Beyond Independence
CHAPTER 1
Beyond Independence
The Dawn of Korean Anarchism in China
Anarchism had already been introduced to Koreans exiled in China before 1919.1 But it was only after 1919 that anarchism was viewed as a suitable principle for the construction of a new Korean society, as well as for their country’s independence. Needless to say, the Rus- VLDQ5HYROXWLRQRI ÀUVWJUHDWO\ LPSDFWHG.RUHDQVLQ&KLQD DQG HOVHZKHUHDVLWJHQHUDWHGWKHLUVWURQJLQWHUHVWDQGGHVLUHLQVRFLDOLVP LQFOXGLQJ DQDUFKLVP $W WKH VDPH WLPH DQDUFKLVP ZDV DOVR FRQVLG- ered by many Korean exiles in China in the wake of factional strife within the independence camp, especially those in the Korean Pro- YLVLRQDO *RYHUQPHQW LQ 6KDQJKDL HVWDEOLVKHG DV D GLUHFW RXWFRPH RI WKH 0DUFK )LUVW 0RYHPHQW WKH RQJRLQJ LQWHUQDO FRQÁLFWV ZLWKLQ WKH JRYHUQPHQW DQG DPRQJ WKH LQGHSHQGHQFH DFWLYLVWV QXU- WXUHGDQDQWLSROLWLFDODXUDDPRQJPDQ\.RUHDQVLQ&KLQDZKLFKODLG WKH JURXQGZRUN IRU WKHP WR GLVWUXVW SROLWLFV DQG WKXV DOVR IRU WKHLU interest in anarchism, because of its disdain of politics and political PRYHPHQW 7KH\ ZHUH LQ GLUH QHHG RI D JXLGLQJ SULQFLSOH IRU WKHLU united activities for both independence and anticolonialism. Anarchist repudiation of the nation-state at the same time led to the foundation IRU D UHJLRQDO DOOLDQFH DQG VROLGDULW\ DPRQJ DQDUFKLVWV SDYLQJ WKH way for their transnational joint activity for a cosmopolitan world. 7KLV UHJLRQDO DQG WUDQVQDWLRQDO DVSHFWV RI DQDUFKLVP DV ZHOO DV WKH QHJDWLRQRIWKHVWDWHPD\H[SODLQZK\PDQ\.RUHDQDQDUFKLVWVKDGD rupture with the Provisional Government, at least until the late 1930s and early 1940s when, as I demonstrate in chapter 4, some anarchists
19
© 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 20 Anarchism in Korea shifted their prime priority to national liberation and even decided to SDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHJRYHUQPHQWWRIRUPDXQLWHGQDWLRQDOIURQWDJDLQVW Japanese imperialism and render it a precondition to liberate Korea and then construct an anarchist society afterward. 7KH JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW RI &KLQDEDVHG .RUHDQ LQGHSHQGHQFH activists in anarchism and their subsequent reception of it in the late 1910s and early 1920s resulted most importantly from their increased opportunities to have contacts with anarchist ideals and principles WKDWZHUHLQWURGXFHGWRWKHPWKURXJKWKHLUHQFRXQWHUVZLWK&KLQHVH DQDUFKLVWVDQGUHDGLQJVRIDQDUFKLVWZULWLQJVDYDLODEOHDWWKHWLPHLQ &KLQD HLWKHU LQ RULJLQDO &KLQHVH WH[W RU LQ WUDQVODWLRQ ,Q SDUWLFXODU their potential exposures to anarchist literature available in China in &KLQHVHE\ ZKLFKZDVDFFRUGLQJWR$ULI'LUOLN´XQPDWFKHGLQ scope and comprehensiveness by any other social and political phi- ORVRSKLHV RI (XURSHDQ RULJLQµ2 as well as their direct associations/ LQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK&KLQHVHDQDUFKLVWVDQGWKHLURUJDQL]DWLRQVSOD\HGD FUXFLDOUROHLQWKHLUJURZLQJLQWHUHVWLQDQGDFFHSWDQFHRIDQDUFKLVP $V 3HWHU =DUURZ DGGV WKH \HDUV ´IURP WKH 1HZ &XOWXUH 0RYHPHQW RI WKH PLG V WR DERXW µ ZHUH ´WKH KH\GD\ RI &KLQHVH DQDU- FKLVPµ GXULQJ ZKLFK ´D JRRG GHDO RI RUJDQL]DWLRQDO DFWLYLW\ HVSH- FLDOO\ DQDUFKRV\QGLFDOLVP DV ZHOO DV LGHRORJLFDO UHÀQHPHQWµ ZHUH visible.3 With the abundance and richness of anarchist literature and LQFUHDVHG DQDUFKLVW DFWLYLWLHV WKURXJK RUJDQL]DWLRQV .RUHDQ H[LOHV ZHUHH[SRVHGDQGWKHQFRQYHUWHGWRDQDUFKLVPÀQDOO\MRLQLQJDQGRU FRIRXQGLQJPDQ\DQDUFKLVWRUJDQL]DWLRQVWRJHWKHUZLWK&KLQHVHDQG RWKHU$VLDQ FRXQWHUSDUWV QRW WR PHQWLRQ SXEOLVKLQJ PDQ\ DQDUFKLVW journals jointly or independently.
%HFRPLQJ$QDUFKLVWLQ%HLMLQJ
Many sources demonstrate the increased contacts and interactions after the March First Movement of 1919 between Korean exiles/ radicals and Chinese anarchists, which marks the dawn of Korean anarchist movement in China.4 While the Provisional Government RI .RUHD ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG LQ 6KDQJKDL PDQ\ .RUHDQ UDGLFDO H[LOHV VHHPHGWRFRQFHQWUDWHLQ%HLMLQJDVZHOODV6KDQJKDLIRUWKHLUDFWLYLWLHV IRU LQGHSHQGHQFH PRYHPHQW 6RPH KDG HYHQ JRQH WR VRXWK &KLQD HVSHFLDOO\ *XDQJ]KRX 2QH RI WKH HDUOLHU VXFK FDVHV FDQ EH IRXQG in the publication of an anarchism-oriented journal titled The Light
© 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 21
(Guangming in Chinese and GwangmyeongLQ.RUHDQ ÀUVWSXEOLVKHG LQ *XDQJ]KRX RQ 'HFHPEHU The Light was the only journal published jointly in the early twentieth century with the collaboration of Koreans and Chinese, albeit most of the articles it carried were written by Chinese.5 It was not a Korean anarchist journal per se, but nevertheless carried some anarchism-oriented articles, for example, in LWV LQDXJXUDO LVVXH 7KH DXWKRU RI DQ DUWLFOH LQ WKH LVVXH WLWOHG ´7KH )XWXUHRIWKH/LJKW0RYHPHQWµSURSDJDWHGPXWXDODLGZLWKDSUHGLF- WLRQWKDW´WKHIXWXUHRIWKH/LJKW0RYHPHQWOLHVZLWKLQWKHZRUOGRI IUHHGRPHTXDOLW\XQLYHUVDOORYHDQGPXWXDODLGµ6 In another article WLWOHG ´7KH /LJKW 0RYHPHQW LQ &KLQD DQG .RUHDµ WKH DXWKRU RI LW DVVHUWHGWKDWWKHUHYROXWLRQVLQ&KLQDDQG.RUHDDLPHGDWDFKLHYLQJD VRFLDOUHYROXWLRQIRU&KLQDKDYLQJJRQHRQO\WKURXJKDSROLWLFDOUHY- olution (i.e., the 1911 Revolution), still had to be under the rule of and pressure from the warlords.7 It is safe to say that by the early 1920s, D IUDWHUQDO DOOLDQFH EHWZHHQ &KLQHVH DQG .RUHDQV DJDLQVW -DSDQHVH DJJUHVVLRQ KDG EHFRPH D FRPPRQO\ VKDUHG DJHQGD RI ERWK .RUHDQ H[LOHV LQ &KLQD DQG &KLQHVH LQWHOOHFWXDOV ,Q WKH SURFHVV RI PDNLQJ an alliance, Korean radicals accepted anarchism in those Chinese cit- ies with help from Chinese anarchists; Korean radicals’ associations and interactions in various forms with Chinese anarchists and their RUJDQL]DWLRQVVXUHO\SURPSWHGWKHLQWHUHVWDQGXOWLPDWHUHFHSWLRQRI DQDUFKLVPDPRQJWKHP+RZHYHUQRWRQO\WKURXJKSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQ- VKLSVZLWK&KLQHVHDQDUFKLVWVEXWDOVRWKURXJKUHDGLQJVRQVRFLDOLVP DQGDQDUFKLVP.RUHDQH[LOHVUDGLFDOVLQ&KLQDZHUHDOVRLQFUHDVLQJO\ drawn to anarchism, enticed initially to its principles like mutual aid and social transformation based on freedom and equality. $PRQJ WKH ÀUVW .RUHDQ DQDUFKLVWV LQ &KLQD ZDV 6KLQ &KDHKR (1880–1936), a prominent Korean historian, journalist, and writer. $ORQJ ZLWK RWKHU .RUHDQ UDGLFDOV LQ &KLQD 6KLQ KDG DOUHDG\ SXE- OLVKHGDMRXUQDOLQ6KDQJKDLFDOOHGNew Greater Korea (Sin daehan), basi- cally an anarchism-oriented journal,8 for about four months between 2FWREHU DQG -DQXDU\ LQ ZKLFK VRFLDOLVP DQG DQDUFKLVP ZHUH LQWURGXFHG DQG GLVFXVVHG $OWKRXJK LW LV QRW FOHDU LI KH ZDV SK\VLFDOO\LQ6KDQJKDLDURXQGWKDWWLPH6KLQDOVRSXEOLVKHGDPRQWK- ly journal called Heavenly Drum (Cheon-go DOVR LQ 6KDQJKDL LQ FODV- sical Chinese, between January and July 1921. This monthly journal was, in its orientation and content, not anarchist but carried articles written both by Koreans and Chinese, on the issues of mutual aid, and also promoted the Korean-Chinese alliance. For example, in its
© 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 22 Anarchism in Korea third issue, published in February 1921, there was an article on Kro- potkin’s death in January of the same year, written by Shin himself ZLWK KLV SHQ QDPH RI 1DPP\HRQJ ZKLFK LQWURGXFHG .URSRWNLQ·V idea of mutual aid and praised Kropotkin’s personality.9 6KLQKDGORQJKDGLQWHUHVWLQDQDUFKLVPEXWEHFDPHDQDQDUFKLVW RQO\ LQ WKH HDUO\ V SUHIHUULQJ ´GLUHFW DFWLRQµ LQ WKH FRXUVH RI .RUHD·V LQGHSHQGHQFH DQG UHYROXWLRQ 'HVSLWH KLV ORQJKHOG LQWHUHVW LQ DQDUFKLVP LW VHHPV 6KLQ EHFDPH DQ DQDUFKLVW WKURXJK KLV JRRG UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKVRPHSURPLQHQW&KLQHVHDQDUFKLVWVOLNH/L6KL]HQJ (1881–1873), a Paris Chinese anarchist and one of the key members RI WKH *XRPLQGDQJ *0' WKH 1DWLRQDOLVW 3DUW\ RI &KLQD DQG &DL © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 23 and became a member of the Provisional Government of Korea in 6KDQJKDL +H VHHPHG WR EH LQWHUHVWHG LQ VRFLDOLVP DW WKH WLPH EXW UHMHFWHG FRPPXQLVP EHFDXVH KH EHOLHYHG WKDW WKH PRVW XUJHQW WDVN IRU.RUHDQSHRSOHZDVQDWLRQDOOLEHUDWLRQQRWFODVVVWUXJJOHRUFODVV liberation.16 +LV UDQJH RI DFWLYLWLHV ZDV ZLGH DV DQ DQDUFKLVW KH SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ WKH 5LJKWHRXV *URXS 8L\HROGDQ D WHUURURULHQWHG .RUHDQ DQDUFKLVWOLNH JURXS LQ &KLQD DQG LQ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI WKH 8QLWHG6RFLHW\RIWKH(DVWHUQ2SSUHVVHG3HRSOHV 'RQJIDQJEHL\DSR PLQ]X OLDQKHKXL LQ :XKDQ LQ 17 DQG DV D WHDFKHU © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 24 Anarchism in Korea DPDVVPRYHPHQWDQGHGXFDWLQJRIZRUNHUVDQGSHDVDQWVLQUHDOL]LQJ anarchism before and after 1945.22 © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 25 DQG EXLOGLQJ D QHZ VRFLHW\ LQ .RUHD EDVHG RQ DQDUFKLVW LGHDOV DQG SULQFLSOHV IRU ERWK RI ZKLFK WKH\ ÀUVW ORRNHG IRU DOOLDQFH ZLWK WKHLU &KLQHVH FRXQWHUSDUWV DQG DFWLYHO\ HQJDJHG LQ WKH ODWWHU·V DFWLYLWLHV 2QH HDUOLHVW VXFK D FDVH FRPHV IURP © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 26 Anarchism in Korea LQ WKH KLVWRU\ RI .RUHDQ DQDUFKLVP PRVWO\ EHFDXVH WKH XQGHUOLQLQJ JRDO RI LW WR EXLOG DQ LGHDO VRFLHW\ LQ UXUDO YLOODJHV E\ LQFUHDVLQJ IDUPHUV· LQFRPH ZDV WR EH UHYLYHG DJDLQ DQG DJDLQ E\ © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 27 XOWLPDWHO\FRQYLQFHGRIWKHYDOXHRIDQDUFKLVPWKURXJKWKHLULQWHUDF- WLRQVZLWKRWKHUDQDUFKLVWVLQ%HLMLQJDQGDFFHSWHGLWDVWKHSULQFLSOH most suitable for Korea’s independence and social transformation. ,QSXUVXLQJWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGSURMHFWWREXLOGDQLGHDOIDUP- LQJYLOODJHLQ+XQDQ © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 28 Anarchism in Korea faced in China. In other words, from the Korean anarchist perspective, their cooperation and alliance with Chinese comrades was simply nec- HVVDU\DQGHYHQHVVHQWLDOÀUVWIRUWKHLUVXUYLYDODVSROLWLFDOUHIXJHH DQG WKHQ IRU WKH HͿHFWLYHQHVV RI WKHLU LQGHSHQGHQFH DFWLYLWLHV EXW most importantly, for the implementation of their shared anarchist LGHDOVLQDIRUHLJQVRLO$QDUFKLVPZLWKLWVFRVPRSROLWDQPHVVDJHVDQG SULQFLSOHVWRSXWLWEODWDQWO\DOORZHG.RUHDQDQDUFKLVWVWRHPSKDVL]H an alliance with other anarchists beyond their national boundaries, which in turn was imperative to seek safety in their activities in China. ,QWKLVVHQVHWRFDOO © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 29 VDJHV ZLWK WKH WKHRUHWLFDO LPSOLFDWLRQV DQDUFKLVP GHOLYHUHG WR WKHP such as freedom, equality, revolution, democracy, development, and VR RQ $V , PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH ,QWURGXFWLRQ -HRQJ ZDV DOVR GUDZQ to anarchism as a result of his increased awareness of the universal problems under capitalism. ,QGHHG ZLWK WKHLU JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW LQ DQG DFFHSWDQFH RI DQDU- FKLVP .RUHDQ H[LOHV DQG UDGLFDOV LQ %HLMLQJ QRZ EHJDQ WR RUJDQL]H WKHPVHOYHVDQGHQJDJHLQYDULRXVDFWLYLWLHVFKLHIDPRQJWKHPLQYROY- LQJ RUJDQL]DWLRQV DQG SXEOLFDWLRQV IRU WKH FDXVH RI ERWK LQGHSHQ- GHQFHDQGDQDUFKLVP7KH%HLMLQJ%UDQFKRIWKH%ODFN © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 30 Anarchism in Korea KLVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK/X;XQZKRVHVKRUWVWRU\WLWOHG´$0DGPDQ·V 'LDU\µ .XDQJUHQULML ZDVWUDQVODWHGE\ © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 31 XWHG KLV ZULWLQJV51 6LP·V \RXQJHU EURWKHU 6LP © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 32 Anarchism in Korea DQDUFKLVW ´VSRQWDQHRXV DOOLDQFHµ SULQFLSOH 'XH WR WKH VKRUWDJHRI IXQGV LW LV VDLG DIWHU SXEOLVKLQJ LWV QLQWK LVVXH WKH QHZVSDSHU ZDV discontinued.56 $OWKRXJK QR LVVXH RI Justice Newspaper is available now for the FXUUHQW VWXG\ WKH FRPPHQWV RI ,WLVH[SHFWHGWKDWWKHLQWHUQDOSROLWLFDOVWUXFWXUH>RI.RUHD@ DIWHULQGHSHQGHQFHVKRXOGGHÀQLWHO\DYRLGWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQ of power and that a local autonomous system, based upon WKHSULQFLSOHRIGHFHQWUDOL]DWLRQRISRZHUZRXOGEHHVWDE- lished and, at the same time, the central political structure, GUDZLQJXSRQWKHDOOLDQFHRIWKHORFDODXWRQRPRXVERGLHV would be constructed.57 $QG WKH ´HFRQRPLF V\VWHP >RI WKH SRVWLQGHSHQGHQFH .RUHDQ VRFL- HW\@VKRXOGEHPDQDJHGE\WKHVRFLHW\µ © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 33 Yuanpei.60 The former two were the well-known core members of the 3DULV &KLQHVH DQDUFKLVWV ZKR ZHUH ´PRGHUQLVWVµ IHWLVKL]HG VFLHQFH FDOOHG IRU D FXOWXUDO UHYROXWLRQ DQG IDYRUHG ´XQLYHUVDO HGXFDWLRQµ61 ZKLOHWKHODWWHUZDVRQHZKR´VKDUHGVRPHRIWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOSUHP- LVHVRIDQDUFKLVPDQGLWVYLVLRQRIDFRVPRSROLWDQZRUOGµ62 Given their ORQJUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK.RUHDQDQDUFKLVWVWKDWZRXOGLQIDFWFRQWLQXH until the 1940s,63 it is quite possible that their version of anarchism ZDVVKDUHGDQGSRVVLEO\FRQVLGHUHGE\.RUHDQDQDUFKLVWVLQVKDSLQJ their version of it, which was the case as I demonstrate in chapter 4. The KALC anarchists also frequently met and interacted with other DQDUFKLVWVVXFKDV9DVLOLM(URVKHQNRDQG)DQ%HQOLDQJ2ILPSRUWDQFH ZHUHQRWMXVWWKHLUHQFRXQWHUVDQGPHHWLQJVEXWWKHLUSRVVLEOHHQJDJH- ment in the discussions of anarchism and the vision of a future world, as well as of the problems of their respective nation and the world with their solutions. Eroshenko particularly has been known as the one who converted many Korean exiles in China to anarchism, and )DQ SUREDEO\ VKDULQJ PDQ\ FRQFHUQV DQG SUREOHPV DV D FRORQL]HG people with Korean anarchists, consented with his Korean comrades DQGWKH\WRRNDFWLRQVWRJHWKHU7KHVH.RUHDQLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKRWKHU DQDUFKLVWVDQGWKHLUSRVVLEOHLQÁXHQFHVRQ.RUHDQDQDUFKLVWV·XQGHU- VWDQGLQJRIQDWLRQDOLVPDQDUFKLVPDQGWKHZRUOGSUREOHPVOHWDORQH WKHLU MRLQW DFWLRQV FDQQRW EH WUHDWHG OLJKWO\7KHUH LV QR FOHDU GLUHFW HYLGHQFHWKDWVKRZVWKDWWKHLQÁXHQFHIURP&KLQHVHDQGRWKHUDQDU- chists on Korean anarchists was decisive or formative in the latter’s FRQYHUVLRQWRDQDUFKLVPEXWLWLVUHYHDOLQJWKDWPDQ\.RUHDQH[LOHV DFFHSWHG DQDUFKLVP LQ %HLMLQJ LQ WKH HDUO\ V WKURXJK WKHLU YDUL- ous interactions with other anarchists in the course of their quest for Korea’s independence. More important was the nationalist direction of Korean anarchism they seemed to set at its inception, which had ORQJHU DQG PRUH ODVWLQJ LPSDFWV WKDQ WKH\ LQLWLDOO\ WKRXJKW RQ WKH history of Korean anarchism. ([SHULPHQWLQJ$QDUFKLVW,GHDOV-RLQWO\LQ6KDQJKDL 6LQFHWKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\6KDQJKDLDVDEUHHGLQJSODFH RI &KLQHVH UHYROXWLRQDULHV DQG UHIRUPHUV KDG DOUHDG\ PDGH ´WKH 7RN\R6KDQJKDL FRQQHFWLRQµ SRVLQJ D WKUHDW WR WKH 4LQJ G\QDVW\ while Tokyo was a base for their revolutionary/reform activities.64 For H[DPSOH LQ 6KDQJKDL UDGLFDO OLWHUDU\ ÀJXUHV IURP &KLQD DQG -DSDQ © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 34 Anarchism in Korea IUHTXHQWO\ PHW DW 8FKL\DPD %RRNVWRUH 8FKL\DPD VKøten), run by 8FKL\DPD .DQ]ø ² ZKR KDG YDJXH EXW ´ORQJVWDQGLQJ >sic@ V\PSDWK\ IRU WKH OHIWµ DQG WKHUH DOVR ZDV WKH *RQJIHL &RͿHH 6KRSZKHUH´OHIWZLQJ>sic@&KLQHVHDQG-DSDQHVHZULWHUVDQGFXOWXUDO W\SHV IUHTXHQWO\ FRQJUHJDWHGµ65 6KDQJKDL LQ WKH V ZDV ´UHDGLO\ EHFRPLQJDEUHHGLQJJURXQGIRUVXEYHUVLYHW\SHVIURPERWKµ &KLQD and Japan.66 7KLV WUHQG FRQWLQXHG DQG ZDV HYHQ VWUHQJWKHQHG DIWHU WKH 5XVVLDQ 5HYROXWLRQ RI DQG WKH DUULYDO LQ 6KDQJKDL LQ of the representative of the Communist International (Comintern), *HRUJH 9RLWLQVN\ ² :LWK WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI WKH DOOLDQFH LQ EHWZHHQ WKH *0' DQG WKH &&3 XQGHU WKH VSRQVRUVKLS RI WKH &RPLQWHUQ 6KDQJKDL EHFDPH D SODFH ZKHUH PDQ\ NLQGV RI UDGLFDOV JDWKHUHGIURPDOORYHUWKHZRUOG%\WKHHDUO\ V6KDQJKDLSOD\HG a role as a node of the transnational network of radicals in East- HUQ$VLD 8QGHU WKH VLWXDWLRQ WKH ´ZLQGµ RI DQDUFKLVP DOVR EOHZ LQ 6KDQJKDL WR .RUHDQ UDGLFDOV DQG H[LOHV DV DQDUFKLVW © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 35 DPRQJ WKRVH ZKR XVHG WR GURS E\ 'HQJ·V KRVSLWDO72 In the case of -HRQJ+ZDDPKHKDGDFKDQFHWRPHHW-DSDQHVHDQDUFKLVW6KLUR\DPD +LGHR ² WKHUHZLWKZKRVHKHOS-HRQJZDVDEOHWRGHYHORS D SODQ ZLWK © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany 36 Anarchism in Korea MRLQW SXEOLFDWLRQDFWLYLW\ LQ 6KDQJKDL RI WKUHH (DVW $VLDQ UDGLFDOV LQFOXGLQJDQDUFKLVWV76 %\ODWH © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany Beyond Independence 37 $PRQJ .RUHDQ DQDUFKLVWV © 2016 State University of New York Press, Albany