The sense of pride and distinction profiled in terms of economics because most of here has not only been found in the Luang them are merchants who buy agricultural Phrabang community in Thailand, but it produce from people in the community can also be found in those currently living and lend money through a black market in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. financial system with high interest rates. People there are also very proud of their They are often perceived as always trying ancient culture and art.5 When UNESCO to take advantage of others. This motivates announced Luang Phrabang’s World compensatory tactics through local Heritage listing, this kind of feeling humorous and sarcastic tales such as “Bak became even more intense. However, Lak Bak Laem” (“The Intelligent people here do not feel separated from Person”), “Bak Siang Jip” (“Story Related others. It is because in the past the city of to Former Monks”), and “Bak Po Khi Luang Phrabang was occupied by people Tua” (“The Lying Po”). The common of varied ethnicities, as detailed in the theme of these stories is the cheating Khun Burom legend. This situation didn’t behavior of the Chinese. It is satirized and create a feeling of separation but rather reversed in narratives where the Chinese one of negotiation and cooperation as they are cheated by Luang Phrabang Lao people. In summary, the Luang Phrabang 5 Interview with Professor Nou Xayasithivong, Laotians distinguish people from other special lecturer in the Department of Lao cultures through the use of humorous tales Language and Mass Communication, Faculty passed from generation to generation in of Arts, the National University of Lao on July 24, 2006.

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worked together to build a rich and migration into Thailand and subsequent prosperous culture. In addition, the Lao settlements, to heroes who established people of all ethnicities were united in their society firmly in the Kingdom, and to their common struggle against colonialist places of settlement. Each legend enemies, France and America, until they emphasizes each concern of the society. were free. Furthermore, cross-ethnic marriage is common among Laotians. For The legend of the city and example, Lao Lum people regularly get geography: the link between the married to Lao Toeng and Lao Sung 6 past, the present and the existence people. The equality in ethnicity is highly accepted in Luang Phrabang. Therefore, of the community this kind of ethnocentrism in Luang Phrabang is less intense than in Thailand The local legends told widely in the Luang because of different political, historical, Phrabang community can be divided into and social factors. In summary, pride in a two types. The first kind is the prosperous past, a civilized culture, and establishment of the city, geography, and former geopolitical centrality, help Luang heritage. This is called a city legend. A Phrabang Lao people maintain a strong city legend actually describes the geographical aspects of the community sense of distinctive identity which has 7 been passed on through generations via such as the Lom legend. This socialization. legend tells of Grandpa Bua and Grandma Phan who moved from Luang Phrabang

and set up their big family here. One day, The (local) legend: implication of a father and his son went into the woods to space, identity, and how to find hunt. They caught a white squirrel, the new reference for the community meat of which was shared among other villagers. A widow was the only one who Every society has its legends, but they missed eating the white squirrel. Eating might be slightly different depending on this white squirrel doomed the city. It was objectives, cultural and social factors, and besieged by the Naga who was very angry interpretation. The same legend can differ depending on its purpose, how it is told, 7 why it is maintained, and its role. This legend is sometimes called “Nong Ko Legend.” Nong Ko is a big swamp in Ban Na Therefore, to study the same legend across Ko, Tambon Na Ko, Amphoe Lom Kao, different societies can help us understand . There are two kinds of more about the people in those cultures. legend for Nong Ko. The first one is similar to For Luang Phrabang Laotians in Thailand, the legend of Nong Han in Phadaeng Nang Ai legends are very important in passing their story. The second one is related to the spread identity and cultural self-awareness to of Buddhism by the Lord Buddha to Mueang successive generations. Significantly, their Lom and Mueang Dan Sai. It was told that the local legends always refer to their Naga (a giant sacred snake) was angry with the monkeys that flocked to pay respect to the Lord Buddha. The Naga put a spell on the land, 6 Interview with Mr. Humphan Rattanavong on causing it to sink into a swamp. The city has July 24, 2006. At present, he is a freelance from that time been called [mɨaŋ-lòm] (เมือง researcher on art, culture, and literature. He was born in Luang Phrabang and still has the หลม) or [mɨaŋ-lôm] (เมืองลม). self-awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness.

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with the fact that the citizens/villagers had led people to escape from the war and eaten the white squirrel. The city was then difficulties in Luang Phrabang during the called [mɨaŋ-lòm] (เมืองหลม) or [mɨaŋ- reign of King Chai Chettha Thi Rat. While 8 wandering through a basin area, they lôm] (เมืองลม). found many eggplant trees growing. There was a river passing through the fertile This type of city legend, rather than the land. This area was then named “Ban version related to Buddhism, is widely told Rong Makhuea” (the village of eggplant in Mueang Lom Kao. The assumption is ditch) and later changed to “Huai that, like other Thai-Lao people, locals Makhuea” (eggplant creek). After setting know the story of the falling city well up a community, people built a temple because of the Nakarae (Nakara disguises beside the Nam Phung River, where there as a white squirrel) such as the one told in was a pure, white sand beach. The temple Nong Sae legend, Suwan Khom Kham city was then named “Wat Sai Ngam”9 (the legend, and Nong Han legend (Pha Daeng temple of beautiful sand). This legend has Nang Ai story). It is possible that the been continuously told. people use the same story of the falling city to describe the existence of the swamp The researcher found that the Lom Kao in their new land. More importantly, this legend and Huai Ma Khuea legend are told story represents how the people transform in order to link the story from the past their identity and self-awareness. They during the reign of Lanxang Luang attach the story of moving to the new land Phrabang Kingdom with the identity of to the city legend. Grandpa Bua and Lao people currently residing in Thailand. Grandma Phan emigrated from Luang By so doing, they are reminded of the time Phrabang to set up their new city in the when the community used to be located in Lom Kao area. The adaptation is to try to the prosperous ancient Kingdom of Lao maintain the story of their origins and Luang Phrabang. The Laoness is signified ensure that people do not forget their past, by the culture and the fact that their thus helping maintain traditions of culture kingdom is ancient. The message has been and society and a general sense of passed through the word “Capital city.” continued Luang Phrabang Laoness. The The capital city here does not mean only revised version of the Mueang Lom legend the geographical location, but it means relates the original land, Luang Phrabang, culture and the thinking of the community. to the new home, Mueang Lom Kao. According to Khongwijit (2000: 78), the When the story is told from generation to Luang Phrabang people in Laos have been generation, people maintain awareness of deeply aware of their identity through their origins and emphasize their Laoness. ceremonies such as Heatkhong. These ceremonies show that they saw their city In addition, the story of the people’s immigration appears in the legend of other 9 Interview with Mr. Phleang Chansae, a minor communities such as Ban Huai Ma villager in Tambon Na Saeng, Amphoe Lom Khuea legend. It was told that two monks Kao, Phetchabun Province on April 4, 2005. According to him, there had been sacred palm leaves describing the immigration of Luang 8 Interview with Mrs. Lam Nualchorn, a Phrabang Laotians during the reign of King villager in Tambon Ban Noen, Amphoe Lom Chai Chettha Thi Rat. They used to be kept Kao, Phetchabun Provice on May 25, 2006. at Wat Sai Ngam but are now lost.

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as ‘a capital city’ which was ancient and In summary, Luang Phrabang Laotians full of culture. It is the city where the king have linked their history with local used to reside and where a lot of temples legends. These legends are important and holy places were constructed. because they record stories, transmit Therefore, the dignity of being the people principles, attitudes and thoughts. The of “the capital city” or the community theme of these legends is related to space. which possessed prosperous culture has The space here means physical geography been deeply rooted in the minds of Luang like the mountains that help define the Phrabang people in the district of Dan Sai, territory of the Luang Phabang Lao Lom Kao, and Lom Sak. This kind of people. The unity in the community then thinking has been passed from generation becomes more intense. However, space to generation through legends. Their here does not only mean geographical legends are a key point in distinguishing aspects, but it also covers cultural and them from people of other ethnicities. In ethnic borders. In other words, space plays addition, they help to emphasize the an important role for Luang Phrabang existence of their community and people both in tangible and intangible ethnicities in order to pass on knowledge terms. It separates Luang Phabang people about their tranquil and happy land to the from other communities nearby. The next generation. Likewise, people in the legend serves this objective well. The early Rattanakosin period still yearned for stories have been continuously told, so the prosperity of the kingdom of they emphasize the message and help Ayutthaya. They referred to that period as maintain the awareness of Luang Phabang “the time when the city was still Laoness. prosperous” (meaning the time before the city was destroyed by the Burmese). The The hero legend:10 how to select researcher of the present study contends stories to transform history that the identity of being Luang Phrabang has been continuously passed to each The hero legend here means a story about generation with a particular period of leaders in the community of Lao Luang concentration during the reign of King Phrabang. They believe that these heroes Rama III. Chuethai (2004: 180–206) really existed, ruled the community and/or shows that during that time, the prosperity initiated good things for the community. of their city was shown through wall The legends are both about heroes who are paintings at Wat Si Mongkhon, Ban Na Lao and those who are Tai (Thai). The Sai, . The paintings legends about the two kinds of heroes feature prosperous Luang Phrabang serve to emphasize collective thoughts and symbolized as a new land. The people in history and the Lao identity. this community used to join the Lao military led by King Anuwong to gain The legends about Lao Luang independence from Thailand during the reign of King Rama III. This obviously Phrabang heroes shows that their primary allegiences were Heroes here mean the leaders of Luang with “Lao” rather than “Thailand.” The Phrabang people who really existed and belief in their Lao nationality has been deeply rooted in the community. 10 In fact, a hero legend is a kind of local legends. Here, the author explains it separately to emphasize its role.

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led the community to migrate from Lao to settlement, the Luang Phrabang Lao settle in the area of Lom Kao district. people were grouped into ten These heroes are therefore very important communities. Each of the ten leaders ruled as they are considered the ones who led ‘Khum’. These ten groups have since the Luang Phrabang Lao people to settle in become the communities residing in Lom a new land. The Luang Phrabang identity Kao. They are linked closely with one is thus reinforced through these heroes another by the ceremony to pay respect to such as the ten Luang Phrabang leaders the ancestral hero spirits. The ceremony is legend mostly told in Lom Kao. It is about conducted annually. In addition, the the heroes moving from “Luang legend of Chao Pho Ban Umkathat, Phrabang.” It is told that: another small community in the town of Lom Kao, also mentions heroes from In the past, the Thai and Lao Luang Phrabang: people were enemies. They often fought with each other. The Lao In the past, these hero spirits leaders saw that a lot of people used to be human beings. They died, so they led their people to led people to flee the war and to the city of Lom Kao and settled settle down in Thailand. Chao Pho down at Ban Hin Kling, Ban Simala and Chao Pho Bua Khai Wang Ban, Nong Kham, Nam are the key leaders. After they Khrang, Na Sai, Cho Wo and died, they were respected as others. The important leaders guardian or leader spirits to included Chao Pho Khun Chok, protect the people. During these Pho Khun Si, Khun Krai, Khun ceremonies, the people who act as Chai, Khun Det Raksa, Chao Pho the medium are believed to be U Kaeo, Chao Pho Lek Si, Chao possessed by the guardian spirits, Pho Suliwong, Chao Pho Kham and will do a sword show and Daeng, and Chao Pho Phromthat. fighting. They also dress These heroes were good at like the leaders in the past such as fighting in a war. In addition, they wearing decorative string on were leaders with strong ethics. arms and legs, folding cloth After they died, these heroes around head, wearing Khao Ma became the “holy spiritual guards” cloth around waists, chewing who protected the community.11 betel, and smoking traditional cigarettes. 12 It can be noticed that the aforementioned legend not only emphasizes the Luang It can be noted that the Lao Luang Phrabang identity and their migration into Phrabang hero legend is mostly about the Thailand, it also shows the social courage of the leaders, the migration to a development of the Luang Phrabang better place, and setting up a new community in Lom Kao. After the community in a new land. This imbues the leaders with wisdom, strength and

11 Interview with Mrs. Booncham Meebuathong on April 22, 2005. 12 Interview with Mrs. Ladda Mahawan on April 14, 2005.

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efficiency. It is because they are able to people and take them as their own heroes. take the people from drought, food The researcher discovered that the Luang shortage, and crisis. Understandably, the Phrabang Lao people in Thailand had hero for Luang Phrabang Lao people mentioned the cultural heroes of Thai should be good and do good jobs for the people including Pho Khun Bang Klang group, especially during the crisis such as Hao and Pho Khun Pha Mueang, as their leading the group to a land with more food leaders. Luang Phrabang people in Dan and natural resources or creating a new Sai community choose Pho Khun Bang community. In the context of diaspora, Klang Hao or Pho Khun Si In Thra Thit as those having important roles in setting up their hero. They think he led a group of and ensuring prosperity for the community people to establish a community in Dan will be much respected. Therefore, the Sai before moving to Bang Yang and heroes for Luang Phrabang Lao people are Sukhothai respectively. In Lom Sak not those who won a war, but those who community, people paid respect to Pho led the people through the crisis whether it Khun Pha Mueang as their cultural leader. be a drought or a war. They can settle up a According to Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao new and strong community. The respect legend/Dan Sai: for “the hero” has been passed on to the next generation through the local legend. Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao There is also the ceremony to pay respect moved from Lao (some said that to these hero spirits. The legend plays an he was from Luang Phrabang) to important role in controlling the thought settle a new community in the patterns, and beliefs, both at the individual town of Dan Sai, which is located and community levels. It can be said that on the side of Hueang river and is the hero who is Luang Phrabang Lao hero presently named Ban Kao. Later, can help emphasize the Luang Phrabang he moved to settle another Lao identity and encourage the people to community in “Dan Sai Mai” at be aware of their history. the area of Ban Dern. The old Dan Sai was then called Dan Sai Kao The legends talking about the and the new city was named Dan heroes who are Tai (Thai) Sai Mai. Later, their name was shortened to Dan Sai and Ban Kao respectively. Pho Khun then In the process of creating the identity of moved to settle the city of Bang the Luang Phrabang Lao in the Thai Yang and ruled Sukhothai.13 context, people need to select things they prefer to focus on or to ignore. These Pho Khun Pha Mueang, the ruler of Rad, identities are created from interpreting is believed to be from the same area as history, legends, and tales. These identities Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao. He is do not have a single, homogeneous celebrated for his bravery and outstanding meaning. Rather, they can be interpreted prowess in fighting the Khmer troops to in different ways and will not be consistently interpreted. It can be changed 13 The information is summarized from all the time, especially the identity interviews with local philosophers and leaders interpreted from the hero legend. They in Tambon Na Ho, Dan Sai district, Loei start to accept the heroes of the Thai Province.

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reseize the city of Sukhothai and his It cannot be explained that Pho subsequent ruling of the city of Rad. It is Khun Pha Mueang and Pho Khun believed that the city of Rad is presently Bang Klang Hao are Thai or Lao. Lom Sak. According to the legend: However, they are Tai, leading people to migrate from the South Pho Khun Pha Mueang moved of China and settle a new from Dan Khwa to settle the city community on the land called of Rad. Later, he married the presently Thailand.15 Khmer princess, Singh Khon Dhevi, who was the daughter of The researcher thinks that whether Pho the Khmer king. He ruled the city Khun Bang Klang Hao and Pho Khun Pha of Rad, but later joined Pho Khun Mueang were Thai or Lao, the more Bang Klang Hao to seize important point is how the Luang Sukhothai back. Princess Singh Phrabang Lao people utilize and analyze Khon Dhevi got angry. She the legends. They use the ambiguous burned the barn and killed herself. history to create a “cultural advantage.” This is why there is at present a They apply and adjust it to their context as lot of black rice in the area of Rad the “shared identity” between Thai and city.14 Lao (being Thai and being Lao) through a hero who is Tai (Thai). In other words, to The interesting question is why people in regard the Thai hero as their own hero is Dan Sai and Lom Sak regard the Thai hero an effort to identify themselves as the as their own. According to historical and “Thai people from Luang Phrabang.” social analysis, Pho Khun Bang Klang Although they are Thai and live in Hao was an important king of Thailand Thailand, these people are still willing to because he was the founder of the continue the Luang Phrabang Lao identity. kingdom of Thailand. He was much This can be seen from the fact that they praised by Thai people, but his origin and claim that Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao and history are not clear because of limited Pho Khun Pha Mueang migrated from sources of information. It can be Laos. This interpretation can be changed. interpreted that Pho Khun Pha Mueang To claim a historically popular ancestor as and Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao are the their own leader does not happen only in “heroes of Tai people.” It can also be the Luang Phrabang Lao community. In understood that they are Thai-Lao. It is the past, many leaders became heroes in because “Tai community” and “Tai several communities. For example, Phaya ethnic” mean “Tai people” both residing in Chueng is the hero of Lanna, Tai Lue, Tai Thailand and in Lao and other groups. Khern, Tai Yai, Tai Dam, Lao, Khamu, Professor Dr. Prasert Na Nakara, an expert and Hmong people. According to in language and ancient scripts, writes: Wongthet (2002: 31), all of them respect Phaya Chueng as their heroes. This is how to enjoy the benefits of the existing history by using “the cultural and ethnic hero” to strengthen the community identity. This is 14 The information is summarized from interviews with local philosophers and leaders in Lom Sak, Phetchabun Province. 15 Interview with Professor Dr. Prasert Na Nakara on August 26, 2004.

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to “make the interpretation” in defining people who have Luang Phrabang Lao and transferring the identity of Lao Luang ethnicity and who still maintain the Phrabang people by linking it to the person identity of Luang Phrabang Lao. As and community in an intelligent way. producers of discourse and its users, Luang Phrabang people accept and In summary, the legend about heroes who understand themselves more in terms of are Tai (Thai) or Luang Phrabang, is to where they are from, who they are, what is define the identity and the awareness of their lifestyle, and how to adapt being Luang Phrabang Lao through the themselves to Thai society which is interpretation of history, legends, and Tai increasingly influenced by globalization heroes. Then the legend is linked to the and materialism. identity and the awareness of being Luang Phrabang Lao. Luang Phrabang Lao Ritual legends and rites: roles, people try to emphasize that they are Thai identities, and Luang Phrabang but of Lao ethnicity (Luang Phrabang). Laoness Therefore, the aim in reviving legends related to Luang Phrabang Lao heroes and Luang Phrabang people possess legends Tai (Thai) heroes is to pass on the identity related to many rites. There are two types and awareness of being Luang Phrabang of rites. The first one is the ritual directly Lao. This process can be a direct effect related to the progress of life such as from the Luang Phrabang Lao hero story eliminating bad luck, averting one’s poor or through the interpretation of legends fate, reviving one’s predestined life, and history in the context of Thai removing one’s astrological star, subduing historical discourse, globalization, tourism calamities, wiping out bad luck, and and local trends. This reflects the changes recalling lost spirits. The second type is in defining their identity, the awareness, communal rituals such as Nang Thiam and the interpretation. As such, these ghost feast, house blessing, and the legends are extremely valuable. They are recitation of the last life of the not mere nonsense stories because “the Boddhisattava. In this article, legends strongest point of legends that enable them related to two rituals practiced in the to endure for a long time is the fact that community will be discussed: Chao Pho they are flexible and their contents can be Dan Sai Ghost Feast and the annual ten adjusted to suit every condition. They Luang Phrabang Lao hero ghosts feast. seem to be tangible and real but at the The objective of this brief study is to same time are intangible and may not analyze how these rituals maintain the exist. According to Pulsuwan (2001: 152), identity, culture, and the awareness of this qualification enables legends to be Luang Phrabang Laoness in Dan Sai flexible in every situation under the community. changing culture. Luang Phrabang people intentionally create their own hero legends to transfer their historical story and Luang

Phrabang Lao community to cope with the lifestyle in Thai society. They emphasize their long and enduring history and the right to live in Thailand, similar to that enjoyed by other ethnicities, as Thai

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Chao Pho Dan Sai ghost feast: have a strong influence on the lives of implications and roles of the rites Luang Phrabang Laotians in Amphoe Dan Sai, Wang Saphung, Phu Ruea, Na Haeo, In Dan Sai community, Loei Province, Nakhon Thai, Lom Kao and Lom Sak. people practice the rite of Chao Pho Dan These spirits also protect other groups of Sai Ghost Feast (the ruler ghost). These Luang Phrabang Lao people in other areas ghosts refer to the ancestral rulers. When such as Sa Kaeo, Amnat Charoen, and they passed away, their spirits would be Bangkok. When the annual ghost feast’s respected by the people in the community. day arrives, everybody respecting Chao It is believed that Chao Pho Dan Sai refers Pho Dan Sai must take it seriously and to the first rulers of Dan Sai.16 The spirits attend this rite. It can be considered a possessing Chao Pho Kuan (the medium) reunion among relatives and people in the in this ritual are Chao Ong Luang, Chao community. This encourages people to Ong Thai, Chao Mueang Wang, and Chao come back and renew their communal ties. Mueang Klang. From the ranks and titles, In addition, this helps emphasize the same all of them are Lao rulers, with the identity through the shared belief in the exception of Chao Ong Thai.17 For the same ghosts and the awareness of Luang spirits of rulers who possess Chao Mae Phrabang Laoness. Nang Thiam, they include Chao Nang Khao, Chao Nang Chuang, Chao Nang Chao Pho Dan Sai ghost feast ritual Chan, and Chao Nang Noi. They are all encourages Luang Phrabang people to be female members of Lao royal family. together. It has been practiced by Luang These spirits take possession of Chao Pho Phrabang people for their own benefits. Kuan and Chao Mae Nang Thiam in the The ritual is a focus for the people’s seventh month of the Lao calendar or the spirituality and it also maintains their month of June in Thailand, although the beliefs, faiths, and cultural symbols. How exact date changes from year to year. the Chao Pho acts and what he says are symbols mutually understood between Chao Pho Dan Sai, the spirits of female sender (the medium) and audience (the rite members of Lao royal family, as well as participants). This enhances the semiology their servants, play an important role and of the culture and is what the Luang Phrabang people understand in the same way. They respect the same spirit. They 16 This city was established in the reign of are all Luang Phrabang people or are King Chai Chettha Thi Rat, contemporaneous relatives in the same community. with King Chakkraphat of Ayutthaya. The two kings agreed to form an alliance by building a monument to house the holy relics of the Lord Buddha. The monument was located at the boundary in Dan Sai, now called Phra That Si Song Rak. Therefore, the city of Dan Sai forms the boundary between Lao and Ayutthaya. As part of the Ayutthaya-Lao co-operation, high- ranking Lao lords were sent to help the Ayutthaya people, and they were granted leave by the Lao King to rule the city of Dan Sai. 17 In this community, Chao Ong Thai was meant as the King Chakkraphat of Ayutthaya.

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The annual ten Lao Luang divided the area into ten parts and each Phrabang hero ghosts feast:18 how part was separately ruled. The ten rulers to revive the awareness and the agreed to meet again on the New Year occasion at Wang Ban community. When search for the identity of Luang the ten rulers passed away, their spirits Phrabang people in Lom Kao were respected by villagers and taken up as guardians for the people. Every year, The legend of the ten Luang Phrabang Lao the ten spirits possess the medium and heroes or Chao Pho Tomat Legend has attend the ghost feast. Like the Chao Pho been told widely in Lom Kao area, in Dan Sai Ghost Feast, the ten hero ghost addition to Nong Ko and Mueang Lom feast is held in the seventh month of the legends. This legend refers to the time Lao calendar but on a different day. when Luang Phrabang people migrated to settle down in this area. Most villagers The importance of the ten heroes ghosts cannot identify when exactly their feast ritual to Lom Kao people can be ancestors moved into this area. However, identified in three ways. Firstly, it helps it may be inferred from historical explain the immigration of the Luang documents, local novels, myths, and the Phrabang Laotians to Lom Kao because of stories told by old people19 that this group the war between Lao and Thailand. migrated here during the reigns of King of Secondly, this ritual creates a feeling of Thon Buri and later between the reign of unity as well as spiritual support and King Rama I and King Rama III. security for Laotians in Lom Kao. Thirdly, According to the ten heroes legend, the this ritual is the reproduction of culture Lao leaders took a group of people to both to emphasize the Luang Phrabang Thailand, passing Bo Taen City and Kaen Lao identity and self-awareness of Luang Thao to settle down in Dan Sai and Phrabang Laoness. This last point is borne Mueang Lom.20 At Mueang Lom, they out by the details according to which the 21 ritual is observed. With the reunion of 18 This legend is sometimes called “Chao Pho the heroes to join the annual feast, the Tomat Ghost Feast.” The spirit mentioned community prepares food and drinks, refers to the ghost of Mat tree or thingan tree. comprising pork, duck, chicken, and According to the legend, Mat tree is gigantic. desserts. They also prepare other offerings The governor of Dert city (นครเดิด) wished to such as flowers, joss sticks, candles, construct a ship from this tree and send it to cigarettes, Miang (tidbits wrapped in Ayutthaya. He commanded the ten heroes to leafs), and betel nuts. People usually use cut the tree down and take it to Ayutthaya. On this occasion to request for what they reaching city, the wood could not be wish. In this ritual, the ruler ghosts help pulled further and was lost in the water. The relieve their believers’ anxieties through ghost tree wanted to return home. It cried every night. The area was later named Mueang fortune telling, or find resolutions for Sao Hai and is now Amphoe Sao Hai (meaning a crying pillar). 19 For example, Suthep Chanwang (1998); 21 However, the ritual has grown over the last Chanthana Chanbunchong (2000); and The ten years because the thingan tree ghost (called history of , Phetchabun Chao Pho Tor Mat) also possesses the medium (1999). of Chao Pho Khun Si. The ritual is now more 20 See Krom Praya Damrongrajanuphap. (n.p.; widely believed, especially regarding the n.d.) miracles and magic of the thingan ghost.

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problems.22 What must be stressed is that every family (or its representative) must the ritual is crucial for the self-awareness attend. Therefore, the ritual helps build the of Luang Phrabang Laotians. In the ritual, self-awareness of Luang Phrabang Chao Pho Khun Si tells the people about Laoness both at the individual and the their history and origins, especially those community levels. This belief is regularly related to the immigration from Luang reproduced through the ritual that Phrabang. (This theme is often mentioned symbolically unites the people with shared in the city legend, hero legend, village origins and history in a sacred atmosphere. legend and ritual legend). It is the effort to This ritual therefore serves the community revive the collective cultural memories objective: that is to maintain the self- through the stories passed from old people. awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness. When emphasized by the ghost feast ritual, the self-awareness of Luang Phrabang However, Luang Phrabang Laotians in Laotians is even more intense. This is some villages respect different spirits other further enhanced by the actions of the hero than Chao Pho Dan Sai or the ten heroes spirits such as sword play and mock war of Lom Kao. They might believe in other scenes. The conversation between the guardian ghosts. Furthermore, some spirits and the villagers is similar to that villages also invite ancestral ghosts from between a ruler and his people. The spirits Luang Phrabang. In Tambon Sila, Amphoe also greet each other. These actions Lom Kao, the ruler spirits from Luang emphasize the background of the Phrabang have been invited to take care of community and reinforce the self- their people. These ghosts are ancestral awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness for ghosts or lord ghosts. They have been Lom Kao people. respected since they were alive such as Chao Phi Si Thon, Ai Phaya Hanhok Kadi, The self-awareness of Luang the Two Sisters, Lady Kiang Kaeo, Chao Pho Bua Khai, Chao Pho Si Mala, and Ai Phrabang Laoness through 23 contemporary rituals Mo. These guardian ghosts protect their people from bad things and create peace

and happiness. This makes the villagers Chao Pho Ghost Feast ritual is compulsory feel safer in the new land. Furthermore, for all Luang Phrabang people. Actually, this shows the relationship between the they have to pay homage to the spirits on new world (the home land) and the old every Buddhist Holy Day. The medium of world. In political respects, this practice Nang Thiam has to go to Ho Phi (the ghost (both in stories and rituals) is the effort to hall) to conduct this ritual. Chao Pho maintain culture, identity, and self- Kuan, Chao Mae Nang Thiam, and their awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness in servants are present to accept the respect. Thailand. For the ghost feast in the seventh month,

The legends, beliefs, and the ghost feast 22 This duty is taken by Chao Pho Khun Si. It rituals in Luang Phrabang Laotians is told that when Khun Si was alive, he was a communities are important tools for Lao nobleman and was very good at fortune maintaining the self-awareness of Luang telling. He was also the leader in conducting rituals. After his death, his spirit assumes responsibility for these duties. 23 Interview with Mr. Salee Wungkeeree on April 22, 2005.

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Phrabang Laoness. Their narratives of the Chanwang, Suthep. 1998. Mueng Lom past, influential in maintaining the Lao Kao. Phetchabun: Materials for Our Luang Phrabang cultural identity, are Local Area. regularly reproduced. The self-awareness in Laung Phrabang Laoness is linked to Chanbunchong, Chanthana. 2000. The the belief in lord spirits, and the ghost research on Thai-Lao social feast. This is deep in the people’s minds development of people living on the and is powerful in maintaining the self- border of Thailand in Pitsanulok, awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness. Petchabun, and Loei. The research was supported by Office of the National Postscripts Culture Commission, Ministry of Education. The effort to maintain the self-awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness in the three Damrongrajanuphap, Krom Praya. n.p.; areas mentioned in this article indicates n.d. The Story of the Tour to the County how much the people here yearn for their of Petchabun. The funeral ceremony of glorious past in the Kingdom of Lanxang. Khun Mai Tri Prasat (Mee Maiyalap). It is an important factor in differentiating their community from others. It is also to Khongwijit, Phattharaphong. 2000. “The bolster self-confidence and to build Area and the Definition of Tourism in symbolic bridges from the past to the Luang Phrabang.” M.A. Thesis, future. The legends and the rituals are Department of Anthropology, tangible and help the villagers feel more Thammasat University. confident. Their self-awareness of Luang Phrabang Laoness is revived through Pulsuwan, Samerchai. 2001. stories. Moreover, in addition to Contemporary Tai Yai community and reproducing the narratives of the past, they the process to build the identity of the invent new ones such as the story about ethnicity: the case of the city of Nam Phi Ta Khon or a ghost mask. This shows Kham, Tai Yai state. Bangkok: Khobfai the effort of maintaining their self- Publishing project. awareness. It is not surprising the Luang Phrabang Laotians in Thailand still Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn maintain the same self awareness and Anthropology Centre. 2004. Being culture although they have lived here for Thai, Being Liberal. Bangkok: over 300 years. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre. References Nathalang, Siraporn. 2005. Folklore Theories: Methodology in Analysis of Chuethai, Jiraporn. 2004. “Boon Bung Fai Folktales. Bangkok: Center of Folklore Phi Ta Moh Thai Lom.” Journal of Studies and Department of Thai, Advanced Thailand Geographic. Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn Vol.75: 180–206. University.

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Saraya,Thida. 1982. Legend and Historical Myth and the Study of Local History. Bangkok: Phithakaksorn Printing.

The History of Lom Sak District, Petchabun. 1999. Educational materials of the Basic Education Office Phetchabun, Ministry of Education.

Wongthet, Suchit. 2002. Phaya Chueang: the Hero of Both Sides of the Mekong River. Bangkok: Matichon.

Wungkeeree, Bourin. 2006. “The Identity of Luang Phrabang Laotians: Cultural Reproduction through the Nang Thiam Ritual.” Journal of Thai Studies.Vol.1: 120–141.

Interviews

Buncham Meebuathong, interviewed on April 22, 2005.

Humphan Rattanawong 142 Unit 9, Ban Phon Tong Sawat, Mueang Chanthaburi, Kwaeng Nakhon Luang Vientiane, interviewed on July 22, 2006.

Ladda Mahawan, interviewed on April 14, 2005.

Lam Naulchorn, interviewed on May 25, 2006.

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