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Nine Mile Canyon Rock Art and Communal Hunting

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Nine Mile Canyon Rock Art and Communal Hunting Matheny and Matheny: Nine Mile Canyon Rock Art and Communal Hunting Ray T. Matheny and Deanne G. Matheny NINE MILE CANYON ROCK ART AND COMMUNAL HUNTING Descriptive analyses are those which utilise ancient artists to create it or what meaning(s) it the figurative component of prehistoric art to may have had for those who created it or who directly extract information on prehistoric later viewed it. social activities, economy, material culture, ideology and environmental context, which is Nine Mile Canyon, located in central eastern Utah often not reflected in other types of (Figure 1), has long been known for its rich and archaeological evidence [Morwood and Smith extensive corpus of rock art. This paper is a 1996] development of certain concepts presented in The above quote makes clear the potential use of two previous papers about Native American rock art as a source of information about ancient (largely Fremont) rock art found in Nine Mile societies and generally reflects our approach.1 In Canyon. Those papers focused on the topics of this paper we focus on what might be learned animal behavior and ancient hunting strategies about the societies whose members created the as revealed in the rock art (Matheny et al. 1997; rock art rather than what may have motivated the Matheny et al. 2004). Our data come from the Figure 1. Map showing the location of Nine Mile Canyon and the research area. XXV-41 Utah Rock Art, Volume XXV, 2008 results of a survey of the lower (eastern) portion interested in trying to understand the context of of Nine Mile Canyon carried out by the Brigham communal hunting as it may have occurred in Young University (BYU) Field School of Nine Mile Canyon as practiced by foragers and/ Archaeology under the direction of Ray T. or horticulturalists and whether rock art can Matheny from 1989 through 1992 (reported in provide insights about this. Spangler 1993) and survey work carried out with the Castle Valley Chapter of the Utah Statewide Hunting is a basic subsistence activity that has Archaeological Society beginning in 1989, as well been practiced from the earliest times until today as the survey of a portion of the canyon published by societies with all types of sociopolitical by Hurst and Louthan (1979), excavations carried organizations. In looking at communal hunts3 as out in Nine Mile Canyon by the BYU Field School reflected in Nine Mile Canyon rock art, we adopt of Archaeology (reported in Thompson 1993), Driver’s definition of communal hunting which and, to a lesser degree, archaeological work in includes the following: the canyon by other scholars. Although the (a) Participation by more than two hunters inventory of rock art and other archaeological sites (usually many more than this). in the canyon is by no means complete, the (b) Active cooperation between hunters such surveys carried out thus far have given us some that they work together, as opposed to perspective on the distribution of sites and their passive cooperation in which hunters content in a few important areas of the canyon.2 agree not to interfere with each other’s Rock art depictions in the canyon span a long time activities. frame (from at least the Archaic Period through (c) A system of hunting that requires all modern times). Although rock art exists at many hunters to participate in a previously levels along the steep rock terraces, particularly conceived plan [Driver 1990:12]. in the mid and lower sections of Nine Mile Canyon, a number of the more complex Driver (1990) notes that it is difficult to document renderings are easily visible from the canyon the presence of communal hunting in the bottom, providing an enduring message to all who archaeological record, however, we suggest that pass by them. In this paper, we concentrate on rock art can be helpful in this regard, showing rock art themes (mainly found in Fremont and Ute/ both the kinds of large game targeted as well as Numic period rock art) which suggest the repeated hunting techniques used to obtain them. exploitation of local faunal resources by communal hunting. The rock art renditions of In order for communal hunting to be a worthwhile animals and anthropomorphs communicate economic activity, justifying the expenditure of information about an economic system involving the large amount of energy and other resources the procurement of animal products which may necessary to hunt, kill, and butcher the animals reflect connections beyond Nine Mile Canyon. as well as transport the meat and other animal products, there must be an adequate return of ani- Evidence from Nine Mile Canyon suggests that mal products. To carry out a successful commu- most of the Native American inhabitants who nal hunt, Driver (1990:13) notes that the target lived in the canyon and exploited its resources animals must exhibit certain characteristics, in- from the Archaic through the Historic Period were cluding that their location be predictable, that their foragers (also called hunter-gatherers) and at least behavior dictates particular hunting techniques some, during the Fremont occupation, were and that their physiological conditions makes farmers, although their horticultural activities may hunting them desirable. He also notes that large not have been associated with villages or other mammals have important seasonal variations in residences that were occupied year round. We are their “habitat, migration, population density, meat XXV-42 Matheny and Matheny: Nine Mile Canyon Rock Art and Communal Hunting quality, and social behavior” (Driver 1990:13). (usually these appear to be elk), bison, and rarely, Meat quality is affected by seasonal changes ex- birds. We do consider one example of an elk perienced by animals and is linked to fat content hunting scene in this paper. Although bighorn which plies on both the nutritional value and the sheep are abundantly depicted in the rock art of taste of the meat (Speth and Spielmann 1983). Nine Mile Canyon and other areas occupied by Seasonality, among other factors, can include Fremont and Ancestral Puebloan groups, their migration. Reproductive behavior is often sea- numbers were so greatly reduced during sonal as well and results in animals being aggre- settlement by Euro-Americans that perhaps they gated in greater numbers than at other times and do not come quickly to mind as a major game in peak condition in terms of both meat and hides source. Estimates differ about the number of or coats. These factors are generally true for larger bighorn sheep that lived in North America in mammals living in arctic and temperate regions earlier times but a recent article gives an estimate where animals are most often aggregated in the of 1.5 million to 2 million two centuries ago and fall. Driver’s review of ethnographic sources notes that only 28,000 remain today (Lomax shows abundant data that hunting in higher lati- 2008:22). Based on the criteria discussed above, tudes during the fall and early winter supplied bighorn sheep are particularly attractive hunting animal products for winter storage (Driver targets because they have highly predictable 1990:29). While referencing Winterhalder (1981) behavior on an annual basis. Their annual seasonal that “optimal foraging theory predicts that cycles include a segregation between ewe and ram clumped, mobile resources are most efficiently herds for much of the year and the sheep aggregate exploited by aggregated foragers,” Driver in mixed herds of ewes, rams, and lambs born the (1990:21–28) points out that this does not explain previous spring only during the rut in the late fall why communal hunting occurs and he explores or early winter at a time when the fat content of that question using the following hypotheses: their meat is high and condition of their hides is generally at a premium (Geist 1993:125). A recent (a) The technology of communal hunting is more efficient (i.e., produces more meat study of bighorn sheep in Glacier National Park per person or more energy per person per using tracking collars which record the unit of energy expended) than the movements of the sheep has changed some former individual hunting of aggregated prey, perspectives on bighorn behavior and confirmed under certain conditions; others (Lomax 2008:22). The highly predictable (b) Communal hunting produces a surplus nature of the bighorns’ habits was confirmed, during times of plenty, which is crucial showing that they seldom explore new habitats for maintenance of human populations in and the herd travels on paths used for generations “lean” periods following communal between their ranges used for purposes such as hunts; and lambing, wintering, etc. Such predictability in (c) Communal hunting decreases search behavior must have been a boon to hunters who time, by concentration on dense aggre- gations of animals, and the decrease in understood it well and could predict the sheep’s search time compensates for any loss of location from season to season. efficiency [Driver 1990:22–23]. The bighorn sheep were a high-ranked resource Our study is concerned primarily with the hunting and, in addition to the meat and hides, they of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis and O. c. provided those who hunted them with a wealth of nelsoni), simply because they are overwhelmingly other resources. Bones were used for tools and the most frequently depicted animal in the rock bone grease was another important resource. The art of Nine Mile Canyon. Other species portrayed horns of the bighorns were used for a number of in hunting scenes in the canyon include elk/deer tools and weapons, including bows, sickles, XXV-43 Utah Rock Art, Volume XXV, 2008 dippers and rattles. This brief discussion is merely Some of these elements are specific to particular illustrative of some of the uses of the bighorns.4 time periods or cultures (e.g.
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