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Home , Allen Drury, Bruce Jay Friedman, Doris Grumbach, Ernest Hemingway, Harper Lee, Literary Reflections

N o t e s

Introduction: Remake It New

1 . R o b e r t R u a r k , Poor No More (: Henry Holt, 1959), pp. 194, 158. 2 . Ibid., pp. 232, 219–20. Also see chapter 3. 3 . See, for example, the essays in Michael McKeon (ed.), Theory of : A Historical Approach (Baltimore, MD: Press, 2000), none of which treats middlebrow fiction as a stage in the novel’s formal development. 4 . Fredric Jameson, “Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture,” Social Text 1 (Winter 1979): 141. 5 . This is not to say that eighteenth- and nineteenth-century novels are not themselves ambivalent. For more on this, see the “Ending” chapter in this book. 6 . On this definition of the fetish, see especially Octave Mannoni, “I Know Well, but All the Same . . . ,” trans. G. M. Goshgarian, in Molly Anne Rothenberg, Dennis A. Foster, and Slavoj Ž i ž ek (eds.), Perversion and the Social Relation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 68–92. 7 . On the history of “highbrow” and “lowbrow,” see Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). The OED gives the first recorded usage of “middlebrow” as occurring in the Freeman’s Journal in 1924; see “Middlebrow, n. and adj. ,” Oxford English Dictionary, accessed June 7, 2011, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/252048 . 8 . Q. D. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public (London: Chatto, 1932), p. 24. 9 . S e e S t e f a n C o l l i n i , Absent Minds: in Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 112. 10 . Russell Lynes, “Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow, Now,” interview by John Brooks, American Heritage 34.4 (1983), accessed Aug. 5, 2013, http://www .americanheritage.com/content/highbrow-lowbrows-middlebrow-now . 11 . See “Search Results—ProQuest Historical Newspapers: (1851–2007)—ProQuest,” ProQuest, accessed May 5, 2011, http://search .proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/results/12F2716FB2B64B792BC/1/$5bqu eryType$3dadvanced:hnpnewyorktimes$3b+sortType$3drelevance$3b+searc hTerms$3d$5b$3cAND|citationBodyTags:middlebrow$3e$5d$3b+searchPa 140 Notes

rameters$3d$7bchunkSize$3d20,+additionalNavigators$3drecordtypenav,+ date$3dRANGE:1920,1960,+ftblock$3d194000+1+194001$7d$3b+metaDa ta$3d$7bUsageSearchMode$3dAdvanced,+dbselections$3d1007155,+siteLi miters$3dRecordType$7d$5d?accountid=14657 . 1 2 . S e e L y n e s , “ H i g h b r o w , L o w b r o w , M i d d l e b r o w , ” ’s Magazine 198.1185 (1949): 19–28; [Lynes,] “Everyday Tastes from High-Brow to Low-Brow Are Classified on Chart,” Life, Apr. 11, 1949, pp. 100–1; Jay Gorney, Ethel Kerr, and Walter Kerr, “High Brow, Middle Brow, Low Brow,” T-Mss 1994–002, box 7, folder 3, , ; for reference to the performance, see John Martin, “The Dance: A ,” New York Times, June 11, 1950, p. 101. 13 . See Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” Against the American Grain (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 3–75; , “Writing American Fiction,” Commentary 31.3 (1961): 223–33; John Berryman et al., “The State of American Writing: 1948: A Symposium,” Partisan Review 15.8 (1948): 855–93; William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956). 14 . Clement Greenberg, “Avant-Garde and Kitsch,” in Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (eds.), Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1957), pp. 102, 103. 15 . Rosenberg, “Mass Culture in America,” in Rosenberg and White, Mass Culture , p. 9. 16 . Macdonald, “A Theory of Mass Culture,” in Rosenberg and White, Mass Culture, p. 64. For Greenberg’s use of “middlebrow,” see, for example, Berryman et al. “The State of American Writing.” 17 . Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” p. 3. 18 . Lynes, “Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow,” p. 23. 19 . Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” p. 54. 20 . Raymond Williams, “When Was ?” New Left Review, 1st ser., 175 (May–June 1989): 51. 21 . Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” p. 37. 22 . Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” p. 39. 23 . See, for instance, Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). 2 4 . J a n i c e A . R a d w a y , A Feeling for Books: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 15. 2 5 . W i l l i a m s , Drama From Ibsen to Brecht (London: Chatto & Windus, 1968), pp. 17–18. 26 . Lynes, “Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow,” p. 19. 27 . See, for example, Radway, A Feeling for Books, p. 262, and Riesman, The Lonely Crowd, pp. 144–5. The term “professional-managerial class” comes from Barbara Ehrenreich and John Ehrenreich, “The Professional-Managerial Class,” Radical America 11.2 (1977): 6–31. 2 8 . J o h n G u i l l o r y , Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation (: University of Chicago Press, 1993). Notes 141

29 . See, for example, James Jones, From Here to Eternity (New York: Dial Press, 2012), p. 503. 30 . Quoted in K. A. Cuordileone, “‘Politics in an Age of Anxiety’: Cold War Political Culture and the Crisis in American Masculinity, 1949–1960,” Journal of American History 87.2 (2000): 515–45. 3 1 . T a y l o r C a l d w e l l , Dear and Glorious Physician (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959), p. 282. 32 . Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Atoms for Peace: Address before the General Assembly of the United Nations on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,” Dec. 8, 1953, http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/Speeches/Atoms_for _Peace.pdf . Such rhetoric, condensing a long-standing tradition of American individualism, also proliferated in the larger print public sphere—in nonfic- tion best sellers like Whyte’s The Organization Man (1956), or Riesman’s The Lonely Crowd (1950), which championed the “autonomous” individual at the expense of the “other-directed” man, whose values are merely those of his peers—as well as in fiction. See Riesman, The Lonely Crowd , pp. 239, 17. 33 . James Michener, Tales of the (New York: Macmillan, 1947), p. 321. 3 4 . G r a h a m G r e e n e , The Third Man , dir. Carol Reed (New York: Criterion Collection, 2007). 35 . We might note, following the lead of, for example, Klein (See Christina Klein, “ Reader’s Digest , Saturday Review, and the Middlebrow Aesthetic of Commitment,” Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 [Berkeley: University of Press, 2003], pp. 61–99), that the tension between the desire for normativity and the fear of sameness, if recast as a tension between universal values and individual freedom, might be characterized as a classical tension inhering in liberal politics. Liberal politics desires to provide an ethical framework sufficiently narrow as to ensure the universal application of justice, but at the same time to be sufficiently broad in its outlook as to allow individuals as much freedom as possible. Such a poli- tics was also, of course, in the ascendant during the postwar years—as Lionel Trilling famously wrote in 1950, in the , “[l]iberalism is not only the dominant but even the sole tradition” (Lionel Trilling, [New York: New York Review of Books, 2012], p. xv). 3 6 . S e e R u b i n , The Making of Middlebrow Culture , pp.14–15. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism (London: Smith, Elder, 1869), p. 89. 37 . Elizabeth Long, Book Clubs: Women and the Uses of Reading in Everyday Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), pp. 605–6. 3 8 . L a u r e n B e r l a n t , The Female Complaint: The Unfinished Business of Sentimentality in American Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), p. 211. 39 . My conception of the relationship between middlebrow and modernist cul- ture is, as my use of his key term “misread” implies, indebted to the famous (or infamous) work of Harold Bloom. As Bloom does with the work of Romantic poets, so I read middlebrow literature’s caricaturing of modernism 142 Notes

as a means by which middlebrow authors dealt with their anxiety over mod- ernism’s potential influence on them and a means by which middlebrow cul- ture was able to clear a , as it were, for its own aesthetic innovations. See Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). 40 . See Daniel Tracy, “Investing in ‘Modernism’: Smart Magazines, Parody, and Middlebrow Professional Judgment,” Journal of Modern Periodical Studies 1.1 (2010): 38–63. 41 . Van Wyck Brooks, “Reflections on the Avant-Garde,” New York Times Dec. 30, 1956, BR10. 42 . James Baldwin et al., “What’s the Reason Why: A Symposium by Best-Selling Authors,” New York Times Dec. 2, 1962, BR3. 43 . Michener, “The Capacity to Love,” rev. of Elizabeth Janeway, The Question of Gregory , New York Times , Aug. 21, 1949, BR5. 44 . Quoted in David Dempsey, “In and Out of Books,” New York Times, Dec. 25, 1949, BR8. 45 . Baldwin et al., “What’s the Reason Why,” BR56. 4 6 . M i c h e n e r , Literary Reflections: Michener on Michener, , Capote, & Others (Austin, TX: State House Press, 1993), p. 149. 4 7 . M i c h e n e r , Literary Reflections , pp. 106, 76. 4 8 . M i c h e n e r , Literary Reflections , p. 124. 4 9 . M i c h e n e r , Literary Reflections , p. 86. 50 . Laura Z. Hobson, Laura Z: The Early Years and Years of Fulfillment (New York: Donald A. Fine, 1986), p. 239. 5 1 . H o b s o n , Laura Z , p. 222. 5 2 . E z r a P o u n d , “ T h e S e r i o u s A r t i s t , ” Pavannes and Divisions (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1918), p.224. 53 . Jeffrey L. Sammons, “The Bildungsroman for Nonspecialists: An Attempt at a Clarification,” in James Hardin (ed.), Reflection and Action: Essays on the Bildungsroman (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), p.41. 5 4 . F r a n c o M o r e t t i , Modern Epic: The World-System from Goethe to Garcí a M á rquez , trans. Quintin Hoare (London: Verso, 1996), p. 1. 55 . For more on these tenets, see individual chapters. 56 . On this subject see Kenneth C. Davis, Two-Bit Culture: The Paperbacking of America (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1984). 57 . Marjorie Levinson, “What Is New Formalism?” PMLA 122.2 (2007): 566.

1 The Old Men and the “Sea of Masscult”: T. S. Eliot, , and the Middlebrow Aesthetic

1 . This is despite the fact that an identifiably “middlebrow” culture had by 1945 existed for at least 50 years. On the history of middlebrow culture, see Joan Notes 143

Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). 2 . See Dwight Macdonald, “A Theory of Mass Culture,” in Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (eds.), Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America (Glencoe: IL, Free Press, 1957), 63–4; Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” Against the American Grain (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 40–3. Macdonald, preface to Against the American Grain, p. ix. It is worth stressing that, even though both were high-profile members of the modernist avant-garde during the 1910s and , there were significant differences in the public profiles of Eliot and Hemingway, in particular that Hemingway was a much more populist and popular figure than Eliot. For example, Hemingway’s was the first of many Hemingway books to appear on the Publishers Weekly best seller list in 1929, while Eliot’s first and only popular hit (until the musical Cats was adapted from his work after his death) was The Cocktail Party in 1949. 3 . T . S . E l i o t , The and Plays 1909–1950 (New York, Harcourt Brace, 1967), p. 41. Hereafter noted parenthetically in the text as CP . 4 . William Barrett, “Dry Land, Dry Martini,” rev. of The Cocktail Party , by Eliot, Partisan Review 17 (Apr. 1950), reprinted in Jewel Spears Brooker (ed.), T.S. Eliot: The Contemporary Reviews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 534. 5. R i c h m o n d B a r r e t t , “ B a b e s i n t h e B o i s , ” Harper’s Monthly Magazine , May 1928, pp. 724, 727, 724. 6 . See Raymond Williams, “When Was Modernism?” New Left Review , 1st ser., 175 (May–June 1989): 51. 7 . Cleanth Brooks, The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1947), p. 197. Hereafter cited paren- thetically in the text as WW . See also Eliot, “Hamlet and His Problems,” The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1921), pp. 87–94; Ernest Hemingway, (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932), p. 2; , “The Serious Artist,” Pavannes and Divisions (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1918), p. 224; and Brooks and , Understanding Poetry: An Anthology for College Students (New York: Henry Holt, 1950). 8 . Pauline Kael, I Lost It at the Movies (New York: Bantam Books, 1966), p. 17. 9 . See the introduction to this book. 1 0 . F l a n n e r y O ’ C o n n o r , Mystery and Manners: Occasional , ed. Sally Fitzgerald and Robert Fitzgerald (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969), p. 96. George Orwell, “Points of View: T.S. Eliot,” Poetry London 2 (Oct.–Nov. 1942), reprinted in Michael Grant (ed.), T.S. Eliot: The Critical Heritage (London: & Kegan Paul, 1982), p. 486. 11 . Hemingway, letter to , Sep. 13, 1952, Selected Letters: 1917– 1961 , ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1981), p. 780. 1 2 . Q u o t e d i n B a k e r , Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1969), p. 506: “‘Symbolismo,’ he said sententiously, ‘es un truco nuevo de los intellectuals’”; trans. mine. 144 Notes

1 3 . B a k e r , Ernest Hemingway , p. 505. 14 . “A Great American Storyteller,” Life , Sep. 1, 1952, p. 20. 15 . Hemingway, letter to Harvey Breit, July 23, 1956, Selected Letters , p. 867. 1 6 . Q u o t e d i n B a k e r , Ernest Hemingway , p. 505. 1 7 . H e m i n g w a y , Death in the Afternoon , p. 2. 1 8 . H u g h K e n n e r , A Homemade World: The American Modernist Writers (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975), p. 123; WW , p. 206. 19 . Sigmund Freud, “The Claims of Psycho-Analysis to Scientific Interest,” trans. James Strachey, The Standard of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. and ed. Strachey, in collaboration with Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson, 24 vols. (London: Hogarth Press & the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953–1974), XIII: 177. Freud was ambivalent on the question of the extent to which symbols in dreams operated like a pic- tographic language, with each symbol possessing a fixed meaning regardless of the individual dreamer; however, there is little question that the Freudian- symbolic readings of literature popular during the mid-century tended to assume that they did function in this way. See Freud, “The Interpretation of Dreams,” The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works , trans. Strachey, V: 351–2. 20 . [William Steig], “Symbolic Soul Portraits,” Vanity Fair, Aug. 1933, p. 26. See Penn Warren, “Hemingway,” Kenyon Review 9 (Winter 1947): 12. Penn Warren misidentifies the cartoon as having been published in . 21 . Charles Duffy and Henry Pettit, A Dictionary of Literary Terms (Denver, CO: University of Denver Press, 1951), p. 100. 2 2 . S a m u e l T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , Biographia Literaria (Salt Lake City, UT: Project Gutenberg, 2002), http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6081/pg6081 .html . 23 . Pa u l D e M a n , “ T h e R h e t o r i c o f T e m p o r a l i t y , ” Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), pp. 188, 189. 24 . Allen Tate, rev. of In Our Time , by Hemingway, Nation , Feb. 10, 1926, reprinted in (ed.), Hemingway: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), p. 70. For a comprehensive account of the way modernism defined itself through this focus on sensation and experience, see Jennifer Ashton, From Modernism to : American Poetry and Theory in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 25 . Eliot, “Hamlet and His Problems,” p. 92; Pound, “The Serious Artist,” p. 224. 26 . , “Sacred Emily,” Geography and Plays (Boston, MA: Four Seas Press, 1922), p. 187. 2 7 . H e m i n g w a y , (New York: Collier Books, 1987), p. 289. 28 . See, for example, the distinction between allegory and symbol foundational to American Studies scholars Henry Nash Smith, R. W. B. Lewis, and Leo Notes 145

Marx, often collectively known as the “myth-and-symbol school,” in F. O. Matthiessen, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman (London: Oxford University Press, 1941). Matthiessen sums up the distinction by quoting D. H. Lawrence, Apocalypse (Florence: G. Orioli, 1931): “symbols are organic units of consciousness with a life of their own, and you can never explain them away, because their value is dynamic, emo- tional, belonging to the sense-consciousness of the body and soul, and not simply mental. An allegorical image has a meaning . Mr. Facing-both-ways has a meaning. But I defy you to lay your finger on the full meaning of Janus, who is a symbol” (Matthiessen, p. 315). 29 . This apparent contradiction is an excellent example of the phenomenon Mark McGurl describes as highbrow, lowbrow, and middlebrow figures “revolv[ing] in a shifting set of ideological dependencies” to convert aesthetic taste into social status: Mark McGurl, The Novel Art: Elevations of American Fiction After (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 123. 30 . Jay Gorney, Ethel Kerr, and Walter Kerr, “High Brow, Middle Brow, Low Brow,” T-Mss 1994–002, box 7, folder 3, New York Public Library, New York City; Clement Greenberg, “Avant-Garde and Kitsch,” in Rosenberg and Manning White, Mass Culture , p. 103; M. C. Scoggin, rev. of , by Hemingway, Horn Book, Dec. 1952, p. 427; Brendan Gill, “Not to Die,” rev. of The Old Man and the Sea, by Hemingway, New Yorker , Sep. 6, 1952, p. 115; “Clean and Straight,” rev. of The Old Man and the Sea , by Hemingway, Time, Sep. 8, 1952, http://www.time.com/time/magazine /article/0,9171,935713,00.html. 31 . Vladimir Nabokov, “On a Book Entitled Lolita ,” Lolita (New York: Vintage, 1997), pp. 314, 311. 32 . E. M. Halliday, “Hemingway’s Ambiguity: and Irony,” 28 (Mar. 1956): 4. 3 3 . B a k e r , Ernest Hemingway , p. 506. 34 . See, for example, “Great American Storyteller,” p. 20; Baker, Ernest Hemingway , p. 506; and Hemingway, letter to , Nov. 8, 1952, Selected Letters , p. 793. 35 . Klaus Mann, rev. of A Farewell to Arms, by Hemingway, trans. William M. Calder III and Meyers, in Meyers, Hemingway, p. 143. Originally published in German as Mann, “Ernest Hemingway,” Neue Schweizer Rundschau 24 (Apr. 1931): 272–7. 36 . , introduction to Hemingway, Hemingway , ed. Cowley (New York: Viking, 1944), p. vii. 3 7 . P h i l i p Y o u n g , Ernest Hemingway (New York: Rinehart, 1952), pp. 150–1, 34, 18. 3 8 . K e n n e r , A Homemade World , pp. 151, 156. 3 9 . H e m i n g w a y , “ T h e U n d e f e a t e d , ” The Short Stories (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1938), p. 248. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “TU.” 4 0 . R o b e r t W e e k s , “ F a k e r y i n The Old Man and the Sea ,” in Katharine T. Jobes (ed.), Twentieth-Century Interpretations of The Old Man and the Sea 146 Notes

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968), pp. 34–40. Also see Young, “ The Old Man and the Sea: Vision/Revision,” in Jobes, Twentieth-Century Interpretations , pp. 18–26. 41 . Weeks, “Fakery in The Old Man and the Sea ,” p. 34. 4 2 . H e m i n g w a y , The Old Man and the Sea (New York: Scribner, 2003), p. 115 43 . See , “The Dumb Ox: A Study of Ernest Hemingway,” Life and Letters 10 (Apr. 1934): 34–45. 4 4 . H e m i n g w a y , The Old Man and the Sea, pp. 14, 28, 34, 40, 41, 50, 110, 115, 116, 120. 4 5 . Y o u n g , “The Old Man and the Sea ,” p. 26. 46 . Hilton Kramer, “T.S. Eliot in New York (Notes on ),” rev. of The Cocktail Party, by Eliot, Western Review 14 (Summer 1950), reprinted in Brooker, T.S. Eliot , p. 538. 47 . M. C. Blackman, “Middlebrow Enjoys ‘Cocktail Party’ Too,” New York Herald Tribune , Mar. 26, 1950, section 5, p. 3. 4 8 . Q u o t e d i n E . M a r t i n B r o w n e , The Making of T.S. Eliot’s Plays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 248. 4 9 . J o h n A y t o , Movers and Shakers: A Chronology of Words that Shaped Our Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 61; “In the Jazz Manner,” rev. of Cover Charge, by Cornell Woolrich, New York Times, Mar. 21, 1926, p. BR8. 50 . Peter Viereck, “1912–1952, Full Cycle,” The First Morning: New Poems (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952), p. 85. 51 . See McGurl, The Novel Art . 5 2 . J a m e s T h u r b e r , “What Cocktail Party?,” New Yorker , Apr. 1, 1950, p. 26. 5 3 . I b i d . , p p . 2 6 – 8 54 . Harold Clurman, “Theatre: Cocktail Party,” rev. of The Cocktail Party , by Eliot, New Republic , Feb. 13, 1950, p. 30. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “TCP.” 55 . See Kenner, The Invisible Poet: T.S. Eliot (New York: Citadel Press, 1964), pp. 330–41; also see, for example, Carol H. Smith, T.S. Eliot’s Dramatic Theory and Practice: From Sweeney Agonistes to The Elder Statesman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 10, 147–8. 56 . See Herbert Knust, “What’s the Matter with One-Eyed Reilly?” Comparative Literature 17 (Autumn 1965): 289–98. 57 . Eliot, “Four Elizabethan Dramatists,” Elizabethan Essays (London: Faber & Faber, 1934), pp. 10–11; Eliot, “Reflections on Vers Libre,” New Statesman , Mar. 3, 1917, p. 518. 58 . Eliot, “Five Points on Dramatic Writing,” Townsman 1.3 (July 1938): 10. 5 9 . S e á n L u c y , T.S. Eliot and the Idea of Tradition (London: Cohen and West, 1960), p. 206. 60 . Quoted in Browne, Making of T.S. Eliot’s Plays , pp. 232, 212. 61 . Eliot, “Eliot Says Play Is to Entertain,” interview, New York Herald Tribune , May 14, 1950, section 5, p. 2. 62 . Barrett, “Dry Land, Dry Martini,” p. 532. 63 . Barrett, “Dry Land.” For a similar argument see “TCP,” pp. 30–1. Notes 147

64 . Blackman, “Middlebrow Enjoys ‘Cocktail Party’ Too,” p. 3. 65 . Philip Rahv, “T.S. Eliot: The Poet as Playwright,” Literature and the Sixth Sense (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1969), p. 349. 6 6 . W i l l i a m s , Drama from Ibsen to Brecht (London: Chatto & Windus, 1968), pp. 17, 194. 67 . Fredric Jameson, “Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture,” Social Text 1 (Winter 1979): 141.

2 “It Offers No Solutions”: Ambivalence and Aesthetics in the Social Problem Novel

1 . See my introduction and chapter 3 . 2 . A n n P e t r y , The Street (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), p. 436. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as S . 3 . Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, “Queer Performativity: Henry James’s The Art of the Novel ,” GLQ 1.1 (1993): 15. 4 . S i a n n e N g a i , Ugly Feelings (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 2. 5 . William T. Brewster, Hamlin Garland, Richard Watson Gilder, Henry Holt, and A.G. Lawson, “Does the ‘Problem Novel’ Reflect Our Unrest?” New York Times, Nov. 24, 1907, p. SM3. On the circulation of the term, for instance, searching ProQuest’s “Historical New York Times ” database for the phrase “problem novel,” shows the phrase occurring in the paper 65 times between 1900 and 1909, compared to 37 occurrences during the and only 19 during the ; see “Search Results—ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851–2007)—ProQuest,” ProQuest, accessed June 1, 2011, http://search.proquest.com /hnpnewyorktimes/results/12FB1E5B5F42 89E3C95/1/$5bqueryType$3dbasic:hnpnewyorktimes$3b+sortType$3drelev ance$3b+searchTerms$3d$5b$3cAND%7CcitationBodyTags:$22problem+ novel$22$3e$5d$3b+searchParameters$3d$7bchunkSize$3d20,+additional Navigators$3drecordtypenav,+ftblock$3d194000+1+194001$7d$3b+metaDa ta$3d$7bUsageSearchMode$3dBasic,+dbselections$3d1007155$7d$5d?acco untid=14657 . 6 . Diana Trilling, “Fiction in Review,” rev. of Strange Fruit, by Lillian Smith, Nation , Mar. 18, 1944, p. 342; Struthers Burt, “The Poison in our Body Politic,” rev. of Gentleman’s Agreement, by Laura Z. Hobson, Saturday Review of Literature , Mar. 1, 1947, p. 14; Richard Sullivan, “Engrossing First Novel of Rare Excellence,” rev. of , by , , July 17, 1960, p. C1; Ann Petry, “The Novel as Social Criticism,” in Hazel Arnett Ervin (ed.), African American Literary Criticism, 1773 to 2000 (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1999), p. 95; hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “NSC.” 7 . For example, the term “protest novel” occurs in the New York Times seven times during the , but only twice during the 1950s and not at all during 148 Notes

the 1940s; see “Search Results—ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851–2007)—ProQuest,” ProQuest, accessed June 1, 2011, http://search.proquest.com /hnpnewyorktimes/results/12FB1F626732B9CB BE0/1/$5bqueryType$3dbasic:hnpnewyorktimes$3b+sortType$3drelevanc e$3b+searchTerms$3d$5b$3cAND%7CcitationBodyTags:$22protest+novel $22$3e$5d$3b+searchParameters$3d$7bchunkSize$3d20,+additionalNavig ators$3drecordtypenav,+ftblock$3d194000+1+194001$7d$3b+metaData$3d $7bUsageSearchMode$3dBasic,+dbselections$3d1007155$7d$5d?accountid =14657. Similar searches (including “protest fiction”) in similar publications yield similar results. 8 . “ B o o k s : F e v e r i s h F a s c i n a t i o n , ” r e v . o f Strange Fruit, by L. Smith, Time , Mar. 20, 1944, http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,791444,00.html . 9 . Granville Hicks, “Literary Horizons: Three at the Outset,” rev. of To Kill a Mockingbird , by Lee, Saturday Review , July 23, 1960, p. 16. 1 0 . E r i c J . S u n d q u i s t , Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005). 11 . Trilling, “Class and Color,” rev. of The Street , by Ann Petry, Nation , Mar. 9, 1946, p. 290. 12 . A n n a G r e e n e S m i t h , “ S t r a n g e F r u i t , ” r e v . o f Strange Fruit , by L. Smith, Social Forces 23.1 (1944): 113. The man who reviewed both books, as well as many others, for the Times , was W. E. B. Du Bois’s namesake William Du Bois. 1 3 . J o h n H o w a r d G r i f f i n , Black Like Me (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), famously saw its author dyeing his skin dark brown in order to experience antiblack firsthand. The genre of popular sociology had flourished through the success of books like Russell Lynes, The Tastemakers (New York: Harper, 1954); David Riesman with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denny, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society (New York: Vintage, 1960); and William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956). 14 . For bestseller data, see Keith L. Justice, Bestseller Index: All Books, Publishers Weekly and the New York Times through 1990 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1998). 15 . See chapter 1 . 16 . William Du Bois, “Schuyler Green’s Metamorphosis,” rev. of Gentleman’s Agreement, by Hobson, New York Times, Mar. 2, 1947, p. BR5; Edwin R. Embree, “American Anti-Semitism,” rev. of Gentleman’s Agreement , by Hobson, Chicago Sun , Mar. 2, 1947, p. BW3. 17 . Sullivan, “Engrossing First Novel,” p. C1. 18 . See Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1996); and Barbara Foley, Radical Representations: Politics and Form in US Proletarian Fiction, 1929–1941 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993). 19 . Neither Denning nor Foley makes much mention of such novels. Also see Nghana Lewis, “We Shall Pave the Way: and Lillian Smith’s Notes 149

Aesthetics of Civil Rights Politics,” Arizona Quarterly 60.4 (2004), http:// gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88–2003&xri:pqil:res _ver=0.2&res_id=xri:lion-us&rft_id=xri:lion:ft:abell:R03607491:0 for more on the critical neglect of socially engaged US fiction of the 1940s. 20 . For an overview of this debate, see Josh Lukin, introduction to Lukin (ed.), Invisible Suburbs: Recovering Protest Fiction in the 1950s United States (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008), pp. ix–xiv. 21 . See, for example, Lisa Botshon and Meredith Goldsmith (eds.), Middlebrow Moderns: Popular American Women Writers of the 1920s (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 2003); Jaime Harker, America the Middlebrow: Women’s Novels, Progressivism, and Middlebrow Authorship between the Wars (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007); and, to an extent, Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). 2 2 . L a u r e n B e r l a n t , The Female Complaint: The Unfinished Business of Sentimentality in American Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), p. 27. 2 3 . D e n n i n g , Cultural Front , p. xix. I thus follow the arguments of Berlant and David Savran in finding “ambivalence” and “anxiety” to be key terms when it comes to defining the middlebrow; see Berlant, Female Complaint , p. 5; and Savran, A Queer Sort of Materialism: Recontextualizing American Theater (Ann Arbor: University of Press, 2003), p. 3. 2 4 . H o b s o n , Gentleman’s Agreement (New York: Dell, 1962), p. 237. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as GA . 25 . See my introduction and chapter 3 . 26 . Elizabeth Long, Book Clubs: Women and the Uses of Reading in Everyday Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), pp. 605–6. 27 . Ann Petry, “Ann Petry Talks about First Novel,” interview by James W. Ivy, Crisis 53.2 (1946): 49. 28 . Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, or, Life among the Lowly (New York: Penguin, 1986), p. 624. 29 . Ira A. Levine, Left-Wing Dramatic Theory in the American Theatre (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1985), p. 123. 30 . Raymond Chandler, letter to Carl Brandt, Dec. 5, 1948, in Selected Letters , ed. Frank MacShane (New York: Press, 1981), p. 140. I thank Nick Donofrio for bringing this letter to my attention. 31 . Henry S. Hayward, “Combating Racial Intolerance,” rev. of Gentleman’s Agreement, by Hobson, Christian Science Monitor, Mar. 21, 1947, p. 18, makes the same point. 3 2 . L y n e s , The Tastemakers . 33 . For a more convincing history, see Harker, America the Middlebrow , esp. p. 122. 34 . Contemporary critics saw Smith’s as resembling a number of periodicals, espe- cially the liberal New Republic ; see Budd Schulberg, “Kid-Glove Cruelty,” rev. of Gentleman’s Agreement , by Hobson, New Republic , Mar. 17, 1947, p. 36; and Du Bois, “Schuyler Green’s Metamorphosis,” p. 189. 150 Notes

3 5 . L . S m i t h , Strange Fruit (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1944), p. 296. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as SF . 36 . Marianne Noble, “The Ecstasies of Sentimental Wounding in Uncle Tom’s Cabin ,” Yale Journal of Criticism 10.2 (1997): 295. “Strange Fruit,” rev. of Strange Fruit, by L. Smith, Atlantic Monthly, May 1944, p. 127, refers to Strange Fruit as “a new Uncle Tom’s Cabin .” 37 . See, for example, Trilling, “Fiction in Review,” p. 342; Burt, “The Making of a New South,” rev. of Strange Fruit , by L. Smith, Saturday Review of Literature , Mar. 11, 1944, p. 10. 3 8 . L . S m i t h , Killers of the Dream (New York: W. W. Norton, 1949), p. 253. 39 . Ibid., p. 72. 40 . See Beth Harrison, “Lillian Smith as Author and Activist: The Critical Reception of Strange Fruit ,” Southern Quarterly 35.4 (1997): 17–22. 41 . L. Smith, letter to Frank Taylor, May 2, 1944, in How Am I to Be Heard? Letters of Lillian Smith , ed. Margaret Rose Gladney (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), pp. 83–4; L. Smith, “Personal History of Strange Fruit ,” Saturday Review of Literature , Feb. 17, 1945, p. 9. 42 . Richard Wright, “How Bigger Was Born,” Anthology of Thirties Prose, Mar. 1940, http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma01/white/anthology/bigger.html . 43 . Malcolm Cowley, “Southways,” rev. of Strange Fruit , by L. Smith, New Republic , Mar. 6, 1944, p. 321. 4 4 . S c h u l b e r g , The Harder They Fall (New York: Random House, 1947), p. 147. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as HF . 45 . Gene Tunney, “Carneravorous Fight Racketeers,” rev. of The Harder They Fall , by Schulberg, Saturday Review of Literature , Aug. 9, 1947, p. 10. 4 6 . G o r d o n H u t n e r , What America Read: Taste, Class, and the Novel, 1920–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2009), p. 258. 47 . Schulberg praised Hobson’s “great clarity and missionary persuasiveness” in a very positive review: Schulberg, “Kid-Glove Cruelty,” p. 36. 48 . See Chandler, letter to Brandt, pp. 139–40. 49 . John Horn, “Brilliant Saga of the Ring,” rev. of The Harder They Fall , by Schulberg, New York Times , Aug. 10, 1947, p. BR3. 50 . See, for example, Michael Gold, Jews without Money (New York: International Publishers, 1937). p. 55. 51 . See Joel Shatzky and Michael Taub, Contemporary Jewish-American : A Bio-Critical Sourcebook (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997), p. 356. 52 . Lee, “Harper Lee,” interview by Roy Newquist, in Newquist (ed.), Counterpoint (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964), p. 412. For another article dealing with Austen’s influence, see Jean Frantz Blackall, “Valorizing the Commonplace: Harper Lee’s Response to Jane Austen,” in Alice Hall Petry (ed.), On Harper Lee: Essays and Reflections (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2007), pp. 19–34. 53 . On this topic see Graeme Dunphy, “Meena’s Mockingbird: From Harper Lee to ,” Neophilologus 88 (2004): 643. On irony and Scout’s narra- tion, see criticism from Hicks, “Literary Horizons,” p. 15, to Alan Lenhoff, “The World According to Scout,” Writing 23 (Feb.–Mar. 2001): 20–3; and Notes 151

Theodore R. Hovet and Grace-Ann Hovet, “‘Fine Fancy Gentlemen’ and ‘Yappy Folk’: Contending Voices in To Kill a Mockingbird , in Don Noble (ed.), Critical Insights: To Kill a Mockingbird (Pasadena, CA: Salem Press, 2010), pp. 187–204. 54 . See D. A. Miller, Jane Austen, or, the Secret of Style (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), esp. pp. 24–6, 54, 74. 55 . See, for example, the authors quoted in Christopher Metress, “The Rise and Fall of ,” Chattahoochee Review 24.1 (2003): 96, 99. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “RF.” 56 . On this topic, see Isaac Saney, “Commentary: The Case Against To Kill a Mockingbird ,” Race & Class 45.1 (2003): 99–110; “RF”; Alice Petry, introduc- tion to Alice Petry, On Harper Lee, p. xxv; and Claudia Durst Johnson, To Kill a Mockingbird: Threatening Boundaries (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994), pp. 16–19. 5 7 . L e e , To Kill a Mockingbird (: J. B. Lippincott, 1960), p. 36. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as KM . 58 . Monroe Freedman, “Finch: The Lawyer Mythologized,” Legal Times , May 18, 1992, p. 25. 59 . See, for example, Freedman, “Atticus Finch, Esq., RIP,” Legal Times, Feb. 24, 1992, p. 20; Saney, “Case against To Kill a Mockingbird ”; and Teresa Godwin Phelps, “The Margins of Maycomb: A Rereading of To Kill a Mockingbird ,” Alabama Law Review 45 (1993–94): 511–30. 60 . See Tim Dare, “Lawyers, Ethics, and To Kill a Mockingbird ,” Philosophy and Literature 25.1 (2001): 127–34 for a related view of Atticus as not admirable but tragic. 61 . Lee’s has long been used to explain these elements of the novel— the family is called Finch because this was Lee’s mother’s unmarried name; Jem’s arm is broken because Jennings Carter, ’s cousin, had such a broken arm. My analysis obviously does not conflict with such bio- graphical readings. 62 . For examples from throughout the critical history of the text, see, for example, Robert Bone, The Negro Novel in America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1958), pp. 158–9 (hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as NN ); Addison Gayle Jr., The Way of the New World: The Black Novel in America (Garden City: Anchor, 1975); and Bernard Bell, “Ann Petry’s Demythologizing of American Culture and Afro-American Character,” in Marjorie Pryse and Hortense J. Spillers (eds.), Conjuring: Black Women, Fiction, and Literary Tradition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), pp. 105–15. 63 . Orville Prescott, “Outstanding Novels,” rev. of The Street, by Ann Petry, Yale Review 35 (Spring 1946): 574. 64 . Alfred Butterfield, “The Dark Heartbeat of Harlem,” rev. of The Street , by Ann Petry, New York Times , Feb. 10, 1946, p. 117. 6 5 . A r i s t o t l e , The Poetics , trans. Stephen Halliwell (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), p. 37. 6 6 . L e v i n e , Left-Wing Dramatic Theory in the American Theatre , p. 123. 152 Notes

67 . Among the many critics who have focused on the question of The Street’s treatment of the American Dream, see Richard Yarborough, “The Quest for the American Dream in Three Afro-American Novels: If He Hollers Let Him Go , The Street , and ,” MELUS 8.4 (1981): 33–59; Lindon Barrett, “Figures of Violence: The Street in the American Landscape,” Cultural Critique 25 (Autumn 1993): 205–37; and Carol E. Henderson, “The ‘Walking Wounded’: Rethinking Black Women’s Identity in Ann Petry’s The Street ,” Modern Fiction Studies 46.4 (2000): 849–67. 6 8 . S e e J u s t i c e , Bestseller Index , p. 244. 69 . For a similar argument, see William Scott, “Material Resistance and the Agency of the Body in Ann Petry’s The Street ,” American Literature 78.1 (2006): 89–116. 70 . “Junto” is an obscure synonym for “junta”—see “Junto, n .,” Oxford English Dictionary, accessed June 13, 2011, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/102116 . Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography , ed. J. A. Leo Lemay and P. M. Zall (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), p. 47, quoted in Meg Wesling, “The Opacity of Everyday Life: Segregation and the Iconicity of Uplift in The Street,” American Literature 78.1 (2006): 130. 71 . Wesling, “Opacity of Everyday Life.” 72 . See, for instance, Bertolt Brecht, “A Short Organum for the Theatre,” in Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic , trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001), pp. 179–208; and Sergei Eisenstein, “Through Theater to Cinema,” in Film Form: Essays in Film Theory, ed. and trans. Jay Leyda (San Diego, CA: Harcourt, 1977), pp. 3–17. 73 . Wright, “How Bigger Was Born.” 74 . See Melissa Barton, “‘If I Can’t Dance, It’s Not My Revolution’: Negro Peoples Theatres and the Enactment of Freedom,” unpublished paper, University of Chicago, 2010. 75 . See Alex Lubin (ed.), “Introduction,” Revising the Blueprint: Ann Petry and the Literary Left (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007), pp. 7, 9. 76 . Elizabeth Boyle Machlan, “Diseased Properties and Broken Homes in Ann Petry’s The Street ,” in Brian Norman and Piper Kendrix Williams (eds.), Representing Segregation: Toward an Aesthetics of Living Jim Crow, and Other Forms of Racial Division (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010), p. 161. 77 . Theodore M. Purdy, “The Ghetto that Is Harlem,” rev. of The Street, by Ann Petry, Saturday Review of Literature, Mar. 2, 1946, p. 30. Also see M. W., “The Latest Negro Novel,” rev. of The Street, by Ann Petry, Christian Science Monitor , Feb. 8, 1946, p. 14.

3 Rebuilding BILDUNG: The Novel of Aesthetic Education

1 . [Claire Morgan, pseud.], The Price of Salt (New York: Coward-McCann, 1952), p. 30. References to The Price of Salt will hereafter Notes 153

be to this edition except where stated, and will be cited parenthetically in the text as PS. The novel was first published under the name Claire Morgan, and has also been issued under the title Carol. While Highsmith’s authorship seems to have been known informally (see letter to Highsmith, Aug. 28, 1960, 7.13(8).13, Patricia Highsmith Papers, Swiss Literary Archives, Bern; and letter to Highsmith, Nov. 5, 1965, 7.13 (8).13, Patricia Highsmith Papers), it was first published explicitly under Highsmith’s own name in Britain by Bloomsbury in 1990. Quotations from fan letters to Highsmith have been cited anonymously at the request of the Swiss National Library in Bern, which owns the Highsmith archive of which they form part. 2 . Fredric Jameson makes a similar point when he argues that Frankfurt School critiques of popular culture fail to acknowledge the ways in which modern- ism “entertain[s] relations of repression with [ . . . ] fundamental anxieties and concerns, hopes and blind spots” (Fredric Jameson, “Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture,” Social Text 1 [Winter 1979]: 141). 3 . J a n i c e A . R a d w a y , A Feeling for Books: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 262; David Riesman with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denny, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), pp. 144–5. The term “professional- managerial class” is from Barbara Ehrenreich and John Ehrenreich, “The Professional-Managerial Class,” Radical America 11 (Mar.–Apr. 1977): 7–31. 4 . Philip Roth, “Writing American Fiction,” Commentary 31.3 (1961): 225–6. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “WF.” 5. W i l l i a m H . W h y t e , The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956), pp. 261, 253, 251. 6 . Alice Payne Hackett and James Henry Burke, 80 Years of Best Sellers, 1895– 1975 (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1977), pp. 155, 158, 180; “The Pulitzer Prizes | Fiction,” The Pulitzer Prizes, accessed Feb. 11, 2009, http://www.pulitzer .org/bycat/Fiction . 7 . Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), p. 5. 8 . I n A r c h i b a l d M a c l e i s h ’ s p l a y J.B. , an ugly world is represented as being “pretty good [ . . . ] after all” via its concluding call for the audience to “blow on the coals of the heart” as a solution to their problems (Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” Against the American Grain [New York: Random House, 1962], p. 45 [hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “MM”]). 9 . H e r b e r t M a r c u s e , Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1974), p. 145. 10 . Quoted in Dennis F. Mahoney, “The Apprenticeship of the Reader: The Bildungsroman of the ‘Age of Goethe,’” in James Hardin (ed.), Reflection and Action: Essays on the Bildungsroman (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), p. 101. 1 1 . M a r c R e d f i e l d , Phantom Formations: Aesthetic Ideology and the Bildungsroman (Ithaca, NY: Press, 1996), p. 10. 154 Notes

12 . Jeffrey L. Sammons, “The Mystery of the Missing Bildingsroman , or: What Happened to Wilhelm Meister’s ?” Genre 14.2 (1981): 242. 13 . Rubin also claims, in making a quite different argument, that the roots of middlebrow culture can be traced via Ralph Waldo Emerson’s work on German Romanticism to the concept of Bildung (see Joan Shelly Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992], p. 7). 14 . Sammons, “The Bildungsroman for Nonspecialists: An Attempt at a Clarification,” in Hardin, Reflection and Action , p. 41; also see Redfield, Phantom Formations , p. 59; and Gregory Castle, Reading the Modernist Bildungsroman (Gainesville: University Press of , 2006), pp. 1–6. 15 . Georg Luk á cs, The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature , trans. Anna Bostock (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), p. 29. 1 6 . J a m e s J o y c e , A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (New York: Penguin, 1976), p. 166. 1 7 . H e r m a n W o u k , (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1954), p. 466. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as CM . 18 . We might also note here that Wouk’s Freudian slip of an apostrophe into the title of microcosmically exemplifies the middlebrow/modern- ist dichotomy, as it conflates social and aesthetic conservatism by substituting conventional grammatical order for Joyce’s ironic refusal of convention. 1 9 . G r a c e M e t a l i o u s , Peyton Place (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1999), pp. 355–7. 20 . James A. Michener, (New York: Random House, 1959), pp. 847–8, 874. Also see the introduction to this study. 21 . For another example, see my analysis of Budd Schulberg, The Harder They Fall (New York: Random House, 1947), in chapter 2 of this book. 22 . Laura Z. Hobson, Gentleman’s Agreement (New York: Dell, 1962), p. 181. 23 . For more on this argument, see chapter 2 . 2 4 . W i l l i a m D a r b y , Necessary American Fictions: Popular Literature of the 1950s (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1987), p. 47. 2 5 . W h y t e , Organization Man , p. 258. 26 . See, for example, Lillian Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present (New York: William Morrow, 1981), p. 355 (hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as SLM ); and Bonnie Zimmerman, The Safe Sea of Women: Lesbian Fiction 1969–1989 (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1990), p. 9. 27 . See Suzanna Danuta Walters, “As Her Hand Crept Slowly Up Her Thigh: and the Politics of Pulp,” Social Text 23 (1989): 84–5. For more on the importance of nontraditional retail outlets in the cultural history of lesbian pulps, see Angela Weir and Elizabeth Wilson, “The Greyhound Bus Station in the Evolution of Lesbian Popular Culture,” in Sally Munt (ed.), New Lesbian Criticism: Literary and Cultural Readings (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), pp. 95–114. For a detailed history of the rise of the Notes 155

pulps, see Kenneth C. Davis, Two-Bit Culture: The Paperbacking of America (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), especially pp. 101–247. 28 . For more on this see, for example, Barbara Grier, “The Lesbian Paperback,” in Grier and Coletta Reid (eds.), The Lesbian’s Home Journal: Stories from The Ladder (Baltimore, MD: Diana Press, 1976) p. 313; and SLM , p. 355. 2 9 . “ C r o s s - C u r r e n t s , ” Ladder 7.7 (1963): 15 (hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as “CC”); Highsmith [Morgan, pseud.], The Price of Salt (New York: Bantam Books, 1953). 30 . Letter to Morgan, Sep. 8, 1958, B4-b-2-SCR3[a], Patricia Highsmith Papers; SLM , p. 355. Despite their at-the-time unprecedented affirmation of les- bian sexuality, Bannon’s novels are often seen as espousing outmoded val- ues and attitudes; See, for example, Christopher Nealon, “Invert-History: The Ambivalence of Lesbian Pulp Fiction,” New Literary History 31 (2000): 745–64; Diane Hamer, “I Am a Woman: Ann Bannon and the Writing of Lesbian Identity in the 1950s,” in Mark Lily (ed.), Lesbian and Gay Writing: An Anthology of Critical Essays (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 47–75; and Mich è le Aina Barale, “When Jack Blinks: Si(gh)ting Gay Desire in Ann Bannon’s Beebo Brinker,” in Henry Abelove, Barale, and David M. Halperin (eds.), The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 604–15, for more on this debate. 31 . Coward-McCann’s list also included such texts as the script for ’s play Our Town, which Dwight Macdonald cites as one of the four chief examples of middlebrow literature (“MM,” p. 40); for sales figures see “CC,” p. 15. 32 . For reference to the plan for the Lana Turner movie, see “CC,” p. 15. It seems highly likely that Turner’s involvement was wishful thinking, giving the near-impossibility of a mainstream star appearing in a lesbian movie in the mid-1960s. Joan Schenkar reports that a prior movie treatment that altered “Carol” to “Carl” was produced in 1952 (see Joan Schenkar, The Talented Miss Highsmith: The Secret Life and Serious Art of Patricia Highsmith [New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2009], p. 299). 3 3 . E d m u n d W i l s o n , Classics and Commercials: A Literary Chronicle of the Forties (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1950), p. 259. 34 . W. H. Auden, letter to Highsmith, n.d., Scrapbook 1, Box F4–7, Patricia Highsmith Papers. 3 5 . H i g h s m i t h , Plotting and Writing Suspense Fiction (New York: St Martin’s Griffin, 1983), pp. 3, 6. 3 6 . The Price of Salt makes reference to a “pallid bust” in a library, an allusion to the “pallid bust of Pallas” in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven” (PS , p. 249; The Portable Edgar Allan Poe , ed. J. Gerald Kennedy [New York: , 2006], p. 425). 37 . The direct quotation is from the front cover of [Ann Aldrich, pseud.] (ed.), Carol in a Thousand Cities (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett, 1960), but the image of the lesbian as “twilight woman” is ubiquitous in lesbian pulp literature. 38 . Walters, “As Her Hand Crept Slowly Up Her Thigh,” p. 85. 156 Notes

3 9 . H i g h s m i t h , a f t e r w o r d t o The Price of Salt (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), p. 261. The New York Times reviewer disliked the book (See Charles J. Rolo, “Carol and Therese,” rev. of Highsmith [Morgan, pseud.], The Price of Salt , New York Times , May 18, 1952, p. BR23). The Herald Tribune was broadly positive but warns that the novel is “so concerned with its subject that it is likely to be read in the light of the reader’s view alone” (Mary Ross, “Unconventional Problems,” rev. of Highsmith [Morgan, pseud.], The Price of Salt , New York Herald Tribune , June 1, 1952, p. 6.10). 40 . Meaker [Aldrich, pseud.], Carol in a Thousand Cities , pp. 9, 12. 41 . Letter to Morgan, n.d., B4-b-2-SCR3[a], Patricia Highsmith Papers. 42 . Letter to Highsmith, Aug. 28, 1960. 43 . See, for example, Cleanth Brooks, “Irony as a Principle of Structure,” in Morton Dauwen Zabel (ed.), Literary Opinion in America: Essays Illustrating the Status, Methods, and Problems of Criticism in the United States in the Twentieth Century, 2 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), II: 729: “The poet can legitimately step out into the universal only by first going through the narrow door of the particular.” 44 . The scene might be read as an ironic rewriting of the famous episode in ’s Sister Carrie, where Carrie Meeber has a similarly fetish- istic, though despairing, encounter with objects for sale in a department store, “feeling the claim of each trinket and valuable upon her personally” (Theodore Dreiser, Sister Carrie [New York: Penguin, 1981], p. 22). For more on this argument, see Bill Brown, A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), pp. 33–4. 4 5 . S . W i l s o n , Man in the Gray Flannel Suit , p. 301. 4 6 . L a u r e n B e r l a n t , The Female Complaint: The Unfinished Business of Sentimentality in American Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), p. 5; David Savran, A Queer Sort of Materialism: Recontextualizing American Theater (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003), p. 3. 47 . On this point I am indebted to Amy Gentry, “The Price of a Happy Ending: Affective Pedagogies in Lesbian Pulp Fiction,” unpublished seminar paper, University of Chicago, 2005. 4 8 . W a y n e C . B o o t h , The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), p. 151. 49 . “Salt” is the novel’s shorthand for the feeling of fulfillment and happiness brought about by love, the feeling that the “world [has] come to life” ( PS , p. 250). 50 . That Highsmith meant her treatment of Rindy to feel problematic is con- firmed by her working title for the novel, “The Argument of Tantalus,” which compares Carol to the mythical ruler who butchered his child in the hope of obtaining the gods’ blessing (see Highsmith, “The Argument of Tantalus (or The Lie),” unpublished manuscript, 1950, A-01-a, Patricia Highsmith Papers). 51 . On the novel as the first pulp with a happy ending, see Ed Siegel, “In and Out,” Boston Globe , July 4, 2004, p. G6; I. Livingstone, “Carol’s Back with True Identity,” rev. of Carol [ The Price of Salt], by Highsmith, Herald Sun , Jan. Notes 157

12, 1991, p. WS51; and Highsmith, afterword to Price of Salt (2004), p. 261. On fan mail, see Highsmith, afterword to Price of Salt (2004), pp. 261–2. For examples, see letter to Morgan, Jan. 10, 1960, B4-b-2-SCR3[a], Patricia Highsmith Papers: “I was exceptionally pleased that Carol and Therese ended up together. So many books today on the subject of female seem either bent on reflecting the twistedness of it or determined to sever the relationship”; also see letter to Morgan, Nov. 24, 1954, B4-b-2-SCR3[a], Patricia Highsmith Papers; and letter to Morgan, Jan. 19, 1959, B4-b-2- SCR3[a], Patricia Highsmith Papers. 52 . Emma Hagestadt et al., “The 50 Best Romantic Reads,” Independent , Feb. 9, 2002, pp. F4–11; Craig Brown, “Packing a Sapphic Punch,” rev. of Carol [ The Price of Salt ], by Highsmith, Sunday Times , Oct. 14, 1990, p. F10; Weir and Wilson, “Greyhound Bus Station in the Evolution of Lesbian Popular Culture,” p. 97. 53 . C. Brown, “Packing a Sapphic Punch,” p. F10. 54 . In the order mentioned these are Highsmith, Price of Salt (2004); Highsmith [Morgan, pseud.], The Price of Salt (Tallahassee, FL: Naiad, 1984); Highsmith, Carol [The Price of Salt] (: Anagrama, 1997); Highsmith, Carol [The Price of Salt] (Barcelona: DeAgostini, 2002); and Highsmith, Saltets Pris [The Price of Salt ] (Oslo: Pax, 2003). 55 . “Patricia Highsmith Home Page,” W. W. Norton, Oct. 23, 2008, http://www .wwnorton.com/catalog/featured/highsmith/home.htm. 5 6 . H i g h s m i t h , The Talented Mr. Ripley (New York: Coward-McCann, 1955), pp. 21, 31. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as TR . 57 . Slavoj Ž i ž ek, “When Straight Means Weird and Psychosis is Normal,” Lacan. com, Sep. 21, 2008, http://www.lacan.com/ripley.html . Also see, for example, Russell Harrison, Patricia Highsmith (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1997); Edward A. Shannon, “‘Where Was the Sex?’: Fetishism and Dirty Minds in Patricia Highsmith’s The Talented Mr Ripley ,” Modern Language Studies 34:1–2 (2004): 17–27; and Frank Rich, “American Pseudo,” New York Times , Dec. 12, 1999, pp. M80–114. 58 . See Andrew Wilson, Beautiful Shadow: A Life of Patricia Highsmith (New York: Bloomsbury, 2003), pp. 194–6. 59 . See Louis Menand, “It Took a Village: How the Voice Changed Journalism,” New Yorker , Jan. 5, 2009, p. 38. 60 . See, for example, the back cover of Highsmith, The Talented Mr Ripley (New York: Vintage Books, 1992).

4 The Second-Greatest Stories Ever Told: Middlebrow Epics of 1959 and the Aesthetics of Disavowal

1 . “H awaii , by James A. Michener,” rev. of Hawaii , by James A. Michener, New Yorker, Dec. 12, 1959, p. 223. On middlebrow culture and the Book-of-the 158 Notes

-Month Club, see Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), and Janice A. Radway, A Feeling for Books: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997). 2 . Dwight Macdonald, “Books: A Hero of Our Time,” New Yorker, Dec. 12, 1959, p. 201; “DANIEL LANG’S Superb Stories of Lives Dramatically Affected by the New Super-Science,” New Yorker, Dec. 12, 1959, p. 207. See Chon Day, Cartoon, New Yorker , Dec. 12, 1959, p. 201. 3 . Macdonald, “Books,” pp. 207, 202, 211, 221, 207, 221. 4 . This conception of middlebrow literature as engaging in the management of contradiction is indebted to Lauren Berlant’s theory of the middlebrow’s being concerned with the management of ambivalence (see Berlant, The Female Complaint: The Unfinished Business of Sentimentality in American Culture [Durham: Duke University Press, 2008], p. 5). 5 . See, for example, Caroline Tunstall, “Taylor Caldwell’s St Luke,” rev. of Dear and Glorious Physician, by Taylor Caldwell, New York Herald Tribune , Mar. 15, 1959, p. BR14; “Books: Pineapple Epic,” rev. of Hawaii , by Michener, Time , Nov. 23, 1959, http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,865103,00. html ; Maxwell Geismar, “Gods, Missionaries and the Golden Men,” rev. of Hawaii , by Michener, New York Times, Nov. 22, 1959, p. BR4; “On Top No More,” rev. of Poor No More, by , Times Literary Supplement , Dec. 4, 1959, p. 705; Dan Wakefield, “BOOKS and : Israel’s Need for Fiction,” rev. of Exodus , by Leon Uris, Nation, Apr. 11, 1959, pp. 318–19; Ned Calmer, “From the Hill, the Romantic View,” rev. of Advise and Consent , by , Saturday Review, Aug 15, 1959, pp.17–18. For best seller data see “1950s Bestsellers,” Cader Books, University of Illinois, revised Fall 1999, http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/courses/entc312/f99/best50.html . 6 . F r a n c o M o r e t t i , Modern Epic: The World-System from Goethe to Garcí a Má rquez , trans. Quintin Hoare (London: Verso, 1996), pp. 4, 1, 4. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as ME . 7 . See Alan Nadel, “God’s Law and the Wide Screen: The Ten Commandments as Cold War ‘Epic,’” Containment Culture: American Narratives, Postmodernism, and the Atomic Age (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 90–116. 8 . Although here I take my cue from Hegel’s aesthetics of the epic, in which the quintessential property of the genre is the fact that it takes place in a world where norms of behavior are not yet abstracted into laws that can be imagined as distinct from and potentially oppressive to individuals, the term “epic” has many additional connotations pertinent to American culture in the twentieth century. Critics have pointed out the epic’s mythologizing tendencies, as in Roland Barthes’ well-known account of myth, rendering the historically con- tingent seemingly natural, “universal,” and “unalterable”—a project in which US cultural artifacts are frequently engaged (Roland Barthes, Mythologies , trans. Annette Lavers [New York: Hill and Wang, 1972], p. 141); also see, for example, Nadel, “God’s Law and the Wide Screen.” Critics have noted that its linkage of the project of nation-building with the sublime power of a Notes 159

landscape imagined as limitless and elemental has historically rendered epic an especially congenial form for representing the powerful myth of the US fron- tier (as in Walter Noble Burns’s influential and suggestively named Western Tombstone: An Iliad of the Southwest [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1927]); they have made arguments based on its valorizing of heroic masculin- ity; they have suggested both that the multitudinous casts and polyphonic voices of the epic are more appropriate to the task of representing social his- tory than the form of the novel, with its characteristic focus on a single pro- tagonist, and, conversely, that the epic task of “containing history” (in Ezra Pound’s famous phrase) makes it the natural form for ideologues seeking to distort or “contain” the contours of human history to a particular shape. On the US landscape, see Peter Conrad, “The Englishness of ,” Daedalus (Winter 1983): 171; John Cawelti, The Six-Gun Mystique (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1971), p. 38. On mas- culinity, see, for example, Laura Mulvey, “Afterthoughts on ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’ Inspired by ’s Duel in the Sun (1946),” Framework 15–17 (Summer 1981): 12–15. On polyphony see ME , pp. 61–7. The quotation from Pound is from “Date Line,” Literary Essays of Ezra Pound (New York: New Directions, 1968), p. 86. On the ideological function of containment, see Nadel, Containment Culture (a book originally provisionally titled “Containing History” [see Nadel, “God’s Law and the Wide Screen” PMLA 108.3 (May 1993): 415]). 9 . G . W . F . H e g e l , Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T. M. Knox, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), II: 1053; Georg Luk á cs, The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature , trans. Anna Bostock (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), p. 87. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as TN . 1 0 . H e g e l , Aesthetics , II: 1052. 1 1 . I m m a n u e l K a n t , Critique of the Power of Judgment, ed. Paul Guyer, trans. Guyer and Eric Matthews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 57. 12 . Such rhetoric, condensing a long-standing tradition of American individual- ism, also proliferated in the larger print public sphere—in nonfiction best sell- ers like William Whyte’s The Organization Man (1956), or David Riesman’s popular academic study The Lonely Crowd (1950), which championed the “autonomous” individual at the expense of the “other-directed” man, whose values are merely those of his peers—as well as in fiction. See David Riesman, with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), pp. 239, 17; see also William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956). 1 3 . J a m e s J o n e s , From Here To Eternity (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951), p. 353; Ruark, Poor No More (New York: Henry Holt, 1959), p. 636; refer- ences will hereafter be to this edition except where stated, and will be cited parenthetically in the text as PNM . 1 4 . J o h n H e r s e y , Hiroshima (London: Penguin, 1946), p. 107. 160 Notes

1 5 . R a d w a y , A Feeling for Books , p. 15. 16 . Geismar, “Gods, Missionaries and the Golden Men,” p. BR4. 17 . Patrick O’Donovan, “The Current National Myth,” rev. of Advise and Consent, by Drury, New Republic, Sep. 14, 1959, p. 19. Donovan’s use of this formula perhaps consciously echoes its appearance at the end of a novel that was a byword for the middlebrow, Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), p. 301. 18 . O’Donovan, “The Current National Myth,” p. 19. Drury’s novel controver- sially ousted ’s Henderson the Rain King from winning the for fiction in 1960, when the Prize board overruled the committee’s judgment. 19 . James Ragland, “A Novel Written in an Era of A-Bombs,” rev. of Advise and Consent, by Drury, Chronicle, Aug. 9, 1959, p. 24; Geismar, “Gods, Missionaries and the Golden Men,” p. BR4; John Coleman, “Proper Study,” rev. of Exodus , by Uris, Spectator , July 10, 1959, p. 44; William Hogan, “A Bookman’s Notebook: Ruark’s Showy Analysis of a Corrupt Financier,” rev. of Poor No More, by Ruark, San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 26, 1959, p. 49; Paul West, “Uncommon Reader,” rev. of Hawaii , by Michener, New Statesman , June 25, 1960, p. 954. 20 . On such a model, popularized by Fredric Jameson and others, “narrative” is defined as “the imaginary resolution of a real contradiction” by means of repressing knowledge of that contradiction (Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act [London: Routledge, 2002], p. 62). For an account of the wide popularity of this mode of reading, see Stephen Best and Sharon Marcus, “Surface Reading: An Introduction,” “The Way We Read Now,” a special issue of Representations 108.1 (2009): 1–21. 2 1 . P o u n d , (New York: New Directions, 1996), p. 816; , The Man Without Qualities , trans. Sophie Wilkins, 2 vols. (New York: Vintage, 1996), I.181; W. B. Yeats, Collected Poems (Ware: Wordworth Editions, 2000), p. 296; T. S. Eliot, The Complete Poems and Plays, 1909–1950 (New York, Harcourt Brace, 1967), p. 38. 22 . Moretti’s text more-or-less explicitly adopts a Jamesonian perspective, argu- ing that “Literature [ . . . ] resolve[s] the [ . . . ] ideological contradictions [of] history [ . . . ] It has a problem-solving vocation: to make existence more com- prehensible, and more acceptable”: ME , p. 6. 2 3 . D r u r y , Advise and Consent (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959), p. 161. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as AC . 24 . “On Top No More,” p. 705; Victor P. Hass, “Bruising Novel of a Tycoon’s Rise and Fall,” rev. of Poor No More , by Ruark, Chicago Tribune , Oct. 25, 1959, p. MB1: “‘Poor No More’ is a late entry in the gray flannel suit sweep- stakes.” PNM , p. 695. 25 . “On Top No More,” p. 705. 26 . Donald Malcolm, “The Worst of Everything,” rev. of Poor No More , by Ruark, New Yorker , Jan. 2, 1960, p. 70. 2 7 . S e e R u a r k , Poor No More (New York: Fawcett, 1959); Ruark, Poor No More (London: Corgi, 1971). Notes 161

2 8 . C a l d w e l l , Dear and Glorious Physician (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959), pp. 319, 282. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as DGP . 2 9 . U r i s , Exodus (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), pp. 80–1. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as E . 3 0 . M i c h e n e r , Hawaii (New York: Random House, 1959), p. 1. Hereafter cited parenthetically in the text as H . 31 . See, for example, Michener, “‘Aloha’ for the Fiftieth State,” New York Times Apr. 19, 1959, p. SM14; Michener, “Hawaii: The Case for our Fiftieth State,” Reader’s Digest, Dec. 1958, pp. 158–70. For an alternative view that sees Hawaii as very much in line with Michener’s journalism, see Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), pp. 223–64. 32 . For the well-known formulation of disavowal as a psychic process character- ized by the phrase “I know well, but all the same,” see Octave Mannoni, “I Know Well, but All the Same . . . ,” trans. G. M. Goshgarian, in Molly Anne Rothenberg, Dennis A. Foster, and Slavoj Ž i ž ek (eds.), Perversion and the Social Relation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 68–92. 3 3 . M a c d o n a l d , p r e f a c e t o Against the American Grain (New York: Random House, 1962), p. ix. 3 4 . H e i n z K o h u t , The Restoration of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1977), p. 286; see also pp. 285–90. 35 . Geoffrey H. Hartman, “How Creative Should Literary Criticism Be?” New York Times, Apr. 5, 1981, http://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/05/books/how -creative-should-literary-criticism-be.html ; Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, “Paranoid Reading and Reparative Reading, or, You’re So Paranoid, You Probably Think This Essay Is about You,” Touching Feeling: Affect, Pedagogy, Performativity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), p. 128. Sedgwick draws on the work of Melanie Klein, but Kohut likewise writes of the experience of art’s being one of our attempt to “create new structures that possess whole- ness” out of “the reassemblage and rearrangement of [ . . . ] fragments”: Kohut, Restoration of the Self , p. 286.

5 Book Smarts: Masochism and Popular Postmodernism

1 . V l a d i m i r N a b o k o v , Pale Fire (New York: Vintage International, 1989), p. 111; , Giles Goat-Boy, Or, The Revised New Syllabus (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1987), p. 139; , Gravity’s Rainbow (London: Vintage, 2000), pp. 466–7; E. L. Doctorow, Ragtime (New York: Random House, 2007), Kindle, loc.82. Further references to these four texts will refer to these editions, except where indicated, and will be parenthetical in the text, abbreviated as PF , GGB , GR , and R , respectively. 2 . The term “implied reader” comes from Wolfgang Iser, The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 162 Notes

1978). The “implied reader” is not a real-life reader, but is rather a part of the text, “a network of response-inviting structures, which impel the reader to grasp the text” (34). Based on my study of the critical receptions of the novels, however, I do imagine a limited but significant overlap between the implied reader and real-life readers. 3 . G i l l e s D e l e u z e , Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty, trans. Jean McNeil, in Deleuze and Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty, and Venus in Furs (New York: Zone Books, 1989), p. 17. Hereafter cited par- enthetically in the text. 4 . Jason Gladstone and Daniel Worden, “Introduction: Postmodernism, Then,” a special issue of Twentieth-Century Literature 57.3–4 (2011): 292. 5 . Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction (New York: Methuen, 1987), p. 9. 6 . Kenneth—What Is the Frequency? by Paul Allman, dir. Eric Nightengale, Assembly Rooms, Edinburgh, Aug. 2004. 7 . Thus, for instance, work by Barth, Pynchon, and Doctorow appears in the Norton anthology Postmodern American Fiction (see Paula Geyh, Fred G. Leebron, and Andrew Levy [eds.], Postmodern American Fiction: A Norton Anthology [New York: W. W. Norton, 1997]), while Nabokov, Barth, and Pynchon are all namechecked as exemplary postmodernist authors on PBS’s online resource, The American Novel (Stephen Matterson, “The American Novel. Literary Timeline. Movements. Postmodernism | PBS,” PBS , Mar. 2007, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americannovel/timeline/postmodernism .html ). Barth, Pynchon, Nabokov, and Doctorow collectively amass 48 index entries in Linda Hutcheon’s canonical monograph The Poetics of Postmodernism (New York: Routledge, 1988), while Doctorow’s Ragtime is a key text both for Hutcheon and for another canonical theorist of post- modernism, Fredric Jameson (see Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capital [Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991], pp. 21–55). Another well-known study, McHale’s Postmodernist Fiction , also dis- cusses both Pale Fire and Gravity’s Rainbow, in particular naming Pale Fire as one of the earliest postmodern texts ([New York: Methuen, 1987], pp. 18–19). 8 . H u t c h e o n , Poetics , p. 5. 9 . On this, see Frederick Ashe, “Anachronism Intended: Gravity’s Rainbow in the Sociopolitical Sixties,” Pynchon Notes 28–9 (1991): 59–75; Matthew Guillen, “Pynchon’s Social Aesthetics: Sixties Activism in Postmodern American Literature,” “Le modernism am é ricain libres influences,” a special issue of Revue franç aise d’é tudes amé ricaines 84 (2000): 106–25; and John Hamill, “Looking Back on Sodom: Sixties Sadomasochism in Gravity’s Rainbow ,” Critique 41.1 (Fall 1999): 53–70. 10 . Doctorow, quoted in Eliot Fremont-Smith, “Making Book,” rev. of Ragtime , by Doctorow, Village Voice , July 7, 1975, p. 41. 1 1 . J a m e s o n , Postmodernism , p. ix. 12 . See, for example, Richard Locke, “Gravity’s Rainbow,” rev. of Gravity’s Rainbow , by Pynchon, New York Times , Mar. 11, 1973, p. BR1. 13 . See Bruce Jay Friedman, Black Humor (New York: Bantam, 1965). Notes 163

14 . See Keith L. Justice, Bestseller Index: All Books, by Author, on the Lists of Publishers Weekly and the New York Times through 1990 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1998), pp. 34, 95, 228, 250. 15 . See “1963—All Exhibition Pages—National Book Award Fiction Finalists,” National Book Foundation, 2012, http://nbafictionfinalists.squarespace.com /blog/2012/6/6/1963.html . Nabokov was also nominated in 1958, 1959, 1965, 1973, 1975, and 1976—see further results at nbafictionfinalists.squarespace. com. 16 . See “1973—www.nbafictionblog.org —National Book Awards Fiction Winners,” National Book Foundation, July 28, 2009, http://www.nbafiction blog.org/nba-winning-books-blog/1973.html. 17 . Robert Scholes, “George Is My Name,” rev. of Giles Goat-Boy , by Barth, New York Times , Aug. 7, 1966, p. BR1. 18 . See “1974—www.nbafictionblog.org —National Book Awards Fiction Winners,” National Book Foundation , July 30, 2009, http://www.nbafiction blog.org/nba-winning-books-blog/1974.html; and Peter Kihss, “Pulitzer Jurors Dismayed on Pynchon,” New York Times , May 8, 1974, p. 38. 19 . See C. Gerald Fraser, “National Book Critics Circle Gives First Awards,” New York Times, Jan. 9, 1976, p. 23; and see “American Academy of Arts and Letters—Awards Search,” American Academy of Arts and Letters , accessed Aug. 7, 2014, http://www.artsandletters.org/awards2_search.php . 2 0 . J o h n S u t h e r l a n d , Fiction and the Fiction Industry (London: Athlone Press, 1978), pp. 65, 69. 21 . Doris Grumbach, “Fine Print: A Last Hurrah,” New Republic, July 5–12, 1975, p. 30. 2 2 . A n d r e a s H u y s s e n , After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); Marianne DeKoven, Utopia Limited: The Sixties and the Emergence of the Postmodern (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004); McHale, “1966 Nervous Breakdown, or, When Did Postmodernism Begin?” Modern Language Quarterly 69.3 (2008): 391–413. 2 3 . J u s t i c e , Bestseller , p. 167. The story is the same with every other canonical modernist except Joyce. 24 . Joseph Collins, “’s Amazing Chronicle,” rev. of , by James Joyce, New York Times , May 28, 1922, p. BR6. 25 . See Catherine Turner, Marketing Modernism: Between the Two World Wars (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), p. 182. 26 . Locke, “Gravity’s Rainbow,” pp. 2–3. 27 . See Amy Reading, “Vulgarity’s Ironist: New Criticism, Midcult, and Nabokov’s Pale Fire ,” Arizona Quarterly 62.2 (2006): 77–98. 28 . See, for example, Charles B. Harris, “George’s Illumination: Unity in Giles Goat-Boy ,” Studies in the Novel 8 (1976): 172–84; Deborah Jones, “The Paradox of the Transcendental Trope: Intertextuality, or, The Allegory of Giles Goat- Boy ,” Southern Review 20.3 (1987): 240–60; James L. McDonald, “Barth’s Syllabus: The Frame of Giles Goat-Boy,” Critique 13.3 (1972): 5–10; Campbell Tatham, “John Barth and the Aesthetics of Artifice,” Contemporary Literature 164 Notes

12.1 (1971): 60–73; Laura Barrett, “Compositions of Reality: Photography, History, and Ragtime ,” MFS: Modern Fiction Studies 46.4 (2000): 801–24; Jill LeRoy Frazier, “‘Playing a Game of Worlds’: Postmodern Time and the Search for Individual Autonomy in Vladimir Nabokov’s Pale Fire ,” Studies in Twentieth-Century Literature 217.2 (2003): 311–27; Michael Seidel, “ Pale Fire and the Art of the Narrative Supplement,” ELH 51.4 (1984): 837–55; Christopher Ames, “Power and the Obscene Word: Discourses of Extremity in Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow ,” Contemporary Literature 31.2 (1990): 191–207; Judith Chambers, “The Freak in Ourselves: The Grotesque in Pynchon’s V. and Gravity’s Rainbow ,” JAISA: The Journal of the Association for the Interdisciplinary Study of the Arts 1.2 (1996): 55–78; Giuseppe Costigliola, “Rubbish, Rubble, Ruins: The Allegorical in Gravity’s Rainbow,” in Gigliola Notera (ed.), America Today: Highways and Labyrinths: Proceedings of the XV Biennial Conference, Siracusa, November 4–7, 1999 (Rome: Grafia, 2003), pp. 559–65; Luc Herman, “Pynchon, Postmodernism and Quantification: An Empirical Content Analysis of Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow ,” LL: Language and Literature 12.1 (2003): 27–41; John Johnston, “Pynchon’s ‘Zone’: A Postmodern Multiplicity,” Arizona Quarterly 46.3 (1990): 91–122; Eric Meyer, “Oppositional Discourses, Unnatural Practices: Gravity’s History and ‘The ’60s,’” Pynchon Notes 24–5 (1989): 81–104. 2 9 . B a r t h , “ T h e L i t e r a t u r e o f R e p l e n i s h m e n t , ” i n The Friday Book: Essays and Other Non-Fiction (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), p. 204. 30 . Douglas Robinson, “Reader’s Power, Writer’s Power: Barth, Bergonzi, Iser, and the Modern-Postmodern Period Debate,” Criticism: A Quarterly for Literature and the Arts 28.1 (1986): 307–8. For similar arguments, see Richard Bradbury, “Postmodernism and Barth and the Present State of Fiction,” Critical Quarterly 32.1 (1990): 60–72; and Thomas G. Evans, “The Collision of Modernist and Popular Traditions in Two Political Novels, and Ragtime ,” South Atlantic Review 52.1 (1987): 71–85. 31 . See chapter four . 32 . On this topic see Tom Perrin, “Highbrow, Lowbrow, Middlebrow, and the Disavowing Reader” (paper presented at the annual meeting for the Modern Language Association, Chicago, IL, Jan. 9–12, 2014). Also see Octave Mannoni, “I Know Well, but All the Same . . . ,” trans. G. M. Goshgarian, in Molly Anne Rothenberg, Dennis A. Foster, and Slavoj Ž i ž ek (eds.), Perversion and the Social Relation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 68–92; Bruce Fink, “Perversion,” in Rothenberg, Perversion, pp. 38–67; and Heinz Kohut, The Restoration of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1977). 33 . See chapter four . 34 . Elaine B. Safer, “The Allusive Mode and Black Humor in Barth’s Giles Goat- Boy and Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow ,” Renascence 32 (1980): 109, 83. Also see Safer, The Contemporary American Comic Epic: The Novels of Barth, Pynchon, Gaddis, and Kesey (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1988). 35 . Philip Roth, “Writing American Fiction,” Commentary 31.3 (1960), p. 224. Notes 165

36 . Friedman, Foreword to Black Humor , p. ix. 3 7 . A l l e n D r u r y , A Senate Journal: 1943–1945 (New York: Da Capo, 1972), p. 4. 38 . Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), p. 5. 39 . I use the term “adequation” [Adä quation] in the sense in which Georg Luká cs employs it. For Luk á cs, adequation is the compromise achieved via Bildung that heals “the rift between ‘inside’ and ‘outside,’ [ . . . ] the essential difference between the self and the world” (see Georg Luk á cs, The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature , trans. Anna Bostock [Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971], p. 29). 4 0 . N a b o k o v , Strong Opinions (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973), p. 74. Hereafter cited in the text as SO . 41 . See Peter Mercer, “The Rhetoric of Giles Goat-Boy ,” NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction 4.2 (1971): 156. 42 . Barth, “The Literature of Exhaustion,” in The Friday Book , pp. 62–76. 43 . Sigmund Freud, “Humour,” in Art and Literature: Jensen’s “Gradiva,” Leonardo da Vinci and Other Works, vol. 14 of The Penguin Freud Library (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 429. 4 4 . K a t h l e e n E . W o o d i w i s s , The Flame and the Flower (New York: Avon, 2007), p. 30. 45 . See Brian Boyd, Vladimir Nabokov: The American Years (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 464. 4 6 . N a b o k o v , Pale Fire , (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1962); G. P. Putnam’s Sons, Advertisement, New York Times , June 3, 1962, p. BR13. 47 . Frank Kermode, “Zemblances,” rev. of Nabokov, Pale Fire , New Statesman , Nov. 9, 1962, p. 672. Also see Gilbert Highet, “To the Sound of Hollow Laughter,” rev. of Nabokov, Pale Fire , Horizon 4.6 (1962): 89–91. 4 8 . S e e L e l a n d d e l a D u r a n t a y e , Style Is Matter: The Moral Art of Vladimir Nabokov (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007), p. 178; Thomas Karshan, Vladimir Nabokov and the Art of Play (NY: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 235. 49 . See Greil Marcus, “Happy Endings,” Village Voice Aug. 4, 1975, repr. in The Dustbin of History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 88–96; Hilton Kramer, “Political Romance,” rev. of Ragtime , by Doctorow, Commentary , Oct. 1975, pp. 76–80. Hereafter cited in the text. 50 . Whitney Balliett, “Books: Rub-a-Dub-Dub,” rev. of Barth, Giles Goat-Boy , New Yorker , Dec. 10, 1966, p. 234. 51 . McHale, “Difference Engines,” American Notes and Queries 5.4 (1992): 220. 52 . See William Barrett, “Dry Land, Dry Martini,” rev. of The Cocktail Party , by T. S. Eliot, Partisan Review 17 (Apr. 1950), reprinted in Jewel Spears Brooker (ed.), T.S. Eliot: The Contemporary Reviews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 532. 53 . Marcus, “Happy,” p. 88. 5 4 . N o r m a n M a i l e r , The Naked and the Dead (New York: Rinehart, 1948), p. 456. 166 Notes

55 . , “The Fictions of Borges,” in Wellsprings (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), p.36. See also Barth, “Literature of Exhaustion,” p. 63; Nabokov, Strong , p. 44; John Stark, “Borges” “Tlö n, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius” and Nabokov’s Pale Fire : Literature of Exhaustion,” Studies in Literature and Language 14 (1972): 139–45; Phyllis Miras, “John Barth: A Truffle No Longer,” New York Times, Aug. 7, 1966, p. BR22; Tony Tanner, City of Words: American Fiction 1950–1970 (NY: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 48–9; GR, pp. 264, 383. 5 6 . A g a t h a C h r i s t i e , The Mysterious Affair at Styles (London: John Lane, 1920), p. 13. 57 . For Boyd, the fact that there is a definite answer to the puzzle of Pale Fire disqualifies it from being a postmodernist text. See Boyd, Nabokov’s Pale Fire: The Magic of Artistic Discovery (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 5. 58 . Mary McCarthy, “A Bolt from the Blue,” rev. of Nabokov, Pale Fire , New Republic , June 4, 1962, p. 21. Hereafter cited in the text as “B.” 59. Boyd, Nabokov’s Pale Fire, pp. 246–7. 60 . Doctorow, “False Documents,” in Richard Trenner (ed.), E.L. Doctorow: Essays and Conversations (Princeton, NJ: Ontario Review Press, 1983), pp. 24, 18. 61 . See, for example, Fremont-Smith, “Making Book,” p. 41; and Mark Busby, “E.L. Doctorow’s Ragtime and the Dialectics of Change,” Ball State University Forum 23.6 (1985): 44. 6 2 . D e l e u z e , Masochism , p. 79. I want to separate this notion of the contract as part of the fantasy of masochism from practical agreements into which BDSM practitioners enter, such as the use of safewords. 6 3 . S a c h e r - M a s o c h , Venus in Furs, trans. Fernanda Savage (Salt Lake City, UT: Project Gutenberg, 2004), Kindle, loc.722. 64 . As with the misogynist logic of postmodernist masochism discussed above, so there is a racist logic to Sacher-Masoch’s text here: the perverse thrill of being beaten by “negresses” arises from the presumed abjection of black people. 65 . Campbell Tatham, “John Barth and the Aesthetics of Artifice,” Contemporary Literature 12.1 (1971): 69; “B,” p. 21; John R. Panza, “Coetzee’s NABOKOV’S PALE FIRE AND THE PRIMACY OF ART,” Explicator 57.4 (1999): 245; “The Russian Box Trick,” rev. of Pale Fire , by Nabokov, Time 79.22 (1962): 94; Marianna Torgovnick, “ Pale Fire as for Critics,” Style 20.1 (1986): 25; David H. Richter, “ Pnin and ‘Signs and Symbols’: Narrative Entrapment,” in Yuri Leving (ed.), Anatomy of a : Nabokov’s Puzzles, Codes, “Signs and Symbols” (New York: Continuum, 2012), p. 224; Karshan, Play, p. 213; Leona Toker, “Liberal Ironists and the ‘Gaudily Painted Savage’: On Richard Rorty’s Reading of Vladimir Nabokov,” Zembla, 1994, http://www.libraries .psu.edu/nabokov/tokerp1.htm ; Hamill, “Looking Back,” 55; but see also Bernard Duyfhuizen, “A Suspension Forever at the Hinge of Doubt: The Reader-Trap of Bianca in Gravity’s Rainbow,” Postmodern Culture 2.1 (1991), http://mc.iath.virginia.edu/text-only/issue.991/duyfhu-1.991 . Notes 167

66 . Alexander Dolnin, “Caning of Modernist Profaners: Parody in Despair ,” Cycnos 12.2 (1995): 54; Lance Olsen, “Making Stew with What You Got: Postmodern Humor in Barth, Nabokov, and Everybody Else,” Thalia: Studies in Literary Humor 10.1 (1988): 27; Richter, “ Pnin,” p. 224; Balliett, “Books,” p. 234; , “Recent Novels: A Backward Glance,” Yale Review 65 (1975 –76), p. 407; Eric Naiman, Nabokov, Perversely (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), p. 10; James F. English, “Modernist Joke-Work: ‘Pale Fire’ and the Mock Transcendence of Mockery,” Contemporary Literature 33.1 (Spring 1992): 78; Donald Malcolm, “Books: Noetic License,” rev. of Nabokov, Pale Fire , The New Yorker, Sep. 22, 1962, p. 170; Wladimir Troubetzkoy, “Vladimir Nabokov’s Despair : The Reader as ‘April’s Fool,’” Cycnos 12.2 (1995): 55–62; Maurice Couturier, quoted in Troubetzkoy, “Vladimir Nabokov’s Despair ,” p. 56; Stark, “Borges,” p. 141. 67 . Constance Pierce, “The Syncopated Voices of Doctorow’s Ragtime,” NMAL: Notes on Modern American Literature 3.4 (1979): 27. 6 8 . GR , p. 96. For critics who agree with this reading, see Will McConnell, “Pynchon, Foucault, Power, and Strategies of Resistance,” Pynchon Notes 32–3 (1993): 162; and Speer Morgan, “ Gravity’s Rainbow : What’s the Big Idea?” Modern Fiction Studies 23 (1999): 209; other critics who analyze the role of sadomasochism in Gravity’s Rainbow include Hamill, “Looking Back,” 53–70; Jessica Lawson, “‘The Real and Only Fucking Is Done on Paper’: Penetrative Readings and Pynchon’s Sexual Text,” in Sascha Pohlmann (ed.), Against the Grain: Reading Pynchon’s Counternarratives (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010), pp. 231–49; Alexia Kinsley, “Making Sense of the Obscene and Scatalogical in Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow,” Philological Review 30.1 (2004): 39–57; and, to a lesser extent, also see Nadine Attewell, “‘Bouncy Little Tunes’: Nostalgia, Sentimentality, and Narrative in Gravity’s Rainbow,” Contemporary Literature 45.1 (2004): 22–48; Duyfhuizen, “A Hinge”; and Joshua Pederson, “The Gospel of Thomas (Pynchon): Abandoning Eschatology in Gravity’s Rainbow,” Religion and the Arts 14 (2010): 139–60. 69 . Luc Herman, “Pynchon, Postmodernism and Quantification,” 30; see, for example, Thomas Moore, The Style of Connectedness: Gravity’s Rainbow and Thomas Pynchon ( Press, 1987); Molly Hite, Ideas of Order in the Works of Thomas Pynchon (Ohio State University Press, 1983). 7 0 . G r a c e M e t a l i o u s , Peyton Place (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1999), p. 150. 7 1 . M c H a l e , Postmodern Fiction , p. 18. 72 . Lionel Trilling, “The Last Lover: Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita ,” Encounter , Oct. 1958, p. 11. For critics who follow Trilling’s reading, see, for example, De La Durantaye, Style Is Matter ; Carter Kaplan, Critical Synoptics: Menippean Satire and the Analysis of Intellectual Mythology (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 2000); and Alfred Appel Jr., “ Lolita : The Springboard of Parody,” Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature 8.2 (1967): 204–41. 168 Notes

73 . Robert Alter, “The New American Novel,” Commentary , Nov. 1975, http:// www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-new-american-novel/. 74 . Leslie Fiedler, “The Persistence of Babel,” rev. of Pale Fire , by Nabokov, , Nov. 9, 1962, p. 14. 75 . Maurice Couturier, “Nabokov in Postmodernist Land,” Critique 34.4 (1993): 258, 254. 76 . “Vladimir Nabokov discusses ‘Lolita’ part 1 of 2,” YouTube, Mar. 13, 2008, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ldpj_5JNFoA . 77 . Dwight Macdonald, “Books: Virtuosity Rewarded, Or Dr. Kinbote’s Revenge,” rev. of Pale Fire , by Nabokov, Partisan Review , Sep. 1962, p. 441. 78 . Malcolm, “Noetic,” p. 170. Other readings of Shade as unironic include David Galef, “The Self-Annihilating Artists of Pale Fire ,” Twentieth-Century Literature 31.4 (Winter 1985): 421–37, Barrett, “Reader’s Choice,” rev. of Pale Fire, by Nabokov, Atlantic Monthly, June 1962, p. 108; and of course Boyd, Pale Fire. 79 . See, for example, “B,” p. 24; Karshan, Play . For similar arguments, see Marilyn Edelstein, “ Pale Fire : The Art of Consciousness,” in Nabokov’s Fifth Arc: Nabokov and Others on his Life’s Work, ed. J. E. Rivers and Charles Nicol (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), pp. 213–23; and Michael Wood, The Magician’s Doubts: Nabokov and the Risks of Fiction (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). 80 . George Cloyne, “Jesting Footnotes Tell a Story,” rev. of Pale Fire , by Nabokov, New York Times , p. BR18. Also see, for example, “Russian Box Trick,” p. 94. 81 . See, notoriously, Edmund Wilson, “The Strange Case of Pushkin and Nabokov,” rev. of Eugene Onegin, by Alexandr Pushkin, trans. Nabokov, New York Review of Books , July 15, 1965, http://www.nybooks.com/articles /archives/1965/jul/15/the-strange-case-of-pushkin-and-nabokov/ . 8 2 . N a i m a n , Perversely , p. 5.

E n d i n g

1 . G o r d o n H u t n e r , What America Read: Taste, Class, and the Novel 1920–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), p.13. 2 . See, for example, Franco Moretti, Distant Reading (London: Verso, 2013). 3 . D . A . M i l l e r , Jane Austen, or, The Secret of Style (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), p. 31. 4 . Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” Against the American Grain (New York: Random House, 1962), p. 45. 5 . Ibid., p. 45. 6 . This is not in fact the last line of the play; what we will see by and by is “where we are,” an equally inconclusive claim, which is followed by the play’s actual, and also elliptical, final line, “We’ll know. . . . ” (Archibald MacLeish, J.B.: A Play in Verse [Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1958], p. 153). 7 . J a n e A u s t e n , Pride and Prejudice (Salt Lake City: Project Gutenberg, 2013), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42671/42671-h/42671-h.htm . Notes 169

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Advise and Consent. See Drury, Allen Battle of the Brows, The, 4–5 aesthetic education. See aesthetics and Berlant, Lauren, 10, 41, 83 Bildung/bildungsroman bestsellers, 40, 40n14, 42, 64, 73, aesthetics, 3, 7, 11 93n5, 109, 114 definition of, 16–17 Bildung/bildungsroman, 3, 11, 72, of disavowal, 3–4, 14–15, 91–2, 73–9, 81–9, 104, 115, 127 106–7, 114n32, 114–15, 135–8 black humor, 112, 117, 121 education, 11, 71, 75–9, 81–5 Borges, Jorge Luis, 121 (see also Bildung/bildungsroman) Boyd, Brian, 122 of epic, 93–4 Brecht, Bertolt, 67 of modernism, 15, 24–5, 75–9 Brooks, Cleanth, 23, 24, 32 and politics, 37–68 Well Wrought Urn, The, 24 of postmodernism, 110–11 Brooks, Van Wyck, 11 sublime, 98–102 Burnt Norton. See Eliot, T. S. aesthetics of disavowal. See aesthetics Aldrich, Ann. See Meaker, Marijane Caine Mutiny, The. See Wouk, Herman allegory, 14, 22–6, 29–30, 31, 32, 34 Caldwell, Taylor, 8, 14, 99–103 ambivalence, 10, 12, 38, 39, 41, 43, Dear and Glorious Physician, 8, 49–50, 53, 59, 62, 67, 72, 82, 83, 14, 99–103 84, 85, 135–8 Carol. See Price of Salt, The American Studies, 25, 25n28 Carol in a Thousand Cities. See anti-Semitism, 12, 37, 39, 40, 43, Meaker, Marijane 44–8, 54, 78, 138 catharsis, 14, 43, 44, 45, 50, 62, 67 atomic bomb, 9, 94–5, 99, 122 Chandler, Raymond, 54 Auden, W. H., 80 Christie, Agatha, 121 Austen, Jane, 57–8, 137 Mysterious Affair at Styles, The, 121 “Avant-Garde and Kitsch.” class See Greenberg, Clement mid-century shifts in, 7–8 middle-, 3, 42–3, 60, 63–4, 99, Barth, John, 15, 109, 112, 114, 117, 110, 115–16, 119–20, 131 121, 123, 125, 126, 128, 130 professional-managerial, 8, 73 Giles Goat-Boy, 15, 109, 117, 123, and race, 46–7, 52 126, 128, 130 working-, 56, 88, 120 194 Index

Cocktail Party, The. See Eliot, T. S. Farrar, John, 11 cocktails, 25, 30 fascism, 9, 21 Cold War, 3, 8–9, 39, 91, 94, 97, 99 Faulkner, William, 1, 10, 12, 55, 77 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 24 fetishistic reading. See aesthetics of Communism, 5, 8–9, 21, 39, 46, 56, disavowal, under aesthetics 67, 94, 97, 99 Finnegans Wake. See Joyce, James cultural capital, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Flame and the Flower, The. See 13, 20, 21, 31, 64, 74, 80, Woodiwiss, Kathleen 86, 120, 131 For Whom the Bell Tolls. See Hemingway, Ernest De Man, Paul, 24 free indirect discourse, 3, 28, 47, 72, Dear and Glorious Physician. See 83, 118, 136 Caldwell, Taylor Freud, Sigmund, 23, 117 Death in the Afternoon. See Friedman, Bruce Jay, 112, 115 Hemingway, Ernest From Here to Eternity. See Jones, James Deleuze, Gilles, 110, 124, 126 Denning, Michael, 41 Genesis, 103 Derrida, Jacques, 113 Gentleman’s Agreement. See Hobson, determinism, 37, 67 Laura Z. Dickens, Charles, 88 GI Bills, 8 Great Expectations, 88 Giles Goat-Boy. See Barth, John disavowal. See aesthetics of Gold, Michael, 39, 56 disavowal, under aesthetics Gravity’s Rainbow. See Pynchon, Doctorow, E. L., 15, 109, 112, 120, Thomas 123, 125–9 Great Expectations. See Dickens, Ragtime, 15, 109, 112, 120, 123, Charles 125–9 Greenberg, Clement, 2, 5–6 Drury, Allen, 3, 11, 14, 95, 115, 137 “Avant-Garde and Kitsch,” 5 Advise and Consent, 3, 14, 16, 95, 97, 137 Harder they Fall, The. See Schulberg, Du Bois, W. E. B., 40 Budd Harper’s, 4 Eliot, George, 137 Hartman, Geoffrey, 108 Eliot, T. S., 13, 16, 19–21, 24, 25, Hawaii. See Michener, James 30–6, 74, 96, 119 Hegel, G. W. F., 93–4 Burnt Norton, 33 Hemingway, Ernest, 12, 19, 22–30 Cocktail Party, The, 13, 16, 19–21, Death in the Afternoon, 23 30–6, 119 For Whom the Bell Tolls, 25 Waste Land, The, 32, 96 Old Man and the Sea, The, 16, 20, epic, 3, 10, 14, 91–6, 103, 107 22–30 “Everyday Tastes from High-Brow “Undefeated, The,” 20, 27–8 to Low-Brow Are Classified on Hersey, John, 95 Chart.” See Lynes, Russell Hiroshima, 95 Exodus. See Uris, Leon Hicks, Granville, 39 Index 195 highbrow, 4, 4n7 Lolita. See Nabokov, Vladimir Highsmith, Patricia, 6, 14, 16, 71–3, lowbrow, 4, 4n7 79–89 Lukács, Georg, 76, 93–4, 107, 116n39 Price of Salt, The, 6, 14, 16, 71–3, Lynes, Russell, 4, 5, 7, 30, 45, 86 79–89 “Everyday Tastes from High-Brow Talented Mr. Ripley, The, 86–8 to Low-Brow Are Classified on Hiroshima. See Hersey, John Chart,” 4, 30 Hobson, Laura Z., 12–13, 37, 40, 43, 44–8, 54, 77, 137 Macdonald, Dwight, 2, 5–6, 19–20, Gentleman’s Agreement, 13, 37, 40, 22, 27, 74–5, 91–2, 96, 131–2, 43, 44–8, 54, 77, 137 136 humanism, 49–50, 51, 52, 53, 57, 58, “Masscult and Midcult,” 5 59, 61, 62, 104 MacLeish, Archibald, 19, 136–7 Hutcheon, Linda, 111, 111n7 J.B., 136–7 Hutner, Gordon, 54, 135n1 Mailer, Norman, 120 Naked and the Dead, The, 120 J.B. See MacLeish, Archibald Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, The. See Jackson, George (Black Panther), 129 Wilson, Sloan James, Henry, 80, 86 Marcus, Greil, 119 Jameson, Fredric, 2, 36, 111n7, 112 Marcuse, Herbert, 75–6 Jones, James, 8, 94 mass culture, 10, 72, 91, 100–1 From Here to Eternity, 8, 94 “Masscult and Midcult.” See Joyce, James, 1, 11, 12, 14, 30, 71, 74, Macdonald, Dwight 75, 76, 77, 91–2, 93, 95, 96, 113 McCarthy, Joseph, 8 Finnegans Wake, 77, 91 McCarthy, Mary, 121, 123 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, McCarthyism, 8 A, 11, 14, 71, 76 McGurl, Mark, 3, 25n29, 31 Ulysses, 14, 113 McHale, Brian, 110, 111, 111n7, 113, 119, 130 Kael, Pauline, 21 Meaker, Marijane, 79, 80 Kant, Immanuel, 94, 107–8 Carol in a Thousand Cities, 80 Kenner, Hugh, 23, 26, 33 Metalious, Grace, 6, 14, 77, 115, 118, Killers of the Dream. See Smith, Lillian 127 Kohut, Heinz, 106–7 Peyton Place, 14, 77, 115, 118, 127 Kramer, Hilton, 30, 119, 128 Michener, James, 3, 6, 9, 11–12, 14, 77, 91, 95, 103–6 Leavis, Q. D., 4 Hawaii, 14, 16, 77, 91, 95, 103–6 Lee, Harper, 14, 37, 38, 57–62 Tales of the South Pacific, 9 To Kill a Mockingbird, 14, 37, 38, middlebrow 57–62 as bestselling, 16, 40, 73, 112 liberalism, 9n35, 13–14, 38, 39, 41, bildungsroman as, 71–89 44–8, 49–50, 53–7, 104, 116 critical genealogy, 4–8 LIFE (magazine), 4, 22, 25 as critically acclaimed, 16, 112 Llosa, Mario Vargas, 121 and cultural capital, 5–6, 64, 73, 74 196 Index middlebrow—Continued O’Connor, Flannery, 21–2 defined in opposition to Old Man and the Sea, The. modernism, 1–2, 3, 19–36, 54, See Hemingway, Ernest 71, 74–8, 106, 135 Organization Man, The. See Whyte, and disavowal, 3–4, 106–8 William epic as, 91–108 Orwell, George, 22 institutions, 3, 5, 73, 95 as mid-century term, 3 Pale Fire. See Nabokov, Vladimir postmodernist fiction as, 109–38 Partisan Review, 5, 6, 35, 36, 46 social problem novel as, 37–69 Petry, Ann, 14, 37, 39–40, 42, 43, as structure of feeling, 6–7 62–9 as subject of literary criticism, 2 “Novel as Social Criticism, The,” Miller, D. A., 58, 61, 136 42, 67 modernism, 1–6, 10–12, 15, 19–36, Street, The, 14, 37, 39–40, 42, 43, 54, 71, 74–8, 91–3, 96, 107, 111, 62–9 113, 135 Peyton Place. See Metalious, Grace Moretti, Franco, 14, 93, 96, 135 Poor No More. See Ruark, Robert Morgan, Claire (Patricia Highsmith, Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, pseud.). See Highsmith, Patricia A. See Joyce, James Musil, Robert, 96 postmodernism, 15, 92, 103, 109–34 Mysterious Affair at Styles, The. Pound, Ezra, 2, 13, 24, 96 See Christie, Agatha Price of Salt, The. See Highsmith, Patricia Nabokov, Vladimir, 15, 25, 109, 112, professional-managerial class, 8, 19, 73 116, 119, 121, 124, 125, 130–4 proletarian fiction, 14, 37, 38–40, 41, Lolita, 25, 119, 129–30 46, 55, 56 Pale Fire, 15, 109, 116, 119, 130–4 protest novel/protest fiction, 39, 46, 49 Naked and the Dead, The. See Mailer, Publishers Weekly, 112 Norman Pulitzer Prize, 16, 55, 74, 92, 95, National Book Award, 16, 112 112, 119 New Criticism, 25, 33 pulp fiction, 16, 73, 79, 81, 84, 98 new formalism, 17 Pynchon, Thomas, 15, 109, 112, 113, New York Herald Tribune, The, 30, 35 119, 120, 122, 126–7, 130 New York Times, The, 4, 16, 30, 38, Gravity’s Rainbow, 15, 109, 113, 40, 54, 62, 64, 74, 95, 112, 119, 120, 122, 126–7 113, 133 New Yorker, The, 16, 31, 91–2, 94, 95, racism, anti-Black, 10, 39, 40, 43, 96, 98, 119, 133 49–53, 57–69, 128 Ngai, Sianne, 38 Radway, Janice, 3, 7–8, 95 normativity, 7–8, 9n35, 10 Ragtime. See Doctorow, E. L. “Novel as Social Criticism, The.” realism, 2, 10, 37, 42–4, 46, 102, See Petry, Ann 125–6, 136 nuclear war. See atomic bomb socialist, 5, 55 Index 197

Reed, Carol, 9 To Kill a Mockingbird. See Lee, Harper Third Man, The, 9 Torres, Tereska, 79 reparative reading, 108 Women’s Barracks, 79 resentment. See ressentiment Touch and Go, 4 ressentiment, 110, 119–20 Riesman, David, 8 Ulysses. See Joyce, James Rosenberg, Bernard, 5 Uncle Tom’s Cabin. See Stowe, Harriet Roth, Philip, 5, 73–5, 115 Beecher Ruark, Robert, 1, 14, 94, 97–8 “Undefeated, The.” See Hemingway, Poor No More, 1, 14, 94, 97–8 Ernest Rubin, Joan Shelley, 3, 9 Uris, Leon, 14, 92, 95, 100–3 Exodus, 14, 92, 95, 100–3 Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 124 USSR, 8, 97, 99 Venus in Furs, 124 sadomasochism, 50, 57, 110, 114–34 Vanity Fair, 23 Saturday Review of Literature, The, 16, Venus in Furs. See Sacher-Masoch, 113, 119 Leopold von Schiller, Friedrich, 75 Viereck, Peter, 30–1 Schulberg, Budd, 37, 42, 53–7 Harder they Fall, The, 37, 53–7 Warren, Robert Penn, 24 Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky, 38, 108 Waste Land, The. See Eliot, T. S. Smith, Lillian, 37, 48–53 Well Wrought Urn, The. See Brooks, Killers of the Dream, 49–50 Cleanth Strange Fruit, 37, 48–53 Whyte, William, 5, 73–5, 79 social problem novel, 3, 10, 14, 37–44, Organization Man, The, 5, 73–5, 79 54 Williams, Raymond, 7, 36 Stein, Gertrude, 1, 25, 71, 113 Wilson, Sloan, 73, 74, 83, 97, 116 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 41, 43, 49 Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, The, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 41, 43, 49 73, 74, 83, 97, 116 Strange Fruit. See Smith, Lillian Women’s Barracks. See Torres, Tereska Street, The. See Petry, Ann Woodiwiss, Kathleen, 118 structure of feeling, 7 Flame and the Flower, The, 118 sublime. See aesthetics Woolf, Virginia, 4, 5 symbol/symbolism, 13, 21–7, World War II, 4, 9, 77, 100, 105, 111, 25n28, 124 120 Wouk, Herman, 6, 11–12, 14, 73, Talented Mr. Ripley, The. 74, 76 See Highsmith, Patricia Caine Mutiny, The, 16, 74, 76–7, 78 Tales of the South Pacific. See Michener, Wright, Richard, 67 James Tate, Allen, 24 Yeats, W. B., 96 Third Man, The. See Reed, Carol Thurber, James, 31, 36 Žižek, Slavoj, 86–7