International Organisation in World Politics DAVID ARMSTRONG LORNA LLOYD JOHN REDMOND THE MAKING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY © David Armstrong, Lorna Lloyd, John Redmond 2004, under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited 2019 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 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Contents List of Tables xi List of Figures xii List of Abbreviations xiii Preface xvii 1 The Rise of the International Organisation 1 The Development of International Organisations before 1919 1 The Concert of Europe 4 The Red Cross Movement 5 The Hague Conferences 5 The Consolidation of IGOs 6 Theoretical Perspectives on IGOs 10 Notes 14 2 The League of Nations 16 The League Idea and the Role of Woodrow Wilson 16 The Covenant of the League of Nations 18 The League and International Security 21 The Legal, Economic and Social Functions of the League 30 The Structural Framework of the League 31 Conclusion 33 Notes 33 3 The American-led, Cold War UN, 1945–60 37 The Creation of the United Nations 37 Differences from the League 40 The Early Years: Cold War Disputes and the Collapse of the Charter System 40 The Korean War and the Question of Collective Security 42 Chinese Representation in the UN 43 The Rise of the General Assembly 43 vii viii CONTENTS The UN and Disputes Arising out of the Ending of Colonialism 44 An Alternative Approach to Security: Peacekeeping 46 The Rise and Fall of Two Secretaries-General 49 The Non-political UN 50 Conclusion 52 Notes 53 4 The Third World UN, 1960–80 54 The Third World and the UN 54 Anticolonialism 55 Racial Discrimination 56 The ‘Non-political’ UN 58 The Impact of the General Assembly’s Activity 60 American Disillusionment and Increased Use of the Security Council 62 The UN and the Maintenance of International Peace and Security 64 The Role of the Secretary-General: U Thant 68 The Role of the Secretary-General: Kurt Waldheim 69 Conclusion 70 Notes 71 5 A Period of Crisis: the UN in the 1980s 73 The US–UN Conflict in the General Assembly 73 The Role of the Secretary-General: Javier Pe´rez de Cue´llar 75 Non-political Organs 76 Conclusion 79 Notes 80 6 The New World Disorder: the UN and the Maintenance of International Peace 82 Collective Security Revisited: Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait 82 The Revival of Peacekeeping 84 Overstretch 98 Disaster 100 Sanctions 102 The Emergence of ‘Peace Enforcement’ 103 Widening the Concept of ‘Threats to’ and ‘Breaches of’ International Peace and Security 104 Expanding Peace Enforcement 108 Planning for the Future 111 Conclusion 112 Notes 113 7 The Post-Cold War UN 116 Return to the Charter: the Rejuvenation of the Security Council 116 Reform of the Security Council 118 The US–UN Saga 120 Financial Woes 121 The General Assembly and the Growth in UN Membership 123 CONTENTS ix Special Sessions, Summits and Conferences 124 Non-political Organs 131 The Role of the Secretary-General: Boutros Boutros Ghali 133 The Role of the Secretary-General: Kofi Annan 135 The International Court of Justice 136 Conclusion 137 Notes 137 8 The European Community, 1945–69: Origins and Beginnings 141 Precedents and the Aftermath of the Second World War 141 The First Phase: from Coal and Steel to Economic Community 142 The Treaty of Rome and the European Economic Community 145 The Community Takes Shape, 1958–69 148 Britain, EFTA and the European Community 151 Widening, Deepening and the Hague Summit: a New Agenda for a New Decade? 153 Notes 154 9 The European Community, 1970–85: Turbulence, Europessimism and Eurosclerosis – Widening at a Cost 158 Introduction 158 Enlarging the European Community: Bigger and Better or Wider and Weaker? 159 Economic and Monetary Union: the Snake, the Tunnel and the European Monetary System 162 Political Cooperation and Decision Making 166 Deepening in the Face of Adversity: a More Positive Interpretation of Developments, 1970–85 168 Crisis in the Community: Budgetary Problems and the Reform of the Common Agricultural Policy 170 Notes 172 10 The European Community, 1985–92: from Community to Union – Deepening Dominates while Widening Waits 176 Introduction 176 Unfinished Business: Reforming the Budget and the Common Agricultural Policy 177 Back to Deepening: the Single European Act (SEA) and the Single European Market 179 The Maastricht Treaty and the European Union 182 From EMS to Economic and Monetary Union 185 Limiting Widening and Prioritising Deepening? 188 Notes 189 11 The European Union, 1993–2003: Deepening and Widening? 193 An Ambitious Agenda 193 More Enlargement: 1995 and Beyond 194 x CONTENTS Deepening the Union 199 Other Policies: Consolidation and Development 204 Conclusion (I): Widening, Deepening and the European Constitution 207 Conclusion (II): The European Union as an International Organisation 209 Notes 210 12 The New Regionalism 212 European Developments Outside the EU 212 The New Regionalism 213 Africa 215 Asia 219 The Americas 223 Notes 228 13 Towards Global Governance? 231 Introduction 231 International Economic Order 232 Critiques of Global Economic Governance 238 Human Rights 240 Towards Global Governance? 245 Notes 248 14 The Emergence of Global Civil Society 251 Global Civil Society as a Partner in Global Governance 252 Legitimation of Global Governance 256 Global Civil Society as a Site of Global Resistance 258 Critiques of Global Civil Society 261 Notes 263 Bibliography 266 Index 270 List of Tables 1.1 Types of international organisations (IGOs) 8 3.1 Patterns in the use of the veto 41 3.2 UN Secretaries-General 49 6.1 The expansion of peacekeeping 84 6.2 Past UN peacekeeping and peacebuilding operations 86 6.3 Ongoing UN peacekeeping missions ( January 2003) 92 6.4 Non-UN peacekeeping missions 94 6.5 Ongoing political and peacebuilding missions ( January 2003) 97 6.6 The differences between peacekeeping, peace enforcement and collective security 104 7.1 General Assembly special sessions, 1945–2002 125 7.2 Selected UN conferences and world summits since 1964 128 xi List of Figures 1.1 The rise in the number of intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), 1800–1990 3 3.1 The United Nations system 38 3.2 The growth in UN membership 52 7.1 Security Council Activity 117 14.1 The rise in the number of nongovernmental organisations (NGO), 1800–1900 254 xii List of Abbreviations ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries AEC African Economic Community AFRC Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (Sierra Leone) AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation ARF ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AU African Union (replaced OAU in 2002) BiH Bosnia and Herzegovina CACM Central American Common Market CAP Common Agricultural Policy CFP Common Fisheries Policy CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy CIS Commonwealth of Independent States COREPER Committee of Permanent Representatives CTC Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee (2000–) DPKO UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo EAEC European Atomic Energy Community or East Asian Economic Caucus ECB European Central Bank ECOMOG Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group ECOSOC United Nations Economic and Social Council ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECSC European Coal and Steel Community ECU European Currency Unit EDC European Defence Community EEA European Economic Area EEC European Economic Community EFTA European Free Trade Area EMS European Monetary System EMU European Monetary Union xiii xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS EPC European Political Community ERDF European Regional Development Fund ERM Exchange Rate Mechanism EU European Union FCO (British) Foreign and Commonwealth Office FTAA Free Trade Area of the Americas G7 Group of Seven G-77 Group of 77 GAOR General Assembly Official Records GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GEF Global Environmental Facility GFAP General Framework Agreement for Peace (Dayton peace agreement) for Bosnia-Herzegovina, 16 December 1995 IAEA International Atomic Energy Authority IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) ICC International Criminal Court ICJ International