SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume IV, Issue 2 (11) / 2016

Irina-Andreea STOLERIU Adrian STOLERIU “George Enescu” University of of Iași

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION Case studies TO THE BYZANTINE PORTRAIT

Keywords Portrait, Byzantine art, ,

Abstract

Guided by the Christian faith, Byzantine art has attached special meaning to the representation of the human figure. Grounded on aesthetic principles, the artistic representation of the human face relinquished on the physical materiality of the represented model, searching for its essences and resemblances to the divine world. Subject to specific representation rules, Byzantine portraiture bears a series of peculiar characteristics that mark it out among other images of this kind belonging to other spirituality areas, periods and artistic styles. Both in , where it highlights a series of particular significances describing the divine nature of saints, and in other fields of Byzantine arts – such as mural painting or –the portrait stands out due to its importance. This paper intends to present a few of the defining characteristics of portraiture in Byzantine art, exemplifying the evolution of this artistic genre by analysing some of the most representative creations of this field.

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1. Introduction was that one that radically changed the In this paper, we will refer, as we have already evolution of portraiture. Though Christianity mentioned in the title, only to some aspects opposed idolatry, it continued to pay specific characteristic to the portrait in the art of the attention to portraits in the case of secular or , the secular one, that represented sacred topics, in its artistic representations, having the sovereigns and the paymasters of some works a pagan or a Christian origin and the human figure of art, respectively the religious one, found in icons could not have been omitted (Francastel, 1973). or in church painting. In this respect, we are going Starting from these aspects, we should mention the to underline the specificity of portraits, from fact that, given the historic development of this art, representation canons for representing the human we have in view a specific difference between figure to clothes, jewels and specific elements portraiture with a religious character and those with which complete these images. a secular character, the first being influenced by a Moreover, we mention that, by the notion of specific confessional criterium which would portrait, we refer to two different meanings, but generate bigger differences between the East and still related in meaning, that is the notion of artistic the West. Given the context, the face of , of genre also involving the idea of some specific the Virgin Mary or of the saints, in general, whose compositional types (individual portrait or group approach supposes some rigours from a teological portrait), respectively the notion of work of art and iconographic , imposed by the which describes the physiognomic, psychologic or Eastern Church and manifested in Byzantine and spiritual features of a person. post Byzantine art, has a more and more humanized approach whose peak would be in 2. A few historical remarks about portrait in . Byzantine art Regarding the beginning of itself, In the large medieval artistic field, which contains Michel Quenot mentions the importance of the year the forms of stylistic evolution from Paleochristian 330, which marked the inauguration of art to the Byzantine, Roman and , as the new capital of the empire, portraiture found numerous forms of and also the existence of a real cult of the emperor representation, underlining different aspects in its during that time, his face was shown on the streets various phases of evolution.Regarding the present of the city, the people solemnly went on their knees paper, we will particularly focus our attention on in front of it. It is still Quenot the one who shows the period between the 4th - the 15th century, from that, in parallel with this fact, once the Christian the appearance and setting of the first stable form religion became official, a new cult began, that is of Byzantine art to the fatidic moment of the year of the image of Christ, as an emperor, whose young 1453, which meant the siege of Constantinople by face, without a beard, transmitted to the believers the Turkish people.This period is connected to the the idea of the power and gentleness of the master appearance of Christian Art, whose origin is ”of the Christian universe” (Quenot, 1993). connected to a hostile religious context, on the By extrapolating this analysis, one can also notice territory of the Roman Empire of the 1st -3rd the fact that the purpose of such artistic centuries, during the reign of some emperors whose representations was in most cases an ornamental name is connected to bloody persecutions against one (Boespflug, 2008, p. 94), because none of the the followers of this religion. In this context, when images of Christ, Virgin Mary or God the Father Christianity had to fight with the status of illicit can be considered an image of worship, just like religion, the first forms of Christian art, especially François Boespflug underlines,not before the created in catacombs, depicted symbolic images beginning moment of worshipping the icon of beyond which one could deduce the Christian Christ (the first half of the 5th century) (Quenot, message. Beyond these representations, the forms 1993). This explains why the icon of Christ, for of Christian art have developed also depicting the example, can’t be understood as a historical portrait human figure in different scenes, the artists being strictly speaking, but first of all as an effigy of God more preoccupied to render the expression and the made man, who underlines the idea of divinity and inner meaning of images, not leaving behind the victory over death, this idea would influence the concern for a specific anatomic proportion. representation manner of all fields of Christian art (Boespflug, 2008).

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Representing a transfigured world, the one of Regarding the representation of the human figure, divinity, a synthesis of the Greek, Roman and though iconoclasm temporarily stopped the Christian cultures (Quenot, 1993, p.13) and evolution of portraiture, it did not manage to presenting specific similarities with Egyptian annihilate this artistic genre which adapted itself to funerary portraits (the region Fayum), the icon has the requirements of the time, creating a favourable known a special development particularly in the climate for its later development.After the end of influence area of Byzantium, the interest for it the iconoclasm, starting with the year 843, determined another important moment of the Byzantium faced a revival of , together existence of Byzantine art, marked by the period with a growing interest for art and teology, which known as iconoclasm, historically placed between would be stopped in 1204, when Constantinople 726 -843. was plundered by Western crusaders and in 1453, Motivated by various causes, which are political, when the Turks sieged it. These events led to the economic and theological, and by the existence of diversification of traditions and regional artistic some abuses (Uspensky, 1994), which opposed the styles (Brown, M. P. (Ed.), 2009) which tried to function and the main purpose of icons, express themselves in an original way, this fact was diminishing their role and meaning, the generated by the migration of more artists from iconoclastic controversy led to the distruction of a Byzantium towards different areas from the East, significant number of works of art which were the Balcans and the West. This explains the major representations of saints, the iconoclasts connected influence of Byzantine art over , in the East, them to the so-called carved faces (idols) (Exodus respectively of Itally, in the West, even around the 20,4), which opposed the second divine 13th century. commandment. Despite these controversies which Envisaging the continuation of the Byzantine appeared from various reasons, the icon also found artistic tradition, on the one hand, the schools of solid supporters who brought various arguments church painting from (Salonic, ) with teological arguments which were hard to made themselves remarked and Mount Athos also, attack, among which those of divine origin, the ones from , Ukraine and , from regarding the images achiropita/acheropita (not and , places like , Nerezi, made by human hand)or the first image of the or Kurbinovo, respectively Dečani, Virgin Mary painted by Saint Luca (Grabar, 1991). Studenica and Sopoćani proved to have a high level These examples of saint images had the role of of udnerstanding of the mysteries of this art. rehabilitating the position of the icon among On the other hand, the influences came from the Christian believers, also serving the teological and west gradually led to an estrangement from the political purposes of that time. original traditional Byzantine art, which meant that These controversies led to one of the most difficult in the 13th – 14th centuries, there was an imminent phases in the history of and implicitly decline and a loss of the symbolic language which of portraiture, marking, on the one hand, the had assured, for more than a millennium, the sacred ceasing or the diminishing of productions of this character of the iconographic representations of type, and on the other hand, the regretable massive Byzantium. In this context, the portrait type will distruction (Gombrich, 2007) of the existing acquire new aspects, being diversified in two big works. But, once the 7th Ecumenical Council took directions, a traditional one which kept the place in Nicaeain 787, Christian art returned to the Byzantine inheritance and another one which cult of icons, this thing was possible with some slowly estranged from it, becoming desacralised, restrictions, which mainly regarded the step by step. representation canons of the saints. Despite the numerous distructions, the evolution of Byzantine 3. Representation of secular portrait in art did not cease in the 9th century, the positive Byzantine art. The imperial portrait aspect of iconoclasm was the establishment of the The cult of the emperor was transmitted to the status of an art with a deep religious character. The subjects in a direct and also indirect way, by iconoclastic period thus contributed to the imposing high execution standards of the portraits substantiation of the belief that the icon represents of Byzantine sovereigns. Thus, the images of a face made not only after the rules and principles emperors replaced, in a symbolic way, in their of art or culture, but also of the Church (Răducă, absence, the real presence of the portrayed rulers 1993). (Negrău, 2011). In order to achieve these standards, Byzantine artists were inspired and took over different elements from the Roman pagan art, except for the tendency of suggesting the psychological resemblance of the model. This type of portraits, considered some sort of effiges, were often idealized on purpose, their rich ornaments participated at the suggestion of a specific

411 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume IV, Issue 2 (11) / 2016 stereotype, lacking movement, which illustrated an characters are differentiated formally, without ideal monarchic typology (Magdalino, 1993). touching psychological aspects. The sovereigns’ Byzantine portraits also referred to If we analyze the context of these representations, a series of symbolic elements, such as the imperial François Boespflugremarks the fact that the first signs represented by the ceremony costume usually expressions of Christian art have underlined a clear formed of chlamys (the chlamys-costume) or break up from the worship representing (loros-costume),red shoes and different jewels, pagan gods and also a ferm distance from objects associated with power, such as the crown, Hellenistic art (Boespflug, 2008). Regarding the the sceptre and labarum, akakia (the akakia) rapport of these Christian representations compared andglobus (Parani, 2003). The presence of the to the Roman portraits which underlined in a aureole around imperial portraits – another visual realistic manner both physionomic and character attribute of this type of image–did not have the role features, the first of these (Christian of symbolizing the saint life of the emperors or representations), as it is the case of the portraits empresses, nor their canonization during their life from the Church San Vitalefrom , were (Ciggaar, 1995), but it underlined genius stylized, the figures of the characters seemed imperatoris (Negrău, 2011), respectively the divine impassive (Debicki, Favre, Grünewald, Pimentel, power invested in the sovereigns, also being a sign 2000). In this respect, Michelle P. Brown remarked of the communion between the Church and the an interesting blending between the monumentality State (Debicki, Favre, Grünewald, Pimentel, 2000, and the static character of the figures, the exotic p. 65). In order to clearly understand this idea, we aspect of Byzantine-type clothes and the remind the fact that, in the Byzantin Empire, the iconography specific to that met in an emperor was considered the living image of Christ unique mixture, typical to the cultural basis of and the ruler of the Church, the imperial power Ravenna (Brown, M. P. (Ed.). 2009). Thus, it is being perceived as a transfer of the authority of clear the fact that, regarding the ways of God on Earth (Craith, 2006). representation of the portrait, in the case of the Artistically expressing the idea referring to the Church San Vitale from Ravenna, it constitutes the portraiture representation of Byzantin emperors, at mark of a ”spiritualized” synthesis, specific to this the Church San Vitalefrom Ravenna (548), there is era, of the artistic influences of and a series of mosaic portraits which have been Byzantium, without any flashiness and finding preserved, the execution is extremely accurate, almost a ”natural” formula of joining the two forms having an obvious historic and artistic value. We of art. are referring to the portraits of the Emperor Justinian and his Empress Theodora, surrounded by 4. Representations of religious portrait in a great number of characters. The figure of the Byzantine art emperor can be easily distinguished by the central In Byzantine art, among numerous positioning among the other figures and also by the iconographic representations, portraiture had to imperial clothes, and especially by the fact that his play one of the most important roles in its portrait is surrounded by an aureole. evolution. Having a solid theoretical base, guided Though they present clear physionomical by the Christian faith, Byzantine art has placed differences, the artistic realisation of these figures special importance to the artistic representation of implies a specific type of stylization which, the human figure. Based on aesthetic canons, the according to some opinions, ”should not be form visually expressed through art did not have to interpreted as portraits [they show] the refer strictly to the exterior or concrete materiality radicalchanges that interfered in figurative arts of the represented model. What was envisaged by after the fall of the West Empire” (Hollingsworth, this type of representation was, in fact, the divine 2008, p. 102). The stylization way, specific to these nature and not the human one, from this point of figures, combines technical details specific to the view, Byzantine art being a purely spiritualized art of mosaic with a series of elements which are one, in service of the Christian religion, whose specific to Byzantine art at its beginning. We major challenge proposed the passing beyond the remark the special attention paid to the eyes, material plan of the image, towards the spiritual supersized in the case of some characters, also one that was desired. suggesting their spiritual qualities. Subjected to specific canons, Byzantine The collective portrait also underlines the image of portraiture has a series of specific feaures, that the Archbishop Maximian and of the banker Julian make her recognizable among other representations (Francastel, 1973), the one that paid for the of this type coming from other areas of spirituality, execution of the , thus reminding of the periods and artistic styles. Both in the icon, where importance of the Emperor from Constantinople. it has a series of specific meanings, describing the Of all the characters, the only true portrait is the divine naure of he saints, and also in oher fields of one of Maximian, while the figure of the emperor is Byzantine art, like wall painting or mosaic, the treated like an idealized effigy. The other portrait is remarkable by its significance, the image

412 SEA - Practical Application of Science Volume IV, Issue 2 (11) / 2016 of he icon being ”the centre of the body” (Quenot, typical canons of the Byzantine style, a high level 1993), the place of maximum visual and spiritual of expressiveness and a rich spiritual charge, and intensity. last, but not least, a psychological peak. In an icon, the importance of the portrait is that of Another masterpiece of Byzantine iconographic art ”embodying a spiritual presence”,the face is no which has become one of the most worshipped longer a biological component, but the one which icons of the Orthodox space is the well-known has the most important organs of sense which allow or Vladimirskaia (11th-12th the perception of God’s Grace. The eyes symbolize century), probably the work of a painter from the sight of God, the large and domed forehead of Constantinople. Regarding the aspect of technical the saints hides divine wisdom, the thinned and achievement, the work manages to impress us elongated nose underlines an atribue of through the way of rendering details in the spirit of noblemindedness, while the ears suggest the Byzantine art:the long and right nose, the small listening of God’s word, while the mouth is a sign mouth, the three stars on the maphorionof the of spirituality(Quenot, 1993). Virgin which symbolically suggest Her We exemplify these features by one of the most maidenhood – before, while and after giving birth representative creations of Byzantine art, the Icon to Christ, respectively the way of treating light, of from the Monastery Saint with gold on the vestment, allthese elements are the Catherine from Sinai, . Dating back to the 6th proof of a work which belongs to a real Byzantine century (approximately 525-530), it was created master. shortly after the Council from Chalcedon, showing Unlike other representations of the Virgin holding Christ giving His blessing, as a Master of the the infant , in this case, the portraits and the Universe. The manner of realization of the portrait atmosphere are rendered with a sensitivity which is attracts the attention from the beginning given the rather rarely met in Church Byzantine art. This type accentuated asymmetry of the two halves of the of representation is also known as Eleusaor ”the face. This fact was interpreted as an expression of Sweet Kissing”, being an intimate portrait of the the two natures of Christ: human and divine. The mother and of her infant, in which the face of the blending of humanity and divinity represents one of Virgin expresses human features, such as the defining features of this creation, the attention tenderness, compassion and maternal love. The of the viewer is focused on Christ’s two eyes: the composition is simple, but extremely powerful: The right one is the expression of His divine nature, full Virgin Mary is holding the Infant Jesus at Her of understanding, beneficience and love, while the chest, He gently caresses Her, the faces of the left eye is the symbol of His human nature, having characters are turned one towards the other, like in a harsher expression meant to remind us the a visual and affectionate dialogue, while their imminence of the Last Inquest (Piderit, Morey, cheeks are touching each other. The Virgin, aware 2012). By showing the elements mentioned above, and aggrieved by the future sacrifice of Her Son Christ’s right hand (the one that referrs to divinity) (Kleiner, 2017), is looking at the viewer, the artists gives His blessing, while the left hand (showing the suggests, in a discreet way, that this sacrifice has human nature) holds a Gospel inlaid in gold, richly been made for all of us. On the face of Jesus, we ornamented, with a cross of big dimensions, inlaid can’t read the same sadness, but only maturity, with numberless precious stones. The dualism of understanding and kindness, He accepts His these aspects expressed with clarity in the sacrifice and He soothes His Mother’s suffering. expression of the eyes, in the gesture of blessing This Byzantine work has been the most worshipped and in the representation of the Gospel, and loved icon that makes miracles, from Russia representing the word of God expresses the way (Haustein-Bartsch, 2009), being copied by the most that people should follow in order to reach the well-known painters of icons from all times, supreme goal of this life: ”Very truly I tell you, Theophanes the Greek and . whoever hears my word and believes Him who sent Me has eternal life and will not be judged, but has Conclusions crossed over from deah to life.” (John 5, 24). In Byzantine art, the approach of In time, numerous speculations have been made portraiture has known substantial transformations, regarding the resemblance of this work with the the portrait representations adapted themselves to image imprinted on the Shroud of Turin, suggesting social, political, culturaland religiousconditions, - given the beauty of the image -, that this icon and last, but not least, to artistic ones. In this study, could not have been made by a human hand, but by we have tried to underline only a few of the he angels (Zelensky, Gilbert, 2005). Anoher features which characterize Byzantine art. From the accepted hypothesis is that the painter who created analyzed information, what we truly believe is this icon was, most probably, one of the most worth mentioning is the fact that, despite the valuable imperial artists of Justinian from canonic system which defines Byzantine Constantinople (Dayvault, 2016).The image that he iconography in general, in the representations of created managed to reach, beyond respecting the portraits, either secular or religious, there is often

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