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Beyond Independence CHAPTER 1 Beyond Independence The Dawn of Korean Anarchism in China Anarchism had already been introduced to Koreans exiled in China before 1919.1 But it was only after 1919 that anarchism was viewed as a suitable principle for the construction of a new Korean society, as well as for their country’s independence. Needless to say, the Rus- VLDQ5HYROXWLRQRIÀUVWJUHDWO\ LPSDFWHG.RUHDQVLQ&KLQD DQG HOVHZKHUHDVLWJHQHUDWHGWKHLUVWURQJLQWHUHVWDQGGHVLUHLQVRFLDOLVP LQFOXGLQJ DQDUFKLVP $W WKH VDPH WLPH DQDUFKLVP ZDV DOVR FRQVLG- ered by many Korean exiles in China in the wake of factional strife within the independence camp, especially those in the Korean Pro- YLVLRQDO *RYHUQPHQW LQ 6KDQJKDL HVWDEOLVKHG DV D GLUHFW RXWFRPH RI WKH 0DUFK )LUVW 0RYHPHQW WKH RQJRLQJ LQWHUQDO FRQÁLFWV ZLWKLQ WKH JRYHUQPHQW DQG DPRQJ WKH LQGHSHQGHQFH DFWLYLVWV QXU- WXUHGDQDQWLSROLWLFDODXUDDPRQJPDQ\.RUHDQVLQ&KLQDZKLFKODLG WKH JURXQGZRUN IRU WKHP WR GLVWUXVW SROLWLFV DQG WKXV DOVR IRU WKHLU interest in anarchism, because of its disdain of politics and political PRYHPHQW 7KH\ ZHUH LQ GLUH QHHG RI D JXLGLQJ SULQFLSOH IRU WKHLU united activities for both independence and anticolonialism. Anarchist repudiation of the nation-state at the same time led to the foundation IRU D UHJLRQDO DOOLDQFH DQG VROLGDULW\ DPRQJ DQDUFKLVWV SDYLQJ WKH way for their transnational joint activity for a cosmopolitan world. 7KLV UHJLRQDO DQG WUDQVQDWLRQDO DVSHFWV RI DQDUFKLVP DV ZHOO DV WKH QHJDWLRQRIWKHVWDWHPD\H[SODLQZK\PDQ\.RUHDQDQDUFKLVWVKDGD rupture with the Provisional Government, at least until the late 1930s and early 1940s when, as I demonstrate in chapter 4, some anarchists 19 © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 20 Anarchism in Korea shifted their prime priority to national liberation and even decided to SDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHJRYHUQPHQWWRIRUPDXQLWHGQDWLRQDOIURQWDJDLQVW Japanese imperialism and render it a precondition to liberate Korea and then construct an anarchist society afterward. 7KH JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW RI &KLQDEDVHG .RUHDQ LQGHSHQGHQFH activists in anarchism and their subsequent reception of it in the late 1910s and early 1920s resulted most importantly from their increased opportunities to have contacts with anarchist ideals and principles WKDWZHUHLQWURGXFHGWRWKHPWKURXJKWKHLUHQFRXQWHUVZLWK&KLQHVH DQDUFKLVWVDQGUHDGLQJVRIDQDUFKLVWZULWLQJVDYDLODEOHDWWKHWLPHLQ &KLQD HLWKHU LQ RULJLQDO &KLQHVH WH[W RU LQ WUDQVODWLRQ ,Q SDUWLFXODU their potential exposures to anarchist literature available in China in &KLQHVHE\ZKLFKZDVDFFRUGLQJWR$ULI'LUOLN´XQPDWFKHGLQ scope and comprehensiveness by any other social and political phi- ORVRSKLHV RI (XURSHDQ RULJLQµ2 as well as their direct associations/ LQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK&KLQHVHDQDUFKLVWVDQGWKHLURUJDQL]DWLRQVSOD\HGD FUXFLDOUROHLQWKHLUJURZLQJLQWHUHVWLQDQGDFFHSWDQFHRIDQDUFKLVP $V 3HWHU =DUURZ DGGV WKH \HDUV ´IURP WKH 1HZ &XOWXUH 0RYHPHQW RI WKH PLGV WR DERXW µ ZHUH ´WKH KH\GD\ RI &KLQHVH DQDU- FKLVPµ GXULQJ ZKLFK ´D JRRG GHDO RI RUJDQL]DWLRQDO DFWLYLW\ HVSH- FLDOO\ DQDUFKRV\QGLFDOLVP DV ZHOO DV LGHRORJLFDO UHÀQHPHQWµ ZHUH visible.3 With the abundance and richness of anarchist literature and LQFUHDVHG DQDUFKLVW DFWLYLWLHV WKURXJK RUJDQL]DWLRQV .RUHDQ H[LOHV ZHUHH[SRVHGDQGWKHQFRQYHUWHGWRDQDUFKLVPÀQDOO\MRLQLQJDQGRU FRIRXQGLQJPDQ\DQDUFKLVWRUJDQL]DWLRQVWRJHWKHUZLWK&KLQHVHDQG RWKHU$VLDQ FRXQWHUSDUWV QRW WR PHQWLRQ SXEOLVKLQJ PDQ\ DQDUFKLVW journals jointly or independently. %HFRPLQJ$QDUFKLVWLQ%HLMLQJ Many sources demonstrate the increased contacts and interactions after the March First Movement of 1919 between Korean exiles/ radicals and Chinese anarchists, which marks the dawn of Korean anarchist movement in China.4 While the Provisional Government RI .RUHD ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG LQ 6KDQJKDL PDQ\ .RUHDQ UDGLFDO H[LOHV VHHPHGWRFRQFHQWUDWHLQ%HLMLQJDVZHOODV6KDQJKDLIRUWKHLUDFWLYLWLHV IRU LQGHSHQGHQFH PRYHPHQW 6RPH KDG HYHQ JRQH WR VRXWK &KLQD HVSHFLDOO\ *XDQJ]KRX 2QH RI WKH HDUOLHU VXFK FDVHV FDQ EH IRXQG in the publication of an anarchism-oriented journal titled The Light © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 21 (Guangming in Chinese and GwangmyeongLQ.RUHDQ ÀUVWSXEOLVKHG LQ *XDQJ]KRX RQ 'HFHPEHU The Light was the only journal published jointly in the early twentieth century with the collaboration of Koreans and Chinese, albeit most of the articles it carried were written by Chinese.5 It was not a Korean anarchist journal per se, but nevertheless carried some anarchism-oriented articles, for example, in LWV LQDXJXUDO LVVXH 7KH DXWKRU RI DQ DUWLFOH LQ WKH LVVXH WLWOHG ´7KH )XWXUHRIWKH/LJKW0RYHPHQWµSURSDJDWHGPXWXDODLGZLWKDSUHGLF- WLRQWKDW´WKHIXWXUHRIWKH/LJKW0RYHPHQWOLHVZLWKLQWKHZRUOGRI IUHHGRPHTXDOLW\XQLYHUVDOORYHDQGPXWXDODLGµ6 In another article WLWOHG ´7KH /LJKW 0RYHPHQW LQ &KLQD DQG .RUHDµ WKH DXWKRU RI LW DVVHUWHGWKDWWKHUHYROXWLRQVLQ&KLQDDQG.RUHDDLPHGDWDFKLHYLQJD VRFLDOUHYROXWLRQIRU&KLQDKDYLQJJRQHRQO\WKURXJKDSROLWLFDOUHY- olution (i.e., the 1911 Revolution), still had to be under the rule of and pressure from the warlords.7 It is safe to say that by the early 1920s, D IUDWHUQDO DOOLDQFH EHWZHHQ &KLQHVH DQG .RUHDQV DJDLQVW -DSDQHVH DJJUHVVLRQ KDG EHFRPH D FRPPRQO\ VKDUHG DJHQGD RI ERWK .RUHDQ H[LOHV LQ &KLQD DQG &KLQHVH LQWHOOHFWXDOV ,Q WKH SURFHVV RI PDNLQJ an alliance, Korean radicals accepted anarchism in those Chinese cit- ies with help from Chinese anarchists; Korean radicals’ associations and interactions in various forms with Chinese anarchists and their RUJDQL]DWLRQVVXUHO\SURPSWHGWKHLQWHUHVWDQGXOWLPDWHUHFHSWLRQRI DQDUFKLVPDPRQJWKHP+RZHYHUQRWRQO\WKURXJKSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQ- VKLSVZLWK&KLQHVHDQDUFKLVWVEXWDOVRWKURXJKUHDGLQJVRQVRFLDOLVP DQGDQDUFKLVP.RUHDQH[LOHVUDGLFDOVLQ&KLQDZHUHDOVRLQFUHDVLQJO\ drawn to anarchism, enticed initially to its principles like mutual aid and social transformation based on freedom and equality. $PRQJ WKH ÀUVW .RUHDQ DQDUFKLVWV LQ &KLQD ZDV 6KLQ &KDHKR (1880–1936), a prominent Korean historian, journalist, and writer. $ORQJ ZLWK RWKHU .RUHDQ UDGLFDOV LQ &KLQD 6KLQ KDG DOUHDG\ SXE- OLVKHGDMRXUQDOLQ6KDQJKDLFDOOHGNew Greater Korea (Sin daehan), basi- cally an anarchism-oriented journal,8 for about four months between 2FWREHU DQG -DQXDU\ LQ ZKLFK VRFLDOLVP DQG DQDUFKLVP ZHUH LQWURGXFHG DQG GLVFXVVHG $OWKRXJK LW LV QRW FOHDU LI KH ZDV SK\VLFDOO\LQ6KDQJKDLDURXQGWKDWWLPH6KLQDOVRSXEOLVKHGDPRQWK- ly journal called Heavenly Drum (Cheon-go DOVR LQ 6KDQJKDL LQ FODV- sical Chinese, between January and July 1921. This monthly journal was, in its orientation and content, not anarchist but carried articles written both by Koreans and Chinese, on the issues of mutual aid, and also promoted the Korean-Chinese alliance. For example, in its © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 22 Anarchism in Korea third issue, published in February 1921, there was an article on Kro- potkin’s death in January of the same year, written by Shin himself ZLWK KLV SHQ QDPH RI 1DPP\HRQJ ZKLFK LQWURGXFHG .URSRWNLQ·V idea of mutual aid and praised Kropotkin’s personality.9 6KLQKDGORQJKDGLQWHUHVWLQDQDUFKLVPEXWEHFDPHDQDQDUFKLVW RQO\ LQ WKH HDUO\ V SUHIHUULQJ ´GLUHFW DFWLRQµ LQ WKH FRXUVH RI .RUHD·V LQGHSHQGHQFH DQG UHYROXWLRQ 'HVSLWH KLV ORQJKHOG LQWHUHVW LQ DQDUFKLVP LW VHHPV 6KLQ EHFDPH DQ DQDUFKLVW WKURXJK KLV JRRG UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKVRPHSURPLQHQW&KLQHVHDQDUFKLVWVOLNH/L6KL]HQJ (1881–1873), a Paris Chinese anarchist and one of the key members RI WKH *XRPLQGDQJ *0' WKH 1DWLRQDOLVW 3DUW\ RI &KLQD DQG &DL <XDQSHL ² ERWK DW %HLMLQJ 8QLYHUVLW\/L DV D SURIHVVRU DW %HLMLQJ8QLYHUVLW\SURYLGHG6KLQLQZLWKDSODFHWRVWD\DQGDQ DFFHVV WR WKH &RPSOHWH /LEUDU\ LQ )RXU %UDQFKHV RI /LWHUDWXUH 6LJX quanshu), at the same university, to assist Shin’s study of prehis- WRULF .RUHDQ KLVWRU\$QG DFFRUGLQJ WR D .RUHDQ VRXUFH DURXQG WKH WLPH 6KLQ ZDV LQGXOJHG DQG LQWHUHVWHG LQ UHDGLQJ WKH ZULWLQJV RI /LX6LIXFRPPRQO\NQRZQDV6KLIXDQGFDOOHGWKH´VRXORI&KLQHVH DQDUFKLVPµ10 6KLQ ZDV DOVR GHHSO\ LQÁXHQFHG E\ ZKDW .URSRWNLQ stated in his An Appeal to the Young. Køtoku Sh¨sui’s (1871–1911) PDQ\ZULWLQJVSDUWLFXODUO\On the Obliteration of Christ (Kirisuto Mas- satsuron),11 must have impressed Shin as well. At his trial later in 1929, DIWHUEHLQJDUUHVWHGE\-DSDQHVHSROLFH6KLQHYHQWHVWLÀHGWKDWKHKDG understood that KøWRNX·V DQDUFKLVW ZRUNV ZHUH WKH PRVW ´UHDVRQ- DEOHµ RQHV IRU WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI DQDUFKLVP12 1RW RQO\ WKURXJK personal relationships and associations with Chinese/Japanese anar- FKLVWV EXW DOVR WKURXJK WKH UHDGLQJV RI WKHLU ZULWLQJV RQ DQDUFKLVP ERWK RULJLQDO DQG LQ WUDQVODWLRQ .RUHDQ H[LOHV LQ %HLMLQJ OLNH 6KLQ ZHUH LQFUHDVLQJO\ GUDZQ WR DQDUFKLVP DQG EHFDPH DFTXDLQWHG ZLWK other Asian anarchists. ,Q DGGLWLRQ 6KLQ·V IULHQGVKLS ZLWK <L +RH\HRQJ ² RIWHQ FDOOHG ´WKH SLRQHHU RI .RUHDQ DQDUFKLVPµ13 must have been a factor as well for his acceptance of anarchism. Yi had exiled to China LQ ZLWK KLV ÀYH EURWKHUV IRU LQGHSHQGHQFH PRYHPHQW DQG KDG EHHQ LQ %HLMLQJ ZLWK 6KLQ DV H[LOHV KDYLQJ D ZLGH UDQJH RI UHODWLRQ- VKLS ZLWK PDQ\ .RUHDQ H[SDWULDWHV LQFOXGLQJ DQDUFKLVWV VXFK DV<X -DP\HRQJ ² 14 <X ERUQ LQ 1RUWKHUQ &KXQJFKHRQJ 3URY- LQFHLQ.RUHDZDVNQRZQDV´WKHEHVW>DQDUFKLVW@WKHRUHWLFLDQRIWKH WLPHµ15 $IWHU SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ WKH 0DUFK )LUVW 0RYHPHQW RI DV WHDFKHU RI D VFKRRO LQ WKH FLW\ RI &KXQJMX <X PRYHG WR 6KDQJKDL © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 23 and became a member of the Provisional Government of Korea in 6KDQJKDL +H VHHPHG WR EH LQWHUHVWHG LQ VRFLDOLVP DW WKH WLPH EXW UHMHFWHG FRPPXQLVP EHFDXVH KH EHOLHYHG WKDW WKH PRVW XUJHQW WDVN IRU.RUHDQSHRSOHZDVQDWLRQDOOLEHUDWLRQQRWFODVVVWUXJJOHRUFODVV liberation.16 +LV UDQJH RI DFWLYLWLHV
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