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Mortuary Art in the Northern Zhou China (557-581 Ce): Visualization of Class, Role, and Cultural Identity

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Mortuary Art in the Northern Zhou China (557-581 Ce): Visualization of Class, Role, and Cultural Identity MORTUARY ART IN THE NORTHERN ZHOU CHINA (557-581 CE): VISUALIZATION OF CLASS, ROLE, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY by Jui-Man Wu BA, Tunghai University, 1993 MA, Taipei National University of the Arts, 2000 MA, University of Pittsburgh, 2003 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts & Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2010 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH FACULTY OF ARTS & SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Jui-Man Wu It was defended on April 2, 2010 and approved by Anthony Barbieri-Low, Associate Professor, History Dept., UC Santa Barbara Karen M. Gerhart, Professor, History of Art and Architecture Barbara McCloskey, Associate Professor, History of Art and Architecture Anne Weis, Associate Professor, History of Art and Architecture Dissertation Advisor: Katheryn M. Linduff, Professor, History of Art and Architecture ii Copyright © by Jui-Man Wu 2010 iii MORTUARY ART IN THE NORTHERN ZHOU CHINA (557-581 CE): VISUALIZATION OF CLASS, ROLE, AND CULTURAL IDENITY Jui-Man Wu, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2010 The period of Six Dynasties (221-581CE) has traditionally been thought of as a time when “the Five Barbarians brought disorder to China.” During this period, present-day Northern China was ruled by non-Han leaders, including the Xianbei, a pastoral people from China’s northern frontier who founded the Northern Zhou Dynasty. In addition, Chinese historical texts from the Six Dynasties refer to “merchant barbarians” generally assumed to be Sogdians, who lived in oasis states in Central Asia in present-day Uzbekistan and came to China across the Silk Road. Most scholarship has assumed that the period of Northern Zhou ruled by non-Chinese leaders was “sinicized,” and the adoption of Chinese features in burial and artifacts in foreigners’ tombs is evidence of that acculturation process. This dissertation, however, uses newly excavated materials from tombs dated to the Northern Zhou period, including the tombs of Xianbei leaders, Xianbei and Chinese generals, and Sogdian merchants, and proposes that visual arts and mortuary ritual played a role in creating and/or maintaining multiple sociopolitical and cultural identities for these residents of Northern Zhou. The theorization of power, agency, and cultural identity in recent publications has helped me analyze the processes involved in the construction of individual identity, group boundaries, and the interrelationships between socio-cultural groups. Theories of agency have helped me focus on choices made by different social and occupational groups. iv This dissertation has explored how the patterns of use of mortuary objects documented multiple identities for these three classes listed above with specific ethnic backgrounds: the sovereigns who were Xianbei; the military class of Xianbei and Han-Chinese; and the merchant class of Sogdians. I have discussed how aspects of political, military, and merchant life in the Northern Zhou period created a setting that contributed to multiple roles and identities in each group. My study has demonstrated the construction of multiple identities among elites and how they consistently distinguished themselves from other members of society. This dissertation will be the first contextual analysis focused on the visualization of class, social roles and cultural affiliation by examining mortuary art in the Northern Zhou. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... XI CHRONOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... XII ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................... XIII 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 Material Evidence: Tombs dated during the Northern Zhou ..................... 3 1.1.2 Textual Evidence.............................................................................................. 5 1.2 HISTORICAL CI RCUMSTANCES DU RING T HE NO RTHERN DYNASTIES ......................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 Political History ............................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Military Organization and Military Culture ................................................ 7 1.2.3 Political Policy on Buddhism and Confucianism .......................................... 8 1.3 PREVIOUS SCHOLARSHIP............................................................................. 9 1.3.1 The Issue of Acculturation .............................................................................. 9 1.3.2 Mortuary Art during the Six Dynasties ....................................................... 10 1.4 THIS DISSERTATION AND THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS .................. 14 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................... 17 2.0 CONQUERORS IN A CHINESE LAND ................................................................ 19 2.1 DEFINITIONS AND METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 22 vi 2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND THE TOMBS ................................... 24 2.2.1 Epitaphs of Imperial Members of the Northern Zhou ............................... 27 2.3 DYNASTIC CHINESE BURIAL TRADITION ............................................. 29 2.3.1 Tomb Structure.............................................................................................. 29 2.3.2 Burial Goods Related to the Dynastic Chinese Tradition .......................... 30 2.3.2.1 Pottery .................................................................................................. 30 2.3.2.2 Jade ....................................................................................................... 35 2.3.2.3 Ritual Musical Instruments: Zhong Bells and Stone Chimes ......... 38 2.4 NON-CHINESE BURIAL TRADITION ........................................................ 39 2.4.1 Niches in Tombs in the Northern Areas ...................................................... 39 2.4.2 Burial Goods and Cultural Context ............................................................. 43 2.4.2.1 Pottery .................................................................................................. 43 2.4.2.2 Bronze .................................................................................................. 46 2.4.2.3 Gold ...................................................................................................... 49 2.4.2.4 Other Material..................................................................................... 51 2.5 BURIAL GOODS IN CHINESE AND NON-CHINESE CONTEXTS ........ 52 2.5.1 Bronze Mirrors .............................................................................................. 52 2.5.2 Iron Objects.................................................................................................... 53 2.6 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................... 53 2.6.1 Archaizing Reforms in Politics and Culture ............................................... 54 2.6.2 Restoration of Xianbei Surnames and Military System ............................ 56 2.6.3 Various Cultural Elements in the Tomb of Emperor Wu ......................... 57 2.6.3.1 Tomb Structure ................................................................................... 58 vii 2.6.3.2 Spatial Analysis on Burial goods ....................................................... 58 2.7 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS .......................................................................... 62 3.0 WARRIOR CLASS UNDER THE NORTHERN ZHOU ...................................... 64 3.1 THE MILITARY CULTURE OF THE NORTHERN ZHOU PERIOD ..... 68 3.1.1 Scholarship and Method ............................................................................... 70 3.2 EVIDENCE ........................................................................................................ 73 3.2.1 Burial Systems................................................................................................ 73 3.2.2 Tomb Structure and Decoration: Social status and Power ....................... 75 3.2.2.1 Murals: Belief Systems and Social Status ......................................... 77 3.2.3 Burial Goods in Dynastic Chinese Cultural Context ................................. 82 3.2.3.1 Ceramics .............................................................................................. 82 3.2.3.2 Jade Objects......................................................................................... 87 3.2.3.3 Bronze Objects .................................................................................... 91 3.2.4 Objects Made of Various Material............................................................... 95 3.2.4.1 Swords, Arrowheads and Other Military Gear ............................... 95 3.2.4.2 Belt Buckles ......................................................................................... 95 3.2.4.3 Cauldrons ............................................................................................. 96 3.2.4.4 Exotic Goods ........................................................................................ 97 3.3 CASE STUDIES:
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