Manhua: The Evolution of Hong Kong Cartoons and Comics Wendy Siuyi Wong Introduction The Chinese term "manhua" is used commonly in Hong Kong as equivalent to "cartoons" and "comics" in English. It includes satire and caricature works, political and editorial cartoons, and all other genres usually referred to as either cartoons or comics. In Hong Kong, "manhua" shares the common meanings of cartoons and comics as employed in the West, representing a narrative in the fonn of a sequence of pictures-usually, but not always, with text. In length it can be anything from a single image upwards, with some strips containing thousands ... a publication in booklet, tabloid, magazine or book form that includes as a major feature the presence of one or more strips. (Sabin, Adult Comics 5) The term manhua in Hong Kong today also includes "lianhuantu," a tra­ ditional Chinese tenn usually referring to more traditional picture books featuring a sequence of Chinese line art drawings and telling stories with characters in traditional costume. As these traditional stories have evolved toward martial arts and kung-fu stories, the tenn "lianhuantu" has also shifted to refer to these new generic developments. Today, "manhua" is the general term for all cartoons and comics including "lianhuantu" in Hong Kong. As is generally true in East Asian societies, manhua constitutes one of the most popular reading materials in Hong Kong (Bolton and Hutton). Although Hong Kong's population is only about 7 million, esti­ mated annual retail sales for manhua publications in 1990 alone were approximately HK $17.9 million (V.S. $2.3 million) (Choi 561). The Hong Kong manhua market is divided into two main market shares, the local manhua produced by local artists, and the sub-licensed Chinese version of Japanese manga (comics). As in other East Asian societies such as South Korea and Taiwan, Japanese manga also dominate Hong Kong's manhua readership (Lent). However, the local manhua of Hong Kong shares cultural values and details with their readers, elements that cannot be found in Japanese manga. Hong Kong manhua is a cultural product and one of the important forms of popular culture as are most cartoons and comics all over the world. Manhua have very rich contents to study but discussion of manhua in Hong Kong is often limited to criti­ cism focused on controversial elements such as their extensive use of foul language (Bolton and Hutton), and the pervasiveness of sexual and violent content within them (see Hong Kong Social Workers Associa­ tion). Although several scholarly articles on Hong Kong manhua exam­ ine various controversial and descriptive elements within them, as yet no scholarly work has attempted to provide a general history of Hong Kong man-hua. The purpose of this article is to capture the development of Hong Kong manhua and thus trace the history of this important cultural prod­ uct as well as to provide a general overview of the central themes and topics that have emerged in this genre of Hong Kong popular culture. By using the method of surveying the main titles from the past, it argues that Hong Kong comics have played an important role in Chinese manhua history, a role often neglected by scholars of Chinese popular cultural history and international comic history scholars (for example Hung, Liu­ lengyel, and Sabin, Adult Comics). To begin this survey, it first investi­ gates the development of the term "manhua" from its origins in China at the beginning of20th century. One New Art Form with Many Names At the time when manhua started to develop in China in the 1920s, the term "manhua" had a more straightforward and limited meaning than it does today in Hong Kong. The traditional Chinese term manhua refers more to a graphic art aimed at satire and caricature which is considered a kind of new art form with foreign influences (Hung). But over time it has been endowed with a wide range of meaning. To some, the manhua was a satirical graphic art form that used distortion and exaggeration to lay bare life's absurdities. But to others, a cartoon was a kind of "social art" whose content related closely to the life of the common people. (Hung 29) Most cartoonists during that time recognized that the three essential ingredients the manhua must contain were an "economy of line ... replete with powerful ideas," an "exaggerated or ludicrous representa­ tion of events or persons" and narrative expressions that "lay in the thought it embodies, not artistic adroitness" (Hung 29). However, as the term "manhua" evolved and diversified in Hong Kong throughout the century, it now covers a wider range of definition including satirical and caricature political cartoons, as well as all other kinds of comics formats and lianhuantu that we encounter today. Before the mid-1920s, when the Chinese term manhua was becom­ ing popularly used, other terms to name this type of art were "satirical drawingn (fengci hua), "reporting picture" (baodao hua), "allegorical picture" (yuyi hua), "recording picture" Uilu hua), "political picture (zhengzhi hua) (see Hung) and many more (see Lan, and Wong & Yeung, Bi). The original term "manhua" was first introduced by Feng Zikai (1898-1975) in 1925 as the modem Chinese loan-word form from the Japanese tradition of the "manga" (Harbsmeier 19), although "the art and its techniques were known as early as the late Qing era" (Hung 28). However, the creative format of manhua in China was inspired by car­ toon and comic genres from Japan and the West (Hung 29). The varied nature and the rise of manhua evolved in close relation to the develop­ ments in the social and political environments of mainland China and Hong Kong at the turn of the century. Hong Kong manhua before the second world war were not promi­ nent, but simply followed along the developments on the mainland, par­ ticularly those produced in Shanghai. The period from 1867 through 1927 can be considered the first stage of development of Chinese manhua, and is thus important to the history of Hong Kong manhua (Bi). With the establishment of the Cartoon Association (Manhua Hui), China's first organization in cartoon art in 1927, the development and activities of cartoon works became more organized (Hung). The Association was important in the history of Chinese manhua for provid­ ing a solidification effect to the so-far "loosely organized group of artists" (Hung 31). They also adopted the term "manhua" in their name, hoping to "sweep away the various other terms that had been used for 'cartoons' n and to raise "the standard of the cartoon art" (Hung 31). This newly evolved art, referred to as "manhua" by the famous artist Feng Zikai in relation to some of his own work, was then soon recog­ nized as a powerful form which attracted the praise and involvement of other famous artists such as writer Lu Xun. Most of the contents of the early manhua in China focused primarily on politics and current events including the themes of educating the masses, spreading revolutionary ideas, and resistance to foreign powers. For the decades before the 19308, the themes remained relatively stable, but the content, style, and manner of expression of Chinese manhua were developing and improv­ ing. By the 1930s, which are considered "the golden age of Chinese car­ toons" (Hung 31), the popularity and production of cartoons had begun to spread into other outlying cities including Guangzhou, Tianjin, and Hong Kong. Throughout these developments, Shanghai remained at the center of manhua production. The emergence of Chinese manhua and the influence of Western cartoonists were carefully investigated by Chinese popular cultural history scholar Chang-tai Hung. In his book, he pro~ vided a clear outline ofthe rise of Chinese manhua as an important form of popular culture that projected a strong relationship between politics and war. His study supplied detailed information on the background of the origins of Chinese manhua. This article continues his direction, and traces the relationships and origins of the history of Hong Kong cartoons and comics as a form of popular culture beyond the parameters of his book. Here, the Chinese term "manhua" is used to represent.all drawing forms and styles that are found in today's cartoon, comics, and lian­ huantu market in Hong Kong. In tracing the development of the general­ ized term "manhua," the more specific terms are used to refer to smaller subsets of manhua production. "Cartoon" refers to political satire and caricature as well as more lighthearted panels depicting everyday life themes. As defined above, "lianhuantu" refers to early traditional story­ telling pictures and to later-developed violence and fighting genres of manhua. The development of Hong Kong manhua very much involves the gradual merging of various smaller forms and genres into one broad category of manhua. Political Changes and the Development ofChinese Cartoons Art in Hong Kong The development of caricature art in China grew up in "the revolu­ tionary struggle of the Chinese people" (ACAFAW, Introduction). As Hung outlines, the emergence of Chinese cartoons was closely con­ nected to politics and war. The initial start for Hong Kong manhua was based on the inspiration and developments in politics and cartooning in mainland China. The development of Hong Kong manhua not only has a strong tie with China, but also followed China's tradition of the involve­ ment of political themes and contents in the cartoon works. The contri­ bution of Hong Kong manhua to the history of Chinese cartoons art has often been neglected. Thus, many historians, including Hung and Bi, regard Shanghai Punch (Shanghai Poke) published in Shanghai, September 1918 (Hung 29), to be China's frrst cartoon magazine.