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AN41CH02-Cassidy ARI 16 August 2012 12:31

Lives With Others: Climate Change and Human-Animal Relations∗

Rebecca Cassidy

Department of , Goldsmiths, University of London, London SE14 6NW, United Kingdom; email: [email protected]

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012. 41:21–36 Keywords First published online as a Review in Advance on , perspectivism, , climate June 28, 2012

by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. The Annual Review of Anthropology is online at Abstract anthro.annualreviews.org This review assesses the contribution that a holistic, multisited, and mul- This article’s doi: tiscalar anthropology can make to the investigation of climate change

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145706 and its impact on various human-animal assemblages. Anthropologists Copyright c 2012 by Annual Reviews. have a long-standing interest in animal under changing All rights reserved environmental conditions. I focus on recent material that investigates 0084-6570/12/1021-0021$20.00 the impact of anthropogenic climate change on human-animal rela- ∗This article is part of a special theme on tions using from Africa, Amazonia, and the circumpolar Climate Change. For a list of other articles in rim. I argue that the value of juxtaposing work in diverse settings and this theme, see this volume’s Table of Contents. across various scales is to highlight the asymmetry of encounters be- tween different perceptions of climate change and the responses they require. Anthropology’s critical, holistic approach is especially valuable in places where people, animals, landscapes, the weather, and indeed cli- mate change itself are aspects of an undifferentiated, spiritually lively, animate environment.

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INTRODUCTION1 understanding of the variety of local contexts in which climate change occurs and is produced Anthropologists have recently begun to engage but also to open the black box of regional and Adaptation: with climate change as a global process in- international debate, which frames the problem adjustments in forming our understanding of every field site, (Lahsen 2010, Marino & Schweitzer 2009). that whether at the core, where climate change is ameliorate the harm Early anthropological engagements with the produced, or on the periphery, where many caused by, or make use effects of climate stress on human-animal re- of its effects are experienced (Crate 2011). of, actual or expected lations focused particularly on animal man- changes in climate Changes in human relationships with animals agement and social organization in semiarid have been one of the key drivers for the in- Applied and arid regions of Africa. More recently, an- anthropology: the creased attention paid to climate change in thropologists have used political and use of anthropological many regions, but particularly in the Arctic, applied anthropology to interrogate climate approaches to solve where reindeer herders occupy the front line problems change as an instantiation of global inequality (Anderson & Nuttall 2004, Hovelsrud & Smit and to advocate for change. Others have ex- Perspectivism: 2010, Vitebsky 2005), and among the island and the idea that humans, plored the perspectivist ethnographic record in coastal fishing communities, whose very exis- animals and sprits see order to expose the capitalist logic embedded in tence is under threat (Kelman & West 2009, themselves differently climate discourses and to imagine how climate depending on the body Rudiak-Gould 2009). change might appear from within other-than- they inhabit The anthropology of climate change is capitalist . This approach com- currently exploring two different paths. The bines the latest approaches in human-animal re- first catalogs the adaptation of vulnerable lations, including multispecies , communities. The second explores climate with the longer tradition of holistic anthro- change as a process that is generated by an pology, which considers people and animals, exploitative set of world historical relationships weather, and landscape as elements of a single between people, the effects of which are environment (Bateson 1972, Ingold 2000). experienced unequally. Its purpose is to expose these inequalities in order to change them and save the world (Connor 2010, Lindisfarne CHANGING CLIMATE AND 2010). The first approach is epitomized by HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONS articles that invite us to learn from “Siberian In 1928, Vere Gordon Childe argued that the Nomads’ Resilience,” for example (Kalaugher drying of the climate in North Africa at the end 2010). Kalaugher’s article describes adapta- of the Pleistocene led to the concentration of

by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. tions to climate change and industrialization people and animals around oases and created by the Yamal Nenets but is silent about the the necessary conditions for the beginnings production of these conditions or how they of agriculture. This hypothesis, known as might be changed. Warming temperatures, Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org the oasis theory, was criticized by Braidwood the incursions of oil and gas companies, and who argued that earlier warming periods had the accompanying degradation of rivers and not led to domestication (1951) and also that lakes are challenges overcome by “avoiding conditions in Iraqi Kurdistan had changed disturbed and degraded areas” (p. 1). A critical little during the transition from the Pleistocene environmental approach, on the contrary, to the Holocene (1960). Although archaeol- considers climate change and environmental ogists have continued to describe the effects degradation as global political/ecological phe- of changing climate on prehistoric cultural nomena. It requires us not only to increase our systems (Burroughs 2005, Hunter-Anderson 2010), grand schema have been rejected in favor of local explanations, which use a variety 1The article is based on the current consensus that the climate is changing and that this is likely to be as a result of human of methods to assess multiple kinds of evidence actions and inactions (IPCC 2007). to explain localized, temporally limited events

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(Maher et al. 2011). In North West , predates the recognition of anthropogenic cli- for example, a combination of archaeological, mate change. This interest was developed paleoecological, and paleoclimatic data has among pastoralists in arid and semiarid regions Anthropogenic been employed to suggest that changes in in Africa during the 1950s and 1960s (for a climate change: climate contributed to the emergence of a review of this material, see Dyson-Hudson & changes in the climate Neolithic mixed farming economy from a Dyson-Hudson 1980). In these studies, the sig- caused by human Mesolithic hunting-and-gathering economy nificance of relations with animals is found in activity based primarily on fishing (Bonsall et al. 2002). their impact on human social arrangements. Human-animal The most studied of the prehistoric climate The “seasonal dichotomy” between flood and assemblage: a coolings is the so-called 8.2 ka event, which drought, for example, was the dynamic at the particular instantiation of fluid and responsive took place when the North Atlantic currents center of Evans Pritchard’s (1940) structural relationships among shifted and the Northern Hemisphere experi- functionalist study of the Nuer (p. 272). His people, animals, and enced a short dry and cold spell. The impact characterization of the Nuer as “deeply demo- the environment of this cold snap on human-animal relations is cratic and easily roused to violence” was based the focus of a study at Tell Sabi Abyad in Syria on their conflicts with the Dinka over the “con- conducted by a team from Leiden University. trol of pastures” and “annexation of grazing Akkermans et al. (2010) analyzed 15,000 animal grounds” (1940, pp. 16, 48) during times of bones and found that, in this location, 8.2 ka ecological stress. Subsequent studies of the re- coincided with a change from pig to cattle lationship between the Nuer and the Dinka husbandry. Milk traces in pottery and spindles suggest that conflict was exacerbated by the also appeared suddenly; the secondary products expansion of the Ethiopian empire and colo- of sheep and goats are easy to store and may nial invasion, rather than an inevitable result of have been particularly useful during a time of competition for grazing land ( Johnson 1981). climatic stress (Russell 2010). In addition to a Spencer’s (1973) work with Rendille camel focus on sites such as Tell Sabi Abyad, where herders and Sambru cattle herders in Kenya, the archaeological record straddles significant who formed a symbiotic relationship based on and relatively well-defined climatic events, the complementary of their respec- an approach that concentrates on the impact tive charges, supported the idea that scarcity of climate changes on particular species has of resources can prompt cooperation as well as emerged. Santangelo (2011), for example, conflict. focuses exclusively on the hamsi or Black Sea anchovy. Ogilvie et al. (2009) have explored by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. relationships between seals, ice, and climate change in medieval Norse Greenland, and Jing AND PASTORALISM & Flad (2002) describe pig domestication in In the 1970s, the environmental determinism

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org ancient China. has thus pre- of was rejected. It no longer sented evidence for systemic changes associated seemed useful or important to match ecological with climate with the constant proviso that cau- conditions to increasingly narrowly defined sation cannot be extrapolated from correlation. human-animal assemblages (Fratkin 1997, Most recently, the use of biomolecular data has Kottak 1999). Alternatives and exceptions transformed the discipline. DNA analysis may abounded, and it became impossible to explain eventually answer questions about the origin this variation without regard to the wider and distribution of distinctive human-animal structures that enabled or limited change. relations under various climatic conditions Initially strongly influenced by world systems (Conolly et al. 2010). theory (Wolf 1972), political ecology has Social anthropologists also have a long- assimilated other influences including femi- standing interest in the effects of extreme cli- nism (Elmhurst 2011) and poststructuralism mates and catastrophic climatic events that (Biersack & Greenberg 2006). The approach

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has provided a critical perspective on those velopment until the 1980s reinforced human-animal relations most affected by the idea that pastoralism was an unsustainable changing climate, from the drylands of Africa and primitive way of life and that pastoralists Pastoralism: aform of agriculture focused (Batterbury 2001, Mamdani 2009, Turner should become modern by settling in one place. primarily on the 2004) and Asia (Humphrey & Sneath 1996a,b, An anthropogenic notion of desertification rearing of livestock 1999; Sneath 2000) to the Arctic (Anderson entered into development discourses based & Nuttall 2004, Cruikshank 2005), Amazonia on research undertaken in the 1970s (see, (Rubenstein 2004), Southeast Asia and Oceania for example, UNCOD Secr. 1977), when it (Lowe 2006, Tsing 2005, West 2006), and the was conventional to portray food shortages in New American West (Sheridan 2007). Africa as “man made” disasters and desertifica- People with animal-centered livelihoods ex- tion as the consequence of the “tragedy of the periencing even minor changes in climate may ” (Hardin 1968): the natural desire find the ability of their animals to fulfill exist- of pastoralists to enlarge their herds. In 1979, ing functions compromised or even negated. Horowitz wrote that the notion of “pastoral The effects of a changing climate have thus responsibility for environmental degradation” been compared with those of forced migration: had achieved the status of a “fundamental Whether changes result in physical relocation truth” that no longer required evidence or or not, they require adaptation to novel ecolog- support (p. 27; see also Warren 1995). This ical conditions to which certain human-animal fundamental truth was used to support policies assemblages may be more or less suited. Having including the settlement of pastoralists, the established this comparability, nongovernmen- reduction of common- land tenure, tal organizations have mobilized behind a new and privatization (Fratkin 1997, p. 241). and controversial category of “climate change Beinart & McGregor (2003) have shown how refugee” (Christian Aid 2007). Pastoralists in environmental research in Africa has made areas of high rainfall variability are among the “implicit and explicit claims about who best strongest candidates for this fate ( Jonsson´ 2010) understands African environments, and who alongside island dwellers and the coastal poor should have the right to control them” (p. 2). (Kempf 2009). In all cases, the impact of climate In the late 1980s and 1990s, Behnke change on animals and their dependents can- et al. (1993) and Scoones (1995) combined not be isolated from other social, political, and insights from a variety of disciplines including environmental challenges facing who anthropology to rethink rangeland ecology are frequently marginalized both geographi- and pastoralism. Contrary to the fundamental by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. cally and politically. truths of anthropogenic desertification and Morton (2010) describes pastoralists as the tragedy of the Commons they found “people who depend on livestock or the sale of that pastoralism was, in fact, a rational and

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org livestock products for most of their income and sustainable strategy for exploiting rangelands consumption, whose livestock is mainly grazed in semiarid regions. However, policies that on communally-managed or open-access pas- restrict pastoralist livelihoods have endured. tures, and who show at least some tendency, as A Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) or individuals, to move seasonally report describing the of with livestock” (p. 3). He intends this definition propoor livestock making in Ethiopia, to remain fuzzy enough to accommodate those for example, showed that although livestock who would prefer to practice this way of life contribute to the livelihoods of 60–70% of but are prevented from doing so and those the , policy focuses who gain more of their livelihood from crops “some might say ‘exclusively’“ on draught but place more importance on livestock than oxen (Halderman 2004, p. x). In Ethiopia, cropping. Pastoralists have been treated with “the strong antipastoralist bias of the core suspicion by of all kinds, and de- highland seems to prevent recognition

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of the relevance and importance of pastoralism. Fratkin & Mearns (2003) provide a comparative The central government’s strategy of settling analysis of the East African Maasai and Mon- pastoralists along the major rivers is, in part, a golia showing the global commonality of the reflection of this bias” (2004, p. vii). The chal- pressures experienced by pastoralists, including lenges facing livestock production in Ethiopia, those that emanate from the World Bank and including the recruitment of the ruling class other development organizations interested in from sedentary agricultural and/or urban a particular model of . groups, the fact that traditional sector livestock Disagreements about whether pastoralism is difficult to quantify, and the relative poverty in Africa constitutes a flexible way of utilizing and impotence of pastoralists and other animal scarce resources in hostile environments or an keepers (including the peri urban) are common unsustainable anachronism influence (and are to many other African states who are also faced influenced by) national policies and the flow of with relatively low productivity, biological resources within the international community constraints (including genetic erosion, poor (Anderson et al. 2009). Livestock production in nutrition, and disease), and unequal terms of Africa has traditionally operated on a regional trade (TCA 2009). These shared challenges are scale, but in the past decade, its interconnect- refracted through local historical, ecological, edness within the global food system has inten- and political conditions (Gausset et al. 2005). sified (Thomson et al. 2004). Several states and The impact of climate change on pastoral- Pan-African organizations have ambitious plans ism is similarly contested. Some organizations to grow their livestock sectors (AU/IBAR 2004, and individuals stress the adaptability afforded FAO 2006, SWAC/OECD 2008) to benefit by this way of life (de Jode 2010, Nozieres` et al. from what has been described as the livestock 2011), whereas others emphasize its vulnerabil- revolution linked to increased meat consump- ity (Mihlar 2008). As in the case of more general tion in developing countries (Delgado 2005, questions regarding , case stud- Owen et al. 2005, Scoones & Wolmer 2006). ies suggest important local variations. Markakis Against a background of intermittent bans on (2004) describes pastoralism in the Horn of the export of livestock from East Africa to the Africa as “on the margin,” both geographi- Gulf States, the United Kingdom Department cally and existentially owing to state agricultural for International Development has called for policies and a lack of investment, exacerbated by a restructuring of the current certification of climate change. Thebaud´ & Batterbury (2001) livestock exports from a disease- or veterinary- also predict a grim future for pastoralists in based model to the certification of commodities by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. the Sahel on the basis of detailed observations (Thomson et al. 2004). The disease model pre- in eastern Niger. Wider problems of changing vents Africa from exporting meat to Europe or climate, difficulties in negotiating access to re- the Gulf owing to foot and mouth, despite the

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org sources, and inconsistent state policies are illus- negligible of spreading the disease through trated through the example of a secure water- frozen meat. The impact and appropriateness ing holes scheme that prompted conflict among of these policies are difficult to assess because ethnic groups (p. 70). More positively, Bradley of a lack of accurate data about the size and & Grainger (2004) have compared the Wolof role of livestock in rural economies (primarily croppers) and the Peul (mainly pas- and the effectiveness and accessibility of toralists) of the silvopastoral zone of Senegal, markets and supply chains. The relationship finding that the Peul exhibit greater “social between this growth and climate change has resilience” under environmental pressure. On been widely debated because pastoralists are the basis of climate change predictions in sub- seen as both vulnerable to and contributors Saharan Africa to 2050, Jones & Thornton to climate change (Foresight 2011, Herrero (2008) have suggested that croppers in marginal et al. 2009, Neely et al. 2009, Thornton zones may switch to livestock production. et al. 2010, Thornton & Gerber 2010).

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ANIMISM AND CLIMATE the extinction of particular species can be seen CHANGE: AMAZONIA AND THE as a kind of immediate cosmological crisis as CIRCUMPOLAR RIM well as a loss of potential adaptations for the fu- Sentient : ture (Orlove & Brush 1996, Posey 1990). The Tim Ingold’s notion of The absence of an absolute distinction between field of biocultural diversity is animated by this knowledge of the humans and animals, and the concomitant environment that is connection between cultural and biological di- possibility that animals may become humans based on being in the versity. Maffi (2007) suggests that the approach and vice versa, has been recorded in diverse world has introduced diverse ideas about the relation- settings including Amazonia (Bird-David 1999; Animism: the ships between people and their environments Descola 1994, 1996; Fausto 2007; Rosengren idea that the universe, to development discourses, including “the poli- including animals and 2004; Turner 2009; Viveiros de Castro 1998), cies and activities” of the United Nations En- natural phenomena Siberia (Nadasdy 2007, Vitebsky 2005, Willer- vironment Program, the United Nations Edu- such as thunder, and slev 2007), North America (Brightman 1993), certain objects are cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and North and Inner Asia (Pedersen 2001, animated in a similar the International Union for Conservation of 2007). Some anthropologists have explored an way to humans Nature and the Convention on Biological Di- Amazonian/Siberian axis in order to elucidate Symbiotic versity (p. 60). Trostle (2010) provides a less this position (Brightman et al. 2012, Vitebsky domestication: optimistic assessment of the World Development an account of 1995). Others have emphasized the importance Report 2010. Anthropologists focused on the en- domestication that of recognizing differences between, for exam- actment of powerful ideas about conservation in explores both animal ple, Amazonian cosmologies and the sentient and human agency diverse local settings have also been less confi- ecologies they underpin (Mentore 2011, dent about the impact of alternative cosmolo- Posey 2007). The ethnographic record reveals gies on policy makers. Lowe (2006) has inter- a variety of positions that coalesce around rogated conservation as a political substitutability, the philosophical fecundity project in Indonesia, focusing on the creation of which lies in its ideal type (Turner 2009). of a National Park and the disparities between Notwithstanding important variations, where Togean Sama people’s ideas of nature and those human-animal relations produce a generalized of Indonesian biologists and conservation- sociality, species particularly valued for their ists. West (2006) has conducted fieldwork in generativity are irreplaceable. As Tsing has England, , Australia, the United written, “human nature is an interspecies re- States, and Papua New Guinea to explore how lationship” (2010). Under these circumstances, particular imaginaries of nature (and particu- the impact of climate change, whether direct or larly those embedded within Euro-American

by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. through mitigation schemes, affects the ability ideals of climate change, conservation, and bio- of particular societies to sustain a living in diversity) create places and engagements with sometimes precarious circumstances, but it also animals and plants. makes it more difficult for people to realize their Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Studies of reindeer herders also provide humanity fully through animals. Anthropolo- an exceptionally clear record of the impact gists have used animist cosmologies in a number of climate change on animist systems. of ways: to reveal the ontological underpinnings The symbiotic domestication described by of Euro-American thought (Latour 2009); to Stammler & Beach (2006) is more than a re- interrogate political commentaries about lation of production that implicates both hu- climate change, biodiversity, sustainability, and mans and animals: It is also a “concrete expres- human-animal relations (Lowe 2006, Mentore sion of an animistic worldview wherein, again, 2011, West 2006); and to serve as a foundation human and animal ‘persons’ are conceived as for the inclusion of various other than human equals in reciprocal, symbiotic relationship, not agents in their ethnographies (Kirksey 2009). only for their movements in the landscape, but In places where humans and animals are mu- also for their very sustenance and reproduction, tually constituted, the loss of biodiversity and their life and death” (p. 12). Stammler & Beach

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(2006) have argued that reindeer management animistic terms and submit animals sold to across the circumpolar rim provides a valuable markets to the usual markers of capital and perspective on all human-animal interactions commodification (weight, veterinary welfare, “because of the unique spread over wild, feral, etc.) (Stammler 2005, pp. 173–76). Rationalist and domestic conditions of the species Rangifer animal management stresses growth and tarandus, and the many associations these differ- maximization, whereas animistic exchanges ent have with humans” (p. 6). The emphasize balance and sustainability. A single impact of changing climate on the circumpolar goal (growth) and measure of success (profit) rim, where these various associations are en- overlooks local priorities but also imposes a acted, is particularly acute (Anisimov et al. 2007, single strategy on diverse and delicate envi- Furgal & Prowse 2008, Nuttall 2000, Rees et al. ronments, which may reduce flexibility. Oskal 2008, Ullsten et al. 2004). (2000), for example, has shown that the tradi- The animistic worldview explored in tional Sami idea of a “beautiful herd” (cˇappa´ Stammler & Beach’s collection was also eallu) consisted of a variety of phenotypes, described by Ingold (1974, 1980, 1986), who ages, and sexes, unlike the ideal of phenotypic focused on the gifts of animals granted to re- consistency or “breedwealth” for which indus- spectful, ritually observant hunters by Animal trial agriculture strives (Franklin 2007). The Masters in North America and the circumpolar adaptive value of such a notion of beauty is rim. expressed an injunction not to apparent in a quote from Mattis Aslaksen Sara, waste or otherwise devalue animal persons. a herder from Karasjok. Sara was asked why Stammler & Beach (2006) are interested in he keeps large barren females (of no apparent whether and to what extent this relationship of market value) within the herd. He replied, “I respectful reciprocity has been maintained by have few big males now—so who else will break pastoralists, particularly since the collapse of the ice?” (quoted in Tyler et al. 2007, p. 197). the Soviet Empire in the early 1990s (p. 12). Sustainable reindeer management depends The importance of this investigation lies in the on movement within a landscape that includes potential of certain human-animal assemblages animals, weather, rivers, plants, and other to adapt to changing environments, where geographical features, any of which may be adaptation is conceived of in the most complete animated or personified. Anderson (2000) has sense as implicating livestock management as described how Evenki herders “act and move both a cosmological and a practical endeavor on the tundra in such a way that they are (Tyler et al. 2007). On the basis of extensive conscious that animals and the tundra itself by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. fieldwork across the region, they identify are reacting to them” (p. 116). Ingold (2000) movements from “symbiotic domestication in described this openness “based in feeling, con- human-reindeer relations” to “rationalization sisting in the skills, sensitivities and orientations

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org leading to full resource use at the cost of in- that have developed through long experience timate human-animal relations” (Stammler & of conducting one’s life in a particular envi- Beach 2006, p. 6). The rational exploitation or ronment” as “sentient ecology” (p. 25) and maximal resource use of animals championed called for a “refocusing on the human-being- by states and development agencies includes in-its-environment,” which dispenses with an injunction not to waste, but this is not “the opposition between species and culture” “buffered” by “Animal Masters who might (p. 391). Istomin & Dwyer (2010) have argued take offense at how a specific animal is used or that anthropologists, despite recognizing the wasted” (2006, p. 15). Rationalist perspectives centrality of human-animal interactions to no- have not eradicated animist views: The two madic pastoralism, have neglected the agency coexist, albeit uneasily, as among the Yamal– of animals. Based on fieldwork with the Kom Nenets, who frame the killing of animals for and Nenets, they describe an iterative process subsistence within the domestic sphere in whereby animals respond to herder behavior,

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who in turn respond to their animals and so on. but intense of state and international They refer to this process as “dynamic mutual control (Tsing 2005). Guyana’s Low Carbon behavioural adaptation.” This model is also Development Scheme is a unique response to found in indigenous descriptions of the effects distinctive political and ecological conditions of changing climate on animal behavior (Riseth (Mentore 2011). Nevertheless, despite the var- et al. 2010). For a suggestive comparison, ious experiences of communities, the impact see the description of movement through of climate change on human-animal relations forests by the Waiwai in southern Guyana by is inflected through what Nuttall has referred Mentore (2011). Kirksey (2009) has discussed to as “common experiences” of “how various the potential of “multispecies ethnographies,” capitalist and socialist states claimed control including their relevance to understanding and over their lands and animals” (2004, p. 200). responding to changes in climate. Serres has Anthropological responses to these “common long argued for the revival of natural agency experiences” are the focus of the next section. in philosophy (1995) and recently mused on our failure to invite Biogee (the earth, life) to Copenhagen (2009). APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY AND Multispecies ethnography is also related to CLIMATE CHANGE POLITICS the interdisciplinary work of anthropologists The Sachs Harbor project in the Northwest and biologists interested in the implications of territories of Canada embodied many of the climate change on wildlife and its impact on principles of applied anthropology during the human populations (Lehmann et al. 2010). The 1990s and produced some of the most impor- effects of changes in climate on wild animals tant studies of the impact of climate change on have traditionally been considered separately animal-centered livelihoods (for a review, see from human influence. Biologists focused on Pearce et al. 2011). It was a “model of commu- dispersal and life-history strategies that resyn- nity research partnership” (Berkes & Jolly 2001, chronize an animal with its food and habitat p. 3), initiated and driven by the 30-household (Parmesan 2006). However, the distinction community of Sachs Harbor assisted by a team between wild and domesticated animals is no from the International Institute for Sustainable longer self-evident, and all populations or Development (IISD), a film crew, technical ex- their environments are impacted to various perts, local experts, and liaison people from the degrees (Fuentes 2007). The effects of climate Inuvialuit region and a university team (Berkes change on wild animals are thus an excellent & Jolly 2001, p. 2). The research team used par- by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. illustration of the mutuality emphasized by ticipatory methods, in keeping with local ideas authors such as Haraway (2008) and Cassidy & of learning about the land through experience, Mullin (2007) and the reworking of domestica- and the focus of the project was “changes in

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org tion that this mutualism implies. Like animist the social-ecological system” singular, making cosmologies, these approaches emphasize the use of the integrated concept of “humans-in- potential of “integrative human environment nature” as defined by Berkes & Folke (1998), research” (Newell et al. 2005). various forms of which were discussed in the The effects of climate change on animal previous section. management and its cosmological underpin- The people in Sachs Harbor make their liv- nings cannot be understood in isolation from ing from waged labor, transfer payments, sub- other physical and social factors (for a review of sistence harvesting, hunting, and fishing. In climate change as one of multiple vulnerabili- March and April, they ice fish for trout and ties facing communities in the Canadian north, char on inland lakes. In May, they hunt snow see Prno et al. 2011). In Indonesia, for example, geese and collect their eggs until mid June, forest exploitation and preservation reproduce when they return to fishing if there is still ice. the property relations created by a short In June and July, people hunt for ringed seal.

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From July to September, they use nets to fish for (Willerslev 2004), and the decisive roles of an- char, Arctic cod, and least cisco. In September, imals and their masters in the hunt (Brightman people return to musk ox and caribou hunting, 1993, Willerslev 2007). The absence of Euro- which peaks in November (Berkes & Jolly 2001, American distinctions is revealed in hunting pp. 4–6). Berkes & Jolly grouped the impacts behavior (Nadasdy 2007), rites of passage of climate change observed by the community (Int. Arctic Sci. Comm. 2010), and butchery of Sachs Harbor under four overlapping head- (Petersen 2003), and through differences in ings: access, safety, predictability, and species the treatment of subsistence and commercially availability. Hunting grounds and camps were acquired food (Pars et al. 2001). Although the more difficult to reach owing to early thaws; ice Sachs Harbor project focused on the social- moved more and was thinner; weather patterns ecological system, singular, cosmological dif- were less predictable; and animals had changed ferences were subordinate to the shared logic of their behavior, including migratory patterns resource management with the implicit separa- (p. 7). They then documented the flexibility tions of animals, people, and environment that afforded by traditional adaptive strategies, in- this entails. The statement by certain Inuvialuit cluding flexibility of resource use (for example, research participants, who told researchers hunting a mix of species, adjusting the timing of that they were “lonely for the ice” (Berkes & the seasonal calendar, hunting seals from boats Jolly 2001, p. 9), for example, is a problem of rather than from the unreliable ice), local en- a different order to that of unpredictable ice, vironmental knowledge and skills (for example, which can be solved by hunting seal from boats. using group memory of climate events and mas- Some Arctic research appears to suggest tering a variety of skills rather than becoming that animistic views are being eliminated by the specialist hunters), and sharing through social alternatives that are embedded in conventional networks (including food within extended fam- climate change discourses. Krupnik & Ray ilies, but also intercommunity trade) (pp. 6–10). (2007), for example, have compared hunters’ The project contributed to the political capac- views about walrus in the Beringian region with ity of the Sachs Harbor community by provid- those of “wildlife biologists” and other scien- ing them with “vertical linkages across levels of tists. They argue that hunters’ explanations for organization,” allowing concerns to be “trans- walrus behavior from the 1800s to the mid- mitted to regional, national, and international 1900s would have been “in terms of breaking levels” (p. 15). traditional taboo regulations, of bad human Projects such as the one in Sachs Harbor treatment of walruses, and of disrespect (or low by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. amplify local voices by translating them into respect) for their spirits” (p. 8) but that “the concerns that regional and international generation of elders that once held traditional agencies can understand, even if they choose to worldviews and beliefs is mostly gone” (p. 8).

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org ignore them (Bravo 2009, Lindisfarne 2010). The “knowledge change” described by Krupnik They provide evidence that enables govern- & Ray (2007) is distinctly asymmetrical because ments and organizations to be held to account their conclusion indicates that “[t]he discourse by anthropologists and others. However, as between scientists and hunters then may be Mentore (2011), West (2006), and Lowe (2006) about ecosystems, global warming, game man- have shown in other contexts, apparent transla- agement, metapopulations, and similar issues tions often submit local ideas to the dominant taken fully from the scientists’ list, but hope- logic of capitalism. Numerous historical and fully augmented by the indigenous hunter’s modern sources confirm the inseparability of knowledge base” (p. 9). Martello (2008) has de- people and other animals in Arctic communi- scribed the effect of the adoption of elements of ties, the profusion of spirits in the landscape the global climate change discourse by indige- (Berkes 2008, p. xvi), the permeability between nous representatives as reinforcing the status of animal-populated dream worlds and waking life “ both as objects of scientific

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inquiry and as advocates of climate change compensated for their losses and protected mitigation” (p. 370). Bravo (2009) suggests from future externalities. Limitations to this that “[o]ne way to be more critical about approach include the idea that climate change is the language of climate change narratives variously understood and may not always be the is to evaluate the extent to which they can most powerful concept around which to mobi- account for, and mitigate, growing inequalities lize resistance in particular locations. Forbes & of power and wealth” (p. 256), an invitation Stammler (2009), for example, have shown that that would be redundant in many other areas whereas “Western indigenous leaders repre- of anthropological inquiry. The idea that senting the Inuit and Saami peoples are actively traditional ecological knowledge about animals engaged in the academic and political discourse can be complementary to scientific paradigms surrounding climate change,” “their Russian (Riedlinger 1999) understates the inequality colleagues tend to focus more on legislation that frames this encounter and the ability of and self-determination, as a post-Soviet legacy” science to perpetuate cosmologies of its own, (p. 28). the most powerful of which is the foundational This review has brought together a number distinction between nature and culture (Latour of sources that view climate change as a cul- 1993, Nadasdy 1999). tural crisis both “among populations of affluent Western democratic polities” (Connor 2010, CONCLUSION p. 2) and also among people who have animal- In the past decade, anthropologists working centered livelihoods in climate-sensitive areas. with communities affected by climate change The value of juxtaposing work in diverse have argued that researchers should first and settings and across various scales is that it high- foremost protect and advance the interests of lights the asymmetry of encounters between their research partners (Crate & Nuttall 2009) different perceptions of climate change and without always taking this argument to its the responses they require (Crate 2011, Smith logical conclusion (Lindisfarne 2010). Climate & Parks 2010). Anthropologists have a long change is a threat particularly to the poorest tradition of engagement with human-animal and least powerful people. To place these relations and are comfortable scrutinizing the people first contains an explicit critique of the implications of naturalist assumptions. This idea of adaptation and asks not how marginal critical, holistic approach is especially valuable communities can adjust their animal use to in places where people, animals, landscapes, the changed environmental circumstances the weather, and indeed climate change itself by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. bequeathed to them by their more powerful are aspects of an undifferentiated, spiritually neighbors, but rather how they might be lively, animate environment. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT The author is not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

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Turner M. 2004. Political ecology and the moral dimensions of ‘resource conflicts’: the case of farmer-herder conflicts in the Sahel. Polit. Geogr. 3:863–89 Turner T. 2009. The crisis of late . Perspectivism and animism: rethinking culture, nature, spirit, and bodiliness. Tipit´ı 7(1):3–40 Tyler NJC, Turi JM, Sundset MA, Bull KS, Sara MN, et al. 2007. Saami reindeer pastoralism under climate change: applying a generalized framework for vulnerability studies to a sub-Arctic social-ecological system. Glob. Environ. Change 17:191–206 Ullsten O, Speth JG, Chapin FS. 2004. Options for enhancing the resilience of northern countries to rapid social and environmental change: a message to policy makers. Ambio 33:343 U. N. Conf. on Desertification (UNCOD) Secr. 1977. Desertification: Its Causes and Consequences. Oxford: Pergamon Vitebsky P. 1995. The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul, Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon. London: Duncan Baird Vitebsky P. 2005. Reindeer People. Living with Animals and Spirits in Siberia. London: Harper Collins Viveiros de Castro E. 1998. Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. 4(3):469– 88 Warren A. 1995. Changing understandings of African pastoralism and the nature of environmental paradigms. Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr. 20(2):193–203 West P. 2006. Conservation Is Our Government Now: The Politics of Ecology in Papua New Guinea.Durham,NC: Duke Univ. Press Willerslev R. 2004. Spirits as ‘ready to hand’: a phenomenological analysis of Yukagir spiritual knowledge and dreaming. Anthropol. Theory 4(4):395–418 Willerslev R. 2007. Soul Hunters: Hunting, Animism, and Personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs.Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press Wolf E. 1972. Ownership and political ecology. Anthropol. Q. 45:201–5 by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

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Annual Review of Anthropology Contents Volume 41, 2012

Prefatory Chapter Ancient Mesopotamian Urbanism and Blurred Disciplinary Boundaries Robert McC. Adams ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp1

Archaeology The of Emotion and Affect Sarah Tarlow ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp169 The Archaeology of Money Colin Haselgrove and Stefan Krmnicek ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp235 Phenomenological Approaches in Landscape Archaeology Matthew H. Johnson ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp269 Paleolithic Archaeology in China Ofer Bar-Yosef and Youping Wang ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp319 Archaeological Contributions to Climate Change Research: The Archaeological Record as a Paleoclimatic and Paleoenvironmental Archive Daniel H. Sandweiss and Alice R. Kelley pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp371 by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. and Migration in the Ancient Mediterranean Peter van Dommelen ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp393 Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Archaeometallurgy: The Study of Preindustrial Mining and Metallurgy David Killick and Thomas Fenn ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp559 Rescue Archaeology: A European View Jean-Paul Demoule ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp611

Biological Anthropology Energetics, Locomotion, and Female Reproduction: Implications for Human Cara M. Wall-Scheffler pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp71

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Ethnoprimatology and the Anthropology of the Human-Primate Interface Agustin Fuentes ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp101 Human Evolution and the Chimpanzee Referential Doctrine Ken Sayers, Mary Ann Raghanti, and C. Owen Lovejoy ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp119 Chimpanzees and the Behavior of Ardipithecus ramidus Craig B. Stanford ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp139 Evolution and Environmental Change in Early Human Prehistory Richard Potts pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp151 Primate Feeding and Foraging: Integrating Studies of Behavior and Morphology W. Scott McGraw and David J. Daegling pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp203 Madagascar: A History of Arrivals, What Happened, and Will Happen Next Robert E. Dewar and Alison F. Richard ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp495 Maternal Prenatal Nutrition and Health in Grandchildren and Subsequent Generations E. Susser, J.B. Kirkbride, B.T. Heijmans, J.K. Kresovich, L.H. Lumey, and A.D. Stein pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp577

Linguistics and Communicative Practices Media and Religious Diversity Patrick Eisenlohr pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp37 Three Waves of Variation Study: The Emergence of Meaning in the Study of Sociolinguistic Variation Penelope Eckert pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp87 by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. Documents and Matthew S. Hull pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp251 Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org The Semiotics of Collective Memories Brigittine M. French ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp337 Language and Materiality in Global Capitalism Shalini Shankar and Jillian R. Cavanaugh pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp355 Anthropology in and of the Archives: Possible Futures and Contingent Pasts. Archives as Anthropological Surrogates David Zeitlyn ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp461 Music, Language, and Texts: Sound and Semiotic Ethnography Paja Faudree pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp519

viii Contents AN41-FrontMatter ARI 23 August 2012 12:10

International Anthropology and Regional Studies Contemporary of Indigenous Australia Tess Lea ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp187 The Politics of Perspectivism Alcida Rita Ramos pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp481 Anthropologies of Arab-Majority Societies Lara Deeb and Jessica Winegar pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp537

Sociocultural Anthropology Lives With Others: Climate Change and Human-Animal Relations Rebecca Cassidy pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp21 The Politics of the Anthropogenic Nathan F. Sayre pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp57 Objects of Affect: Beyond the Image Elizabeth Edwards pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp221 Sea Change: Island Communities and Climate Change Heather Lazrus ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp285 Enculturating Cells: The Anthropology, Substance, and Science of Stem Cells Aditya Bharadwaj pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp303 Diabetes and Culture Steve Ferzacca ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp411 Toward an Ecology of Materials Tim Ingold pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp427

by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. Sport, Modernity, and the Body Niko Besnier and Susan Brownell ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp443

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Theme I: Materiality Objects of Affect: Photography Beyond the Image Elizabeth Edwards pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp221 The Archaeology of Money Colin Haselgrove and Stefan Krmnicek ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp235 Documents and Bureaucracy Matthew S. Hull pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp251 Phenomenological Approaches in Landscape Archaeology Matthew H. Johnson ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp269

Contents ix AN41-FrontMatter ARI 23 August 2012 12:10

Language and Materiality in Global Capitalism Shalini Shankar and Jillian R. Cavanaugh pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp355 Toward an Ecology of Materials Tim Ingold pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp427 Anthropology in and of the Archives: Possible Futures and Contingent Pasts. Archives as Anthropological Surrogates David Zeitlyn ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp461

Theme II: Climate Change Lives With Others: Climate Change and Human-Animal Relations Rebecca Cassidy pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp21 The Politics of the Anthropogenic Nathan F. Sayre pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp57 Ethnoprimatology and the Anthropology of the Human-Primate Interface Agustin Fuentes ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp101 Evolution and Environmental Change in Early Human Prehistory Richard Potts pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp151 Sea Change: Island Communities and Climate Change Heather Lazrus ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp285 Archaeological Contributions to Climate Change Research: The Archaeological Record as a Paleoclimatic and Paleoenvironmental Archive Daniel H. Sandweiss and Alice R. Kelley pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp371 Madagascar: A History of Arrivals, What Happened,

by Roskilde University on 05/29/13. For personal use only. and Will Happen Next Robert E. Dewar and Alison F. Richard ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp495

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2012.41:21-36. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Indexes

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 32–41 ppppppppppppppppppppppppppp627 Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 32–41 ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp631

Errata

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Anthropology articles may be found at http://anthro.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml

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