In the Cause of Flight TECHNOLOGISTS OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS ^L _• _• HOWARD S. WOLKO »» . rfv • SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE NUMBER 4 SERIES PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Emphasis upon publication as a means of "diffusing knowledge" was expressed by the first Secretary of the Smithsonian. In his formal plan for the Institution, Joseph Henry outlined a program that included the following statement: "It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all branches of knowledge." This theme of basic research has been adhered to through the years by thousands of titles issued in series publications under the Smithsonian imprint, commencing with Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge in 1848 and continuing with the following active series: Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics Smithsonian Contributions to Botany Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology In these series, the Institution publishes small papers and full-scale monographs that report the research and collections of its various museums and bureaux or of professional colleagues in the world cf science and scholarship. The publications are distributed by mailing lists to libraries, universities, and similar institutions throughout the world. Papers or monographs submitted for series publication are received by the Smithsonian Institution Press, subject to its own review for format and style, only through departments of the various Smithsonian museums or bureaux, where the manuscripts are given substantive review. Press requirements for manuscript and art preparation are outlined on the inside back cover. S. Dillon Ripley Secretary Smithsonian Institution SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE • NUMBER 4 In the Cause of Flight TECHNOLOGISTS OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS Howard S. Wolko SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS City of Washington 1981 ABSTRACT Wolko, Howard S. In the Cause of Flight: Technologists of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Smithsonian Studies in Air and Space, number 4, 121 pages, 1981.— Many of the individuals who made prominent contributions to the technology of flight have attracted little historical attention; yet their accomplishments served to stimulate progress in aerospace development. This work represents an effort to foster interest in flight technologists and their contributions to vehicle performance. Information scattered throughout the literature is assem­ bled herein to provide students of flight history with a convenient source of biographical material on 129 technologists. The biographical sketches are arranged in chronological order of contribution following each topical discus­ sion. The topics include bouyant flight; aerodynamics; air-breathing propul­ sion; materials, structures, and design; vertical flight; and rocketry and space flight. OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. SERIES COVER DESIGN: Spiral galaxy in the constellation Triagulum. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wolko, Howard S. In the cause of flight. (Smithsonian studies in air and space ; no. 4) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Aeronautics—Biography. 2. Rocketry—Biography. I. Title. II. Series. TL539.W67 629.13'0092'2 [B] 80-19749 Contents Page Introduction 1 Engineers and Aeronautics 6 Acknowledgments 8 Buoyant Flight 8 Balloons 9 Airships 10 Biographic Sketches 12 Aerodynamics 16 The Formative Years, 1687-1915 16 The Years of Progressive Refinement, 1915-1935 18 The Years of Sonic Achievement, 1935- 23 Biographic Sketches 25 Air-Breathing Propulsion 50 Predecessors of the Aircraft Engine 50 Steam Engines 50 Automobile Engines 51 The Aircraft Engine 52 Exhaust Valves 54 Superchargers 55 Carburetors and Fuel-Injection Systems 55 Variable Pitch Propellers 57 Turbojet Engines 58 Biographic Sketches 61 Flight Structures 69 Materials, Structures, and Design 70 Biographic Sketches 76 Vertical Flight _ 93 Autogiros 94 Helicopters 94 Biographic Sketches 95 Rocketry and Space Flight 98 The Formative Years 98 The Transition to Space 102 Biographic Sketches 105 Literature Cited 117 Name Index 119 iii In the Cause of Flight Howard S. Wolko Introduction Man's aspiration to fly can be traced to antiq­ united to form academies of science, which pro­ uity through early writings, conceptual sketches, vided an intellectural atmosphere and fostered and surviving accounts of tower jumpers; but exchange of information. These academies served such evidence merely serves to document the to focus effort on transforming vague and often persistent dream of flight in a mechanically un­ intractable concepts into idealized theories acces­ enlightened era. Little to advance the cause of sible to mathematical treatment. Academicians practical flight was accomplished by these activ­ of the caliber of Blaise Pascal, Robert Hooke, ities. True flight, with power and control, proved Gottfried von Leibnitz, and Issac Newton, to to be an endeaver totally dependent on the emer­ mention just a few, composed theories that were gence of engineering as a major creative force— instrumental in shaping the patterns of reason an event that did not occur until the latter half and understanding of physical phenomena that of the 19th century. For this reason, it is appro­ would guide future generations to superb techni­ priate to trace briefly the origins of contemporary cal achievements. engineering and the factors that influenced its With few exceptions, engineers of the period growth in the years prior to flight demonstration. were not involved with the mainstream of scien­ Society has always been influenced by a tech­ tific activity. At the time, engineers were trained nological age of sorts, but technology as practiced through apprenticeship to be skilled artisans en­ prior to the scientific revolution of the 17th cen­ gaged in military ventures related to roads, for­ tury differed markedly in philosophy and sub­ tifications, and machines of war. Most had no stance from that which was to follow. The 17th college training and little exposure to the sciences. century, more than any preceding it, was a time Theirs was an application-oriented occupation in which learned men questioned the established based principally on empirical rules-of-thumb de­ doctrines of reason and, finding them inadequate, veloped from practical work experience and fre­ began to search for more realistic means of de­ quently without sound physical or mathematical scribing observed phenomena. It was a time in justification. Engineering schools were nonexist­ which scientific curiosity rather than application ent and field experience was often gained from was the prevailing motive power, but the cause prolonged assignments in the colonies. at work was right for formulation of the prereq­ France was the first to recognize the need to uisites required for engineering accomplishment. provide engineers with systematic training. As a During this period a number of great thinkers major land power engaged in consolidation and Howard S. Wolko, Aeronautics Department, National Air and Space defense of its colonial holdings, the French gov­ Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560. ernment founded the Corps des Ingenieurs du SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN AIR AND SPACE Genie Militaire (Corps of Military Engineers) in organize a type of engineering school to replace 1675 to provide the army with specialists in build­ all those of the ancien regime. Known as the Ecole ing fortifications. This was followed in 1720 with Polytechnique, the school was remarkably differ­ the Corps des Ingenieurs des Ponts et Chaussees ent from any of its predecessors (Timoschenko, (Corps of Engineers for Roads and Bridges) (Rae, 1953:67). Monge, who was given responsibility 1967:328). Five years later these organizations for organizing the school, was a fundamentalist were consolidated to form a Corps du Genie who believed that students well versed in the (Corps of Engineers), which required its members sciences of mechanics, mathematics, physics, and to have an elementary knowledge of mathemat­ chemistry would have little trouble acquiring the ics, drafting, and the principles of fortification. In specialized knowledge required of engineering ap­ 1747, the first professional engineering college to plication. Accordingly, he organized a three-year offer civil as well as military engineering, the program of study: the first two years were devoted Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees was founded as an entirely to the fundamental sciences, and engi­ offshoot of this corps. Two years later, a second neering courses were reserved for the third year. engineering school" at Mezieres was founded to Later, when the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees and train engineers for fortification work (Rae, 1967: the other schools were reopened with improved 329). curricula, the Ecole Polytechnique became a two- While these schools represent a major step year school concentrating only on the fundamen­ toward systematic training of engineers, their mil­ tal sciences. Students interested in completing itary ties continued the French practice of train­ their engineering preparation could do so at one ing engineers principally for government