The Use of the Internet Among Indonesian Exiles in the Netherlands
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Master’s Thesis in Cultural and Social Anthropology Imagining the Homeland: The use of the Internet among Indonesian Exiles in the Netherlands Supervisor : Dr. A.T. Strating Student: Ibnu Nadzir Daraini Second Reader : Dr. Fridus Steijlen Student Number: 11181192 Third Reader : Dr. Irene Stengs Word Count : 29485 [email protected] 2016/2017 Declaration on Plagiarism and Fraud I have read and understood the Fraud and Plagiarism regulations for UvA Students. I declare that this assignment is entirely my own work, all sources have been properly acknowledged, and that I have not previously submitted this work, or any version of it, for assessment in any other paper. Name: Ibnu Nadzir Daraini Signature: Abstract Numerous studies have shown that exilic experiences influence how exile communities position themselves toward their homeland. However, discussions on these issues tend to overlook the dynamics and engagement within the community in negotiating that position through their daily practices. In the case of Indonesian exiles living in the Netherlands, there is a strong tendency to portray them as passive victims of the eradication of communism that followed the events of 30th September 1965. Hence, this community is often presented as one that is defined by its memory of exilic experiences. By looking into community members’ Internet practices, this research aims to show that these exiles are actively negotiating their positions towards their homeland. Based on interviews and observations during fieldwork, I would argue that most of the values and ideals that are shared among this community were developed before they became exiles. These values were then reinforced into political opposition towards the New Order’s political regime after they became exiles. Their opposition was expressed through publications and participations within various organizations. In the early 1990s, the Internet was incorporated into the movement, providing more dynamic into their projection of ideals and values. Through online practices they projected ideals that they previously shared offline among community members. On the other hand, the new information they received from the Internet constantly reshape these ideals and eventually the notion of Indonesia as the imagined homeland. This simultaneous engagement in offline and online platforms enables them to reclaim a sense of agency, despite being separated from their homeland for decades. Keywords: Indonesian exiles, Internet, agency, homeland List of Terms and Abbreviations ABRI (Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia/Armed Forces of Indonesia) Akademi Pertanian Egom (Egom Agricultural Academy) Akademi Social Ali Archam (Ali Archam Social Academy) Baperki (Indonesian Organization of Chinese Descent) BTI (Barisan Tani Indonesia/Indonesian Peasant’s Front) DIAN (Indonesian women's organization) IPPI (Ikatan Pemuda Pelajar Indonesia/Indonesian Youth Student League) IPT1965 (International People’s Tribunal 1965) Lekra (Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat/Institute of People’s Culture) LKN (Lembaga Kebudayaan Nasional/Institute of National Culture) LPK65 (Lembaga Pembela Korban 1965/1965’s Victim Defender Institute ) Masyumi (Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia/ Council of Indonesian Muslims' Association Party) Perdoi (Perhimpunan Dokumentasi Indonesia/Association of Indonesian Documentation) Perhimpunan Persaudaraan (Association of Brotherhood and Sisterhood) PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia/Indonesian Communist Party) PPI (Perhimpunan Pelajar Indonesia/Indonesian Student Association) PTIP (Perguruan Tinggi dan Ilmu Pengetahuan/Higher Education and Science) Acknowledgement I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Alex Strating for his valuable guidance, support, and patience throughout this writing process. I am also very grateful to Dr. Friedus Steijlen for his willingness to be my co-supervisor and for his valuable suggestions and support in finishing this thesis. I also would like to thank my professors and classmates who helped me grow intellectually. My presence in this country would not have been possible without the opportunity given by Riset-Pro and LIPI, for which I am eternally grateful. My sincere thanks also go to my informants who shared their time and experiences to support this research. I also owe a debt of gratitude to friends in Netherlands and Indonesia without whose support I would never finish this thesis. Last but not least, the greatest honours are given to my family, for their encouragement, trust, and prayers have always provided me the courage to take steps in life. Table of Contents 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1 Background ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................................. 4 Offline-Online Research ........................................................................................................................ 4 Internet, Storytelling, and Agency ........................................................................................................ 5 Research Setting and Population .............................................................................................................. 7 Methodology ............................................................................................................................................. 9 2. Exilic Experiences and Political Dissidence ............................................................................................. 12 2. 1 Association with Progressive Ideas .................................................................................................. 13 2. 2 Precarious Life after 1965 Incident .................................................................................................. 17 2.3 New Life in the Netherlands ............................................................................................................. 23 3. Online Practices among Indonesian Exiles .............................................................................................. 30 3.1 On Making Sense of the Internet ...................................................................................................... 31 3.2 Online Opposition towards the New Order Regime ......................................................................... 36 3.3 Online Debate and Past Fragmentations .......................................................................................... 43 4. Offline-Online Engagement and Reclaiming Indonesian-ness ................................................................ 48 4.1 IPT 1965 and the Long Pursuit of Justice ........................................................................................ 48 4.2 Experiencing Indonesia on Diskusi Forum......................................................................................... 57 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 65 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 69 1. Introduction Background I utilize Facebook as an organizing tool, to organize people who share similar ideas to me. (Radi1, late eighties, Indonesian exile) Radi is one among many Indonesian exiles who live in the Netherlands. Although his opinion might not represent other exiles, it is hard to deny the fact that the Internet is widely used among them. Thus this research was started by curiosity about how these practices affect them as individuals and as a community. The engagement between Indonesian exiles and technology is hard to understand without knowing why they became exiles in the first place. Their process of displacement could be traced back to affiliations developed between Indonesia and communist countries such as China and the USSR in Sukarno's2 era. The cooperation between Indonesia and those countries was not just limited to political and diplomatic relations, but there were also increased education and cultural exchange programmes (Hill, 2014; Liu, 2006). Liu (2006: 192) noted that in 1954, China invited 105 Indonesian delegations consisting of people from various professional backgrounds. Important figures from the PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) like Musso and Semaun had already spent decades living in the USSR before Indonesia’s independence (Hill 2014: 622). These exchanges continued for several years during the era of Guided Democracy.3 Until 27th September 1965 for example, Indonesia still sent a delegation to attend a commemoration of the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party (Hill 2008: 5). In the same year, the number of Indonesian students in the USSR reached around two thousand, thus making them the largest group of foreign students there (Hill 2014: 624). Nevertheless, this situation changed abruptly after the incident on 1st October 1965. During the incident known as the 30th September Movement4, a group of people kidnapped and assassinated several Indonesian army officials. Amidst the confusion, the Indonesian army led by General Soeharto accused the PKI of initiating the movement, and started a