Fluid Boundary: River as a Third Territory

HONORS THESIS PRESENTED TO THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIFE SCIENCES, LANDSCAPE STUDIES, OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE RESEARCH HONORS PROGRAM

BY XUEZHEN XIE JUNE 2020

FACULTY ADVISOR: MARIA GOULA

I would like to thank everyone who thank professor Tim Baird for making the has helped and inspired me to work on connection. this project during the difficult time of COVID-19. First and foremost, professor Thank you to all the friends who have Maria Goula, for contributing significant supported this project, especially Hoi Ying amount of time to advising me and Grace Lam, Blanche Shao, Amber Zhu, supporting me. Without her the project Lois Nguyen and my favorite Le Tone Wei, could not be possibly completed. who also hosted me during my trip to . I would also like to give thanks to Duarte Santos, for giving significant feedbacks Finally, I would like to thank my parents, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS during several reviews; professor Xie Di and Xu Chen; my grandparents Xie 1 Anindita Banerjee, for introducing me to Minghua and Fu Xiaofei. Thank you for environmental humanism and inspiring the support over the last twenty-two years. many ideas in this project; professor Jamie Vanucchi and Anne Weber, for participating in the final review of the project.

I want to thank professor Chunxiao Wang in , and Dorothy Tang (previously in Hong Kong University,) for providing contexts about the site. And 谢谢 CONTENTS

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I. ABSTRACT II. BACKGROUND III. MAPPING

Aims 10 Introduction River as territory Methods 16 Theoretical background: 2 Questions fluid narrative Outcomes 22 Historical context: Shenzhen River and beyond 30 Literature review and precedents 32 Site visit 55 73 77

IV. SPECULATIONS V. CONCLUSION VI. APPENDIX

Celebrate third space 78 Site visit itinerary 80 Bibliography 83 Map sources 3 84 Image credits 4 I. ABSTRACT 5 1. AIMS

The objective of this research thesis is interrogates how the fluidity of water to navigate water as a matter of both operates with its administrative function partition and connection, and river as as a border. Based on an investigation of 6 a site of both boundary and memory. the existing management of fluidity, the This project speculates the materiality design proposal aims to overcome the of the border between the Hong binary of water and land and to situate Kong Special Administrative Region Shenzhen River as a third territory with a of and Shenzhen (Mainland fluid narrative. China), to convey the history of the frontier area and to envision its future transformation. Focusing on the Shenzhen River, a fluid boundary that separates two administrative areas, this thesis 2. METHODS 3. QUESTIONS 4. OUTCOMES

In this project, mapping is an essential 1) How is water used as a tool for The design outcome of this project is method to speculate and represent the partition? i.e. how is the difference of not a concrete suggestion for problem- physical attributes of the site and the materiality between water and land solving or implementation, but an 7 socio-political mechanisms that shape employed to consolidate the legislative open framework to stimulate further the border. By examining the existing border? How does the material boundary imagination. Certain speculations are cartography and unfolding the power- work with the administrative boundary? made to reveal and realize the hidden knowledge projected on them, mapping is 2) How can a river as a constantly potential of the site. used as a creative practice that re-makes transforming mechanism be seen as a the territory over and over again (Corner, network that connects both sides? 1999). 3) How can landscape design be used to create a scheme that envisions the river as an alternative territory? 8 II. BACKGROUND 9 During the process of this research project, of state power, terrorism and foreign two ongoing events have made significant interference in the city (Cheung, 2020). impacts on global geopolitics. The first The proposal of the so-called national one is the 2019-20 Hong Kong protests, security law triggered another wave of which was triggered by the introduction protests in Hong Kong, deepening the of the Fugitive Offenders amendment uncertainty of future Mainland–Hong bill by the Hong Kong government. Once Kong relations. enabled, the amendment bill would allow the extradition of criminal fugitives to The second event was the coronavirus , thereby undermining disease 2019 pandemic (COVID-19). the judicial independence of the region, First identified in Wuhan, China in 10 1. INTRODUCTION as many concerned (BBC News, 2019). December 2019, the virus outbreak has The protests have continued for more been reported in most parts of the world, than a year and include numerous violent as of June 2020. To prevent transmission, incidents. This series of events is perhaps many states have deployed strategies such the most intense and violent conflict as travel restrictions, quarantines, facilities between the Communist Party of China closures, etc., disrupting most people’s and Hong Kong citizens since the handover livelihoods. Increased emphasis has been of Hong Kong. In May 2020, the legislature placed on the boundary between states, of China, the National People’s Congress communities, and individuals to maintain (NPC), passed a resolution authorizing its distancing at all levels. Still in the midst standing committee to impose the law on of the crisis while writing this thesis, the Hong Kong to outlaw secession, subversion consequences of this pandemic remain unknown to us. In addition, my personal life was deeply to situate oneself in uncharted waters and involved with the state of fluidity to accommodate oneself outside of regular Both events have drastically challenged during the outbreak of COVID-19 modes. As one of my professors said, the the existing structures and deeply in the United States. In mid-March circumstance requires us to let go of most disturbed social norms at various 2020, Cornell University, as well as expectations and not be too attached to geographical scales. Living under many other institutions in the United anything. In either case, fluidity represents instability and uncertainty, many have States, announced several policies in a an alternative organization that seeks to turned to fluidity as a strategy. During short period including transitioning to accommodate the original stable structure the Hong Kong protests, for instance, virtual instruction and suspension of that is unable to maintain itself in crisis. protesters used the slogan “Be Water,” all courses. Numerous statements from which was borrowed from the quotes administration phrased the circumstances The fact that we seek fluidity as a working of martial arts star Bruce Lee, “Empty as “a fluid situation,” and suggested model in a time of disturbance, reflects 11 your mind. Be formless, shapeless, like individuals to “be fluid,” in accordance that our common mentality and narrative water... Be water, my friend.” Fluidity was with the rapidly changing circumstances. is usually the opposite. As Bruno Latour practiced by the protesters as fighting asserts, modernization is a practice of tactics. According to Masato Kajimoto at Turning to fluidity amidst disrupted partition, which includes constructing the University of Hong Kong, “[protesters] social norms captured my attention. boundaries between nature and society, are really fluid, and sometimes they get In the case of the Hong Kong protests, between “us” and “them” (Latour, together very quickly and they disperse fluidity is employed as a tactic against 1993). The existence of boundaries very quickly, and it really looks like water the suppression and constriction of state provides us with identities and a sense is flowing and flowing through different power (usually represented by police of belonging. However, COVID-19 parts of the city” (Yamamoto, 2019). force). Under the circumstances of the as a highly transmissible disease has pandemic, being fluid became a strategy significantly challenged the systems of borders on every level. On the state level, I think about landscape and the research and beyond. The first part ends with an strengthening does not questions of this project. Fluidity has introduction of methodology, including eliminate the pandemic spread. On the been long associated with discordance literature review and site visit. The individual level, the division between and often provoked uncertainty and third part, mainly composed of maps, workplace and home collapses, leading trepidation. The fear of flooding and describes the materiality of the border to a sense of insecurity and chaos. On submergence due to sea level rise has and creates a visual narrative of the river the level of modernization, the division been rooted in most minds. Landscape as territory. The fourth part starts with a between nature and society is contested architecture can be seen as a profession close examination of the existing fluidity as the biological virus disturbs the social of regulating fluidity spatially through management strategies. Based on these structure. To resist this collapse, many grading or vegetation. With the increasing strategies, four speculations are made to boundaries are strengthened for a feeling presence of uncontrollable fluidity in our create alternative space that embodies 12 of order. For example, nationalism lives, can landscape architecture be used fluidity, which I described as “third space.” and racism are sometimes deployed as a framework to embrace an alternative The landscape architecture intervention is as informal practices to strengthen approach to fluidity? used as a method to evoke new thinking the boundary between ethnic groups of fluidity. for a sense of safety. Living between To investigate my research questions, enforced boundaries, I wonder if it is the rest of the thesis is structures as possible for us to jump out of the existing the following: the next section of the systems composed of boundaries, and first part elaborates on the theoretical to accommodate the fluid strategy into background of the project and explores evolving structures. the intricate relationship between border and fluidity. The third section The current situation has inspired how provides a historical context of the site CONTEXT MAP

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April 2020, people in Wuhan memorize the deceased due to COVID-19 in informal ways (source: Shaqiu). 15 1952, people entered Shenzhen River from Shenzhen side, trying to enter Hong Kong illegally (source: Harrison Forman, edited by me).

The fluidity of river represent many uncertainties await - drown in the river, shot by the border police, expatriated after being caught... Hong Kong (香港)’s image has been long The association of Hong Kong with associated with water. Kong (港) means water is closely correlated to the port in Chinese. The commercial and notion of sea as a site of disappearance. strategic function of ports composed Historically functioning as a port city the city’s significance in colonial history. with its demography largely composed Commonly portrayed as an isolated of immigrants and refugees, the city’s fishing village before the British’s arrival, identity is featured with fluidity and Hong Kong is often described as having instability. Ackbar Abbas asserts that no pre-colonial history. The dismissal Hong Kong’s geographical location as 2. of Hong Kong’s pre-colonial history a transit city contributes to its floating is greatly attributed to its geographic identity. For the port mentality, everything 16 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: location. Located on the southern coast of is provisional, ad hoc; everything floats- China, Hong Kong city is surrounded by currencies, values, human relations FLUID NARRATIVE Southern China sea on all sides except the (Abbas, 1997). The floating identity also north, where the city neighbors Shenzhen contributes to what Abbas theorizes as, “a along the Shenzhen River (Sham Chuan culture of disappearance,” that consists of River, 深圳河). Composed largely of developing techniques of disappearance hilly lands, Hong Kong was perceived that respond to, without being absorbed as uninhabitable until the settlement of by, a space of disappearance (Abbas, British colonizers, who acquired vast 1997). amounts of lands through numerous land reclamation projects. Both notions introduced by Abbas are closely associated with the ocean as a site of disappearance. The difficulty of Hong Kong spiritually and materially by across transoceanic surfaces to theorizing temporalizing ocean has rendered it as forming the border around the city. Water ways of embedding, animating, and a site void of memories. As Elizabeth is traditionally seen as a border between submerging, rendering vast oceanic space DeLoughrey asserts, unlike terrestrial territories, which makes it a natural site into place. This turn to ontologies of the space – where one might memorialize of partition. Yet the relationship between sea and its implications for temporality and narrativize a space into place – water and boundary is complicated. Water and aesthetics is called the “oceanic turn” the perpetual circulation of ocean does not only separate territories but by Elizabeth DeLoughrey (DeLoughrey, currents means that the sea dissolves also connects lands through a system of 2017). phenomenological experience, and water bodies. For example, lands within defracts the accumulation of narrative a certain river catchment are shaped Besides, border studies have attracted (DeLoughrey, 2017). Hong Kong’s limited and transformed by the same source of rising interests in scholarship in recent land resources compared to the vastness of water, and thereby connected with and years, largely stipulated by US President 17 seawater it is surrounded by consequents influenced by each other. Donald Trump’s proposal of building its struggles of memorialization and a wall on Mexico-US border during consolidating its identity. The city’s Recently, the fields of ecocriticism and his 2016 presidential campaign (BBC development based on continuous land the environmental humanities have News, 2017). The incendiary proposal reclamation results in a constant fear of shifted from representations of territory- has brought the attention of public and losing the city back to the ocean, rendered based place to theorize mobility and intellectual communities to not only the as void and unaccountability. displacement across biotic, regional, political theories and cultural practices national, and (post)colonial boundaries. of borders, but also the environmental As the boundlessness of the ocean In contradiction, the field of “critical impacts of physical barriers. For example, threatens the material existence of the city, ocean studies” has shifted from a long- Margaret Wild’s essay “Exploring the water on the other hand also gives form to term concern with mobility and fluidity Ecosystem of the U.S.–Mexico Border” uncovers the potential impact of Trump’s and commodifying water, water was between the “civilized” European quarter wall on the wetlands of Colorado River standardized as an economic production. and the unregulated native quarter. By delta. The essay is subtitled as “Nature is The possibility of incorporating processed linking sanitation to civilization, the fluid; walls are not” (Wilder, 2018). water into domestic space pushes colonial government was able to use the desire to draw a clear boundary regulation of fluidity to strengthen the Border systems and fluidity are not between clean water entering domestic segregation and hierarchy within the binary opposite mechanisms, but often space and unprocessed water outside. colony. coexist in the same space. The practice of The reconceptualization of water as a constructing boundaries using regulation commodity simultaneously conceptually Border Ecologies examines Hong Kong- of fluidity was a common practice in constructed nature as an externalized Shenzhen border as both a heightened colonialization. Fluidity here takes the ‘other’ for which ‘socially constructed space of control and an elastic space 18 definition of “the physical property of a places’ were created (Kaika, 2005). of exchange. This tension has given substance [water] that enables it to flow” rise to specific flows of groups or (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Although The deliberate construction of the individuals who utilize the differences water is a natural fluid element in the boundary between regulated water and between the two sides for their own environment, its fluidity in urban space uncontrolled water was employed as a benefit. These flows represent loopholes: is socially constructed and regulated. colonial statecraft in many contexts. For opportunistic interventions within In City of Flows: Modernity, Nature, example, in Dutch Indonesia, the water seemingly impenetrable systems of and the City, Maria Kaika examined channeling and its culture was evolving control (Bolchover, 2017). Based on the discursive construction of “good into a usable system of making the colony this observation, this project aims to use water” and “bad water” as part of the both dirty and clean (Mrázek, 2002). The Shenzhen River as ground to interrogate Western modernization and urbanization. partial construction of a sewage system the entanglement between fluidity With the technology of purifying was intended to sharpen the contrast and border. Through analyzing the landscape context of the river and it as an infrastructure of control, the project seeks to reveal the fluid narrative of the border.

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Pre-colonial water landscape in Hong Kong, and the water infrastructure constructed under British colonization (source: Hutcheon, The National Archives). TERRITORY OF HONG KONG - Water as void

20 This map illustrates the common representation of territory of Hong Kong, which is based on land. Ocean is seen as a site of “disappearance,” seemingly outside of the territorial and legislative limitations of the state. The tradition of land reclamation in Hong Kong to acquire more space for development has inferred water as void and rendered territory as transient. The instability of the territory is added by the fear of losing land back to the sea due to global sea level rise. 21

In the map, the opaque areas represent the territory acquired by land reclamation projects in Hong Kong (source: Ngo, 2019). The areas with line pattern represent the areas that would be below annual flood level in 2050, with medium emission scenario (source: Climate Central, Inc. , 2020). had been formally As a result, on ceded to the United Kingdom in 1842 the Hong Kong side was established in according to the Treaty of Nanking, after 1951. On the other side, Chinese leaders China (under the governance of Qing) consistently deployed the border as an lost the First Opium War (1839-42) to the instrument of domestic development and British. In 1898, The Convention between as a site for adjusting Chinese foreign Great Britain and China Respecting policy. The Chinese government pursued an Extension of Hong Kong Territory cross-border infrastructural integration was signed, thereby annexing the New through initiatives such as the East River Territories, and defining Shenzhen River Shenzhen Waterworks Project, which 3: HISTORICAL CONTEXT: as the border of the colony. In the first stabilized living conditions in Hong Kong 22 half of the twentieth century, the border while putting increased pressure on Bao’an SHENZHEN RIVER AND BEYOND has been open, allowing free flows from (today’s Shenzhen) residents (O’Donnell both sides. The sovereignty partition & Wan, 2017). marked by the river did not separate the communities on the two sides, which were The political instability and natural closely connected by kinship. In October disasters persisting in the early stage 1949, People’s Republic of China was of People’s Republic of China forced officially established. With growing influx innumerable people to migrate to Hong of refugees and the contested relationship Kong for refuge. From 1950s to 1980s, the between the Communist Party of China “Tide of Escape to Hong Kong” (逃港潮) (CPC) and British colonial administration, prevailed. Due to the enormous influx, the the border was tightened and consolidated. colonial authority turned from accepting refugees to arresting and repatriating with only one person knowing how to water was deliberately chosen to represent those found by police in 1962. Around swim. How could one person support the intertwined relationship between 2-2.5 million people successfully crossed three people? When it was unfortunate Hong Kong and Mainland China. Well the boundary, with innumerable died for them, they sunk altogether. When water and river water are not naturally during the escape. Due to its geographical the water level rose, the bodies floated to separated. Well water comes from river location, Shenzhen became the primary . When water level fell the bodies water and is more regulated and static. transit stop for illegal emigration. floated to Deep Bay. I saw bodies come The fluidity of water, like the continuous However, water surrounding Hong Kong and go” (Initium Media, 2016). human and material flows between Hong constituted the insurmountable obstacles Kong and Mainland, always blurs the for the refuge seekers. Strictly guarded by On July 1st, 1997, Hong Kong was boundary between two bodies. police with firearms, Shenzhen River was officially handed over by the United the shortest yet the riskiest route taken Kingdom to People’s Republic of China, The indeterminacy of boundary is 23 by few. Every single dark night during thus becoming a special administration reflected on many social aspects after that time, there were many Mainlanders region (HKSAR) of China under the the handover of Hong Kong, and also diving into the deep and dirty Dapeng and “One country, two systems” principle. The materialized by the changing Shenzhen Shenzhen bays (Mirs Bay and Deep Bay) “One country, two systems” principle was River. Hong Kong and Shenzhen both and swimming the deadly four-kilometer illustrated by Chinese leadership using the have long annual flood seasons usually journey to Hong Kong (He, 2013). A Chinese idiom, “the well water does not lasting from April to October. The resident living on the Hong Kong side interfere with river water” (井水不犯河 narrow and curvy course of Shenzhen of the river recounts the violent history 水), which demonstrates CPC’s attitudes River restricted its discharging capability erased by the unrelenting flows of the of allowing Hong Kong to retain its and led to floods on both sides. From river, “Sometimes three or four people independent economic and administrative the 1980s, several efforts were made tried to swim across the river together, systems. I believe that the imagery of by Shenzhen government to realign the course of Shenzhen River for flood Regulation Project (SZR) was coordinated river training project also significantly management. The change of river course by the Shenzhen government and Hong changed the tidal propagation and salinity brought disputes about the legislative Kong. The project consisted of a four-stage structure of Shenzhen River, as the study boundary, which according to the scheme. The first three stages straighten, of Chan and Lee examined (Chan & Lee, previous convention is defined by the widen and deepen the previous 18km 2010). centerline of the river. Documents from of Shenzhen River into 13.5 km of new the government river channel. While the main objective The realignment of the Shenzhen disclose that at that time, both the Chinese of the works is flooding prevention, it River course dramatically changed government and colonial authority also has other associated benefits such the landscape context and the lives of insist that the border should remain as as improving the river environment residents on both sides of the river, at present, irrespective of the course of and navigation. Stage IV project further leading to many land ownership and 24 the river (Standnews, 2017). However, improves 4.5km natural stream at the management disputes. According to the the land jurisdiction became ambiguous upstream of the trained Shenzhen River Order of the State Council of the People’s after several changes of the river course. in order to raise the flood prevention Republic of China. (No. 221), issued in Before the official handover of Hong Kong standard near the proposed Liantang/ 1997, after the realignment of Shenzhen in 1997, numerous parcels near the river Heung Yuen Wai Control Point (Drainage River course, the border would change had transitioned to the other side of the Services Department, 2019). The four- according to the centerline of the new border, while the logic behind the changes stage project stretched from 1995 to 2014. river course. Numerous parcels that once was unclear (Alternative HK, 2018). The completion of the project should belonged to Shenzhen were transferred to enable the river to discharge flood at the Hong Kong and vice versa. Among many Two years before the official handover of level of fifty-year flood. However, many parcels that were transferred to the other Hong Kong in 1997, the most significant suspect that the river regulation project side, the largest and the most controversial river management project, Shenzhen River has diminished its ecological value. The one is Loop (落马洲河套). Once on the Shenzhen side of the river, companies have expressed their interests Hong Kong. the 87.03 hectare of land was transferred in exploring the potential of the site” to the Hong Kong side. The parcel was (Oriental Daily News, 2012). The message is not the only site purchased by a company subordinated of Liang evoked massive criticism in Hong complicated by the border condition to the Shenzhen government shortly Kong as going against public will. The of Shenzhen and Hong Kong. Existing after the completion of construction in underlying fear was that the establishment as an active territory border, Shenzhen 2000. Therefore, the property belongs to of a “special zone” would lead to the River engraves impermeable partition the Shenzhen government, while under eventual eradication of the border. The between communities and spatial forms. the administration of HKSAR. In 2012, idiom, “The well water does not interfere The border is also the boundary of zoning Zhengying Liang, Chief Executive of with river water” has been frequently cited districts, which separates the authority Hong Kong at that time, declared that in news article titles, conveying the hope of land management. Hong Kong and Lok Ma Chau Loop would become for HKSAR and Shenzhen government to Shenzhen employ different planning 25 the “special zone inside the special continue respecting the existing border. methods for the frontier areas. On the zone.” He asserted that, “Hong Kong’s Hong Kong side, Shenzhen River is development has always been restricted In 2017, HKSAR and Shenzhen signed fronted by a massive Frontier Closed Area, by land shortage. The 80-hectare land the official memo to cooperate with the which includes numerous villages. Civilian at the border is regarded as treasure in development of Lok Ma Chau Loop entrances except those of the residents need of planning. … The parcel can be Technology Park. The construction are prohibited. The inaccessibility of the transformed into a special zone inside is ongoing at present, with expected area limits any developments in recent the special zone, and made full use of for completion in 2020. While it is unlikely years. On the other side, Shenzhen has economic development. Mainlanders and that the district will become visa-free, significantly developed the frontier area. foreigners can all enter this land without the site will undoubtedly become an The dramatic land use differences across visa. At present many international tech experiment field of merging Shenzhen and the border create visual discontinuity and spatial fragmentation. It is unclear River is caught up in the anxious whether cooperative development like Lok entanglement of history, politics, and Ma Chau Loop will eventually re-unite the climate change. discontinuity.

In 2047, fifty years after the handover, the “One country, two systems” policy governing HKSAR will be terminated or renegotiated, and Hong Kong will be fully subsumed into Mainland China. Whereas the implementation and specification of 26 the integration of Hong Kong remains unclear at present, the border is expected to be dissolved. Climate change impacts add on to the uncertainties faced by Shenzhen River region. In 2050, with COLONIAL BORDER medium emission scenario, the global sea level rise is projected to be 0.18-0.35 Map appended to The Convention meters (between the 5th and the 95th between Great Britain and China percentile) (Kopp, 2014). The Shenzhen Respecting an Extension of Hong Kong River region, composed of low-lying Territory (1898), on which Shenzhen floodplain, would be significantly affected River is defined as the new border of the by annual floods. The future of Shenzhen colony. HISTORY OF FLOWS

The diagram illustrates the history of macro flows between Hong Kong and Mainland China, and how the border reacts to the flows.

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Free flow Divergence Segregation Infiltration Confluence Turbulence ... EVOLUTION OF BORDER - Timeline

The border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen (mainland China) is fluid in many ways. Firstly, the border is embodied by Shenzhen River and materialized through the flows of water. Secondly, the connotation and materiality of border are shaped by the constantly changing macro environment. This series of maps aim to capture how the function and materiality of the border change in the broader historical and political context.

28 29 The frontier area of Hong Kong, mostly Shenzhen River region focus on its composed of agricultural landscape, function as a legislative border, or as an has not received much attention except abstract site of conflict and exchange some particular periods. In 2012, between Hong Kong SAR and Mainland authorities’ vision of Lok Ma Chau Loop China on the macro level, with limited as Hong Kong-Shenzhen Innovation and depths on the ecology and materiality Technology Park raised controversy in of the river itself. For example, Border Hong Kong society, which has persisted Ecologies (2017) by Joshua Bolchover and for years. Numerous media outlets Peter Hasdall presents extensive research reported on the disputes and elaborated on the Frontier Closed Area (FCA) of 4. LITERATURE REVIEW AND on the history of the border to provide Hong Kong. The project studies FCA as a 30 citizens with background knowledge synthetic ecology composed of complex PRECEDENTS of the border, such as Standnews and human and environmental systems, Alternative HK. Initium Media also taking into consideration the macro flows published an in-depth article about the and dynamics of the border region, and “disappearing border.” With numerous studying the micro ecologies to produce interviews with villagers living close to a dynamic planning model. The project the border, the article provides narratives positions six tactical scenarios and their of the history of Shenzhen River and the corresponding micro-ecologies along changing imageries experienced by the the border: Enclaves and Codependency, locals. Inbetweeners, Interstitial Infrastructure, Scarred Landscape, Invisible Exchange, Most precedent projects related to and Village Alliances. regulation and training, Shenzhen River Department and Civil Engineering and Border Ecologies provides an in-depth has lost its ecological value and meaning, Development Department, 2015). In 2019, analysis of flows and tensions on Hong and has been abstracted as the border line in accordance with the development plan Kong-Shenzhen border. The framework of the planning study. The limit of the of Lok Ma Chau Loop, the Municipality invented by Border Ecologies is effective extensive framework provides space for of Shenzhen opened a design competition in categorizing the space into different this research thesis. for the reconstruction project of zones and applying distinctive approaches , which is the border respectively. However, the partition In recent years, as Hong Kong control point connected to Lok Ma Chau of space trivializes the continuous significantly reduced the size of FCA Loop (Housing and Construction Bureau flows throughout the frontier area and in 2012, many design competitions of Shenzhen, 2019). sometimes arbitrarily frames prevalent and proposals have been raised about phenomenon within a rigid spatial the development of frontier areas on Some look further and envision the 31 boundary. Furthermore, the analysis of both sides. In 2015, Arup, appointed frontier area after the dissolution of the project focuses mainly on land uses by HKSAR Planning Department and the border, including Border Ecologies and development, without paying much Municipality of Shenzhen, conducted a mentioned above. Another example is attention to the ecology and hydrology of comprehensive planning and preliminary 2047 HKSZ Metropolis, The Forbidden the river. While some of the tactics take design study of Lok Ma Chau Loop and Zone from a Space of Separation to a into consideration the estuary system and adjoining area. The plan envisions the Central Ecological Eden (2013) by UABB, aquaculture on the east and west edge of area with higher education as the leading which envisions the frontier area as an FCA, Shenzhen River is solely considered land use and divides the site into five ecological park with commercial and as an infrastructure for discharge, zones: education zone, innovation zone, education center, and sustainable energy passively affected by the activities on the interaction zone, ecological zone, and center etc. (doffice, UABB, 2013). land. It is implied that, through river riverside promenade zone (Planning Many environmental studies are confined with the administrative border and focus on solely either Hong Kong side or Shenzhen side, lacking a transboundary perspective. Border rivers are often missing from such environmental discussion, as its administrative functions overwhelm its ecological ones. For example, the study by Jie Wu from Shenzhen University looks at the evolution of Shenzhen’s river system under the rapid 32 urban development, with little mention to the border river and the connection across border (Wu, 2017). On the other hand, Yuk Kam Choi and Cho Nam Ng’s study uses river catchment as a landscape scale to understand the ecosystem. The study interrogates land use change within the watershed and its environmental impacts across the boundary (Choi & Ng, 2017), which provides inspiration for analysis of landscape context in this project. From January 4th, 2020 to January 10th, differences, for people who live on 2020, I briefly stayed in Hong Kong and the border, the image of metropolitan paid several visits to the frontier area. Shenzhen and rural Hong Kong constantly During my trip, I stayed near overlaps with each other. (上水), the town closest to Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau, two major points of cross- As I spent large amount of time at Sheung border transit. My itinerary included Shui, I have also witnessed enormous Sheung Shui, , Lok Ma flows of parallel traders and cross-border Chau Station, Lok Ma Chau Lookout Park, students, who are termed by Bolchover and Yunongcun (渔农村) near Lok Ma and Hasdell as “Inbetweeners,” who Chau Loop. I crossed the border through negotiate and exploit the differences 5. SITE VISIT Lok Ma Chau custom check point. (For of two sides through daily movement 33 detailed itinerary, see appendix.) (Bolchover, 2017). From my perception, the continuous trans-border flows evident The short-term site visit has provided at Sheung Shui has produced a space me with initial perception of the spatial of double territories. The presence of qualities at the border. Living near the mainland is spatialized here through the frontier area of Hong Kong, I sometimes activities of “inbetweeners.” Along the could see the evasive lights from the border, several spaces embody this duality. other side flickering in the darkness of rural Hong Kong at night. It strikes me that although on aerial photos, the spatiality across border presents dramatic SITE VISIT PHOTOS

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SHENZHEN RIVER AERIAL PHOTO (1970s) (Source: USGS EROS Archive) 37 38 III. MAPPING - WATER AS TERRITORY 39 SPACE OF CONTROL

Shenzhen River, as a legislative border, is a space saturated with hyper control. When talking to several natives from Shenzhen, I learned that residents would not approach the river because the waterfront is occupied with border crossing points and customs control facilities. The river was highly polluted due to the urban development and had a bad reputation for awful smells. Although water quality has been improved by the river regulation 40 project, the river has been absent from the public life of the city.

However, to understand the river as a territory, it’s important to realize that the river exists beyond the boundary defined Frontier Closed Area by the riverbank. The river is a living process that constantly shapes ecological and social systems. It is also transformed by ever changing mechanisms of human management and climate. The overlay of Shenzhen River system with its historical 41

closed area control point border custom control point RIVER AS PROCESS

river course before river training, existing wetlands, and areas of annual flood in 2050 illustrates the river as a process. The river regulation project changed the depth of river from 1-3m to 4.5-5.5m, and significantly impacted the hydraulics of the river. Based on Chan and Lee’s study, the river training reduced the tidal velocity by 50%. The bottom upstream residual current in the two-layered residual circulation strongly suggests the 42 input of sediment from Deep Bay and sediment trapping in the river. (Chan & Lee, 2010).

The boundary of the river as a territory exists beyond the interface of water bodies and land. The lands within the watershed are integrated in the intricate system of the river, with continuous direct material exchanges with the river. Shenzhen River is approximately 37 km long, with a catchment area of about 730 km2. Of its 43

wetlands

2050 annual flood projection historical river network historical Shenzhen River course GEOLOGY MAP

catchment area, 43% lies in Hong Kong, and 57% lies in Shenzhen (Choi & Ng, 2017). Although areas beyond watershed have indirect relationships with the river, Shenzhen River watershed is used as the primary study area for analysis.

Shenzhen River catchment has a relatively rich geological composition, which is reflected in the dramatic differences in elevation. Resistant tuffs underlie the 44 higher mountains. A band of metaphoric rock forms a series of low hills on the southern side of the river. Granitic rock forms the lower, rounded hills in the northern side of the river. Most areas Wetlands adjacent to the river are largely composed of modern silt and sand. These areas are formed by sediments laid down by the river. The processes of stream incision, terrace formation, channel meandering and levee development add dynamics Modern silt Metamorphic Sandstone and Tuffs Granite to the landform of floodplains (Owen & and sand rocks conglomerate WATERSHED TRANSECT STUDY

Shaw, 2007).

Extensive wetlands occur at Mai Po along the northwest coast. The area is designated as Mai Po Nature Reserve and one of the most important mangroves along the coast of China. The extensive wetlands are formed through the process of progradation and land reclamation for agricultural uses.

To understand the relationship between 45 the river system and the communities on both sides, historical productive landscapes are mapped. The productive landscapes were mainly composed of three forms: fish ponds, gei wai and rice fields, which would be specifically examined in the fourth part of the project. Before the development of Shenzhen SEZ in 1980s, these landscapes were the main life source for the residents on both sides. Due to the productive mode, villages in HISTORICAL TRANSECT STUDY

today’s Shenzhen and Hong Kong were mostly located adjacent to the streams, and had close relationships with water (Wu, 2017). Therefore, the river system was inseparable from the community historically, and had defined the united territory.

46 HISTORICAL RIVER SYSTEM

47 Today, the river system has been drastically transformed. While vast areas of fish ponds and gei wai have remained on the Hong Kong side, rice fields have diminished. In Shenzhen, many rivers have been trimmed or filled, leaving a historical gei wai fragmented waterscape. Although the river system was historically significant to the village dwellers, it has been largely absent from public life after urban development. A resident in Shenzhen 48 has revealed to me that there is not much attractive waterfront landscape for the public in the city, except the linear park along Deep Bay.

The transformation of waterscape has been dominated by the development of historical fish ponds Shenzhen. The masterplan of Shenzhen SEZ of 1986 defined a “belt-cluster” development pattern, which left five ecological corridors between the development clusters. The five ecological PRESENT RIVER SYSTEM

49 corridors were determined by the five major river courses. On the one hand, streams outside the corridors were often 1980 neglected, cut or culverted. On the other hand, the green areas within the designated corridors have been sometimes privatized or invaded by development, leaving the public with little access to the river system (Wu, 2017). The stemmed 1988 and fragmented river system has been (Above) “Belt-cluster” development largely disconnected from the urban masterplan. Five ecological corridors were 50 fabric. designated in accordance with the major river courses (source: China Academy of Urban Planning and Design). 2005 (Left) Evolution of river network in Shenzhen city center (source: Wu, edited by me)

2017 PRESENT RIVER SYSTEM, CONNECTION WITH SHENZHEN’S URBAN SPACE

51 52 RIVER AS TERRITORY

The overlay of trace of historical system and today’s remained waterscape illustrates the dynamic change of the system. It registers the river as a territory not restricted within the boundaries where water meets land at present, and signifies revealed potential for the future. 53 54 IV. SPECULATIONS - CELEBRATE THIRD SPACE 55 FLUIDITY MANAGEMENT TYPOLOGY

56

Separation Co-existence Taking-over The design investigation starts by engineering perspective and undermines examining existing fluidity management Follows are close examinations of the ecological values of a stream and river practices in the region. I have chosen each methodology in the region. (Green Lantau Association). twelve typical methods and categorized The investigations aim to deliver an them by the boundary they mark understanding of how the existing 1.b. Fence between land and water. The first type relationship between land and water is Fences are installed along the border to is separation, which includes practices established, and to provide inspiration for prevent access to the river. that enforce clear partition between land designing space for a new relationship. and water, such as flood control. Doing 1.c. Layer so also creates absolute spatial separation 1.a. Embank The border control points from both between two legislative territories, and In Hong Kong and Shenzhen, many sides are usually connected through strictly separates human activities from natural river courses were transformed bridge. At , travelers 57 water. The second type is co-existence, into embanked channels. Traditionally from Hong Kong take the lower deck where the boundary between land and called nullah, the open, usually concrete- to Mainland while travelers in the water is blurred. Land and water occupy lined channel is designed to allow rapid opposite directions taking the upper the space based on seasonal variation or drainage of storm precipitation or deck. Staying or procrastinating on agricultural productive cycle. Water, land industrial wastewater from high ground, the bridge is prohibited. Thereby the form and human activities dynamically to prevent flooding of urbanized coastal circulation is controlled through layering. influence and shape each other. The third areas. The Shenzhen River regulation Human access to the river is completely one is taking-over, where water or land- project also took a similar approach eliminated. based human activities completely occupy for flood management. However, many the space, making the other visually consider such constructions address 1.d. Retain disappear. flooding problems only from an The fourth stage of the Shenzhen stream and tidal dynamics

Common nullah in Hong Kong (source: 58 Bladezcafo).

dyke and pond formation

River bank section of Shenzhen River regu- The two-story pedestrian bridge at Lok Ma The formation of fish ponds (source: lation project (source: Lan, Lu & Huang). Chau Station and view on the bridge. Bolchover & Hasdell, edited by me). River Regulation Project includes the of the fields. construction of a flood retention pool. By 2.c. Trap retaining water in the designated area after Gei Wai is considered as an example of 3.a. Reclaim intense precipitation, the practice helps the successful co-existence of wildlife Traditionally, the dyke system is used as regulate fluidity. conservation and human activities. It is a framework for reclamation, to expand a type of traditional tidal shrimp pond landholdings and territory. In recent 2.a. Establish constructed in coastal areas. The practice times, maintaining fish ponds in Hong Fish ponds are a historically significant was first employed by immigrants from Kong has become less economically viable, typology in the region, and they became Mainland in 1940s. Gei Wai uses a sluice owners either abandoned their ponds or widespread in the Deep Bay area in the gate to control the inflow and outflow of look to sell them to real estate developers. post-war period, due to an influx of water which sets water-level heights. By Many ponds were filled to become storage immigrants from the Mainland. The fish opening the sluice gate during high tide units for cross-border trade. 59 ponds are created through regulating in autumn, young shrimp are flushed into runoff from streams by the dyke system. the Gei wai from the adjacent bay. Thus 3.b. Flood The dykes also established a network of the production of shrimp relies heavily Both Shenzhen and Hong Kong are paths, bridges and infrastructures that on the natural productivity in the bay vulnerable to flooding events. Extreme remain today (Bolchover, Hasdell, 2017). (WWF). flood events sometimes put Shenzhen’s central area into paralysis. The intensity 2.b. Exchange 2.d. Infiltrate and frequency of flood events are likely Fish-pond farmers rely on adjacent pond Before urban development, the landscape to increase due to climate change. The farmers to moderate water levels. The of Shenzhen was dominated by rice fields. regulation project has straightened, fish-pond system constitutes synthetic Like Gei Wai, the productivity of the rice widened and deepened the Shenzhen landscapes. fields depends on the rhythmic infiltration river, to increase its flood protection level 60

Gei Wai Configuration (source: Melville & The landscape of Shenzhen in 1980s Aerial photo of the filled fish ponds as Morton; Young). (source: McLeod). storage areas (aource: Baidu Map). to a one-in-50-year return period. conceptualized as a Third Space.” He and Shenzhen. With the approaching also defines Lok Ma Chau Loop, the land future of sea level rising, the area will 3.c. Straighten parcel transferred to Hong Kong as Third be under influence of marsh migration. The straightening of the river course has Space (Bolchover, 2017). The second one is at Lok Ma Chau Loop, changed what was land into water and where a joint technology park is under vice versa. The legislative border also In the design investigation, Third Space development on this transferred land. changed in accordance with the river is used to describe the place that exists The third one is near Nanhua Village centerline, which created some parcels beyond the dichotomy of Hong Kong and of Shenzhen, with densely populated with ambiguous ownership. Mainland. It is also the space where the residential areas on the Shenzhen side and boundary between “land” and “water” active fish ponds on the Hong Kong side. 3.d. Culvert becomes ambiguous. It is space of hybrid The fourth one is near Lo Wu Station, Due to urban development pressure, actors and contexts, evolving under the historical border crossing point, 61 many rivers in Shenzhen were turned into changing conditions. Third Space is not where river straightening also drastically culverts, fragmenting the waterscape and confined by the boundary of land-based changed the landscape. causing water pollution. territory; it embodies the fluid narrative and is transient. The examination of the existing fluidity management inspires me to think about Based on the land use patterns, existing the presence of “third space.” In Border fluidity management and possible future Ecologies, Bolchover describes the two- transformation, four locations were story bridge at Lok Ma Chau station that, chosen for design intervention. The “as a transition space that is part of neither first one is close to Deep Bay, and two Hong Kong nor the Mainland, it can be important nature preserves of Hong Kong 62 SPATIAL ANALYSIS 63 1. MARSH

As the sea level rise will push the brackish communities inland, the area is proposed to be an ecological park for marsh migration. Adjacent to Hongshulin Park of Shenzhen, and Mai Po Nature Reserve of Hong Kong, this location can be a site for collaborative preservation efforts. The existing fish pond forms can serve as a system of modular habitats that adapt to 64 dynamic changes. 65 2. BRIDGE

Bridges at the border-crossing points are usually transitional space of hyper control. However, bridges can also be envisioned as an active space that celebrates the lively flows. At Lok Ma Chau Loop where in the future the joint technology park will develop, a bridge system can invite more people to the area, while the bridge itself can be a public park where people are 66 invited to have connection with the river. 67 3. WATER GARDEN

Fish ponds are significant land forms that constitute the identity of the region. This scenario envisions fish ponds as a unifying land form that stitches the communities from both sides together. Various activities like swimming or cultivating can happen in the pond, which allows the river to re- integrate into public lives.

68 69 4. ISLAND

As the river straightening created several parcels with ambiguous ownership, these parcels are spatial representation of the intricate entanglements between river and land, as well as of the two territories. These parcels belong to either side yet neither side; they are fluid yet solid. The design intervention envisions such a parcel as a public park that narrativizes the 70 entanglements. The parcel is connected to the Shenzhen city with floating paths. A stream with varying sections “separates” it from Hong Kong. Therefore, the island becomes simultaneously attached to and detached from both sides.

71 72 V. CONCLUSION 73 In the mapping and design process, one embodies the dynamic process of river. major question that I tackled is how to The bridge is an architectural archetype visually represent fluidity, something that as the expansion of land over river. The changes all the time and contests defined water garden is a hybrid of past and boundary, with fixed images. As the future management of the river area, project intends to demonstrate, the site of celebrating wetness variability operating Shenzhen River is an extremely complex at the intersection of conservation site where enormous political and and productivity. The island embodies environmental uncertainties confluence. the memory of the flow, and explores With the restriction of time and access to attachment through fluidity. resources, this project could not provide 74 a comprehensive report that predicts the My original research interest that sparkled future of the region. This project tries to the project was how state power (mainly embrace the uncertainties and to use it as colonialism), has managed fluidity and a design tool. As I believe, design could shaped our perception about fluidity. not be used to rule out uncertainties, but Compared to other spatial practices of only to adapt and develop. control, such as land use planning or construction of mass infrastructure, the The design speculations are examples management of fluidity is subtler yet of how landscape design can be used to no less significant. Indeed, the spatial expands the conception of territory, which impacts of colonization have shaped the is also constituted by fluidity. Marsh, as world facing climate change. Whether in the requirement for the river to become, metropolitan areas like New York City or Hong Kong that were developed near ocean by colonizers for transoceanic trade, or cities like Jakarta that are sinking due to unequal water infrastructure developed by colonial powers, most of the world’s population has been influenced by such colonial legacies in some form or another.

Living in a world with more uncontrollable fluidity, humans must adopt a new attitude towards it. The design investigations in this project 75 provide examples of how landscape design can create new space for dialectic thinking of fluidity. Landscape architecture as a profession that manages fluidity, can play a central role in facilitating such transitions. With further studies of ways to manage wetness, landscape architecture can break from colonial ideologies and celebrate the dynamic third space. 76 VI. APPENDIX 77 i) January 4th. Arrived in Hong lower level which linked to the customs. Kong. I was able to stay at a friend’s place There was a specific exit of the station that which is close to the border and surround- could only be accessed with permit. The ed by rural landscape. sign read, “It is illegal to enter or leave the Closed Area without a valid permit or vi- ii) January 6th. My friend told me olate any condition of the permit. Offend- that at night, lights from Shenzhen side ers are liable to a $5,000 fine and 2 years can be seen on the way from Kam Sheung imprisonment.” Road Subway Station to her house. I recorded a clip of video on our way back, iv) (Cont.) I returned to Sheun Shui but only saw some dim light in the dark. and departed to Lo Wu Station. There 78 SITE VISIT ITINERARY were much more travelers to that port. iii) January 7th. I took my first trip The view in that station was largely con- to the border. My trip started at Sheung trolled and river could not be seen. From Shui Subway Station, which is linked to the station there was also a special exit for Lok Ma Chau Station and Lo Wu Station, local villagers with permit. two of the major ports connecting Hong Kong and Shenzhen. I went to Lok Ma v) January 9th. I took my second field Chau Station first. At the station, there trip to Lok Ma Chau. I took a bus from was direct view of both Hong Kong side to Lok Ma Chau (San and Shenzhen side, which presented a Tin) Public Transport Interchange, and dramatic contrast. I took some photos at started walking toward the border on Lok the platform, and then proceeded to the Ma Chau Road. Many areas along the road were fenced off. Some have the sign saying I could only take bus back. As I turned SITE VISIT MAP “Drainage Maintenance Access, No Entry.” back, I noticed a sign saying I already There were also many parking lots along approached the border of Frontier Close the road. I visited Lok Ma Chau Lookout Area. I walked back to Ha Wan Fisherman Park, which has a great view of Shenzhen. San Tsuen and took the bus. From the park the construction site of Lok Ma Chau Loop is also visible. There was a vii) January 10th. In the morning, I billboard with various languages showing decided to leave Hong Kong through Lok the history of the park and various bird Ma Chau Station. Again, I took subway species that inhabited at the wetlands. from Sheung Shui Station to Shenzhen. After arriving at Lok Ma Chau Station, I vi) (Cont.) I left Lok Ma Chau Look- went through the automatic custom check 79 out Park and continued walking on Lok at the Hong Kong side and continued to Ma Chau Road, which occasionally having the bridge. The bridge was completely truck passing by every five minutes. I enclosed by glass walls. There were many walked about 750m and passed by some- signs saying “No lingering in frontier area. where seeming to be the temporary resi- Procrastination without reasons is liable.” dence of construction workers. I planned The walk continued for about ten minutes, to get to the Lok Ma Chau Station directly and I arrived at the on the and took subway back. But I was soon Shenzhen side. held back by two construction workers at the fence of construction site. They said there was no way going to the station, and Abbas, A. (1997). 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