EXPLORATIONS

Healing Research: What We Know and Don’t Know

“Something unknown is doing we don’t Even Einstein occasionally emphasized The classic American example of this know what.” the limitations of science. He is reported phenomenon involved the death of —Sir Arthur Eddington1 to have said (although it may be apocry- George Washington, our first head of “Not everything that counts can be phal), “If we knew what we were doing, it state. Some historians believe he was es- counted, and not everything that can be would not be called research, would it?”6 sentially bled to death by his team of well- counted counts.” meaning physicians.9 —Albert Einstein, attributed “No directions came with this idea.” HEALING RESEARCH: THE BEGINNING 2 MODERN —William Maxwell We’ve been bumping into the mysteries PRAYER-AND-HEALING STUDIES and paradoxes of healing intentions and Paradoxes abound in prayer research. For prayer since the first published prayer example, if prayer is effective, many peo- ur ignorance about healing vastly study, an 1872 survey by Sir Francis Gal- ple say “the more the better.” Perhaps not. exceeds our understanding. Some ton, the cousin of Charles Darwin. Galton Rupert Sheldrake, the British biologist people see this mystery as a good reasoned that, since monarchs and highly thing. For example, when I pub- who spent years in India, was intrigued by O placed clergy were regularly prayed for the fact that most married couples in India lished a book in 1993—Healing Words: The (God save the queen!), their health and Power of Prayer and the Practice of Medicine3— prefer having sons, and that they routinely longevity should exceed that of ordinary that attempted to clarify these questions, a ask holy men to bless their marriage. To- people if prayer is effective. He discovered reviewer wrote, “Life, ultimately, is a mys- ward this end, Indian holy men pray inces- the opposite—that sovereign heads of state tery....Inthe past year, I have found santly. With roughly one fourth the lived the shortest lives “of all who have the myself yearning for the mystery, faith, and earth’s population in India, that’s a lot of advantage of affluence.”7 rapture to be restored to my spirit. I want prayer for male babies. But when Shel- Skeptics love to quote Galton’s study, more prayer and less analysis.”4 drake compared the incidence of male but it was a dreadful exercise, a retrospec- This point of view that some things births in India and England, where the tive stab in the dark that was, one might should not be subjected to dissection, preference for sons is not as strong, he say, too cute by half. Galton failed to take analysis, and the empirical methods of sci- found the same statistic: 106 male births into account a host of confounding fac- ence has a long history. Benjamin Jowett to 100 female births, which is the same in tors, one of which has been pointed out by 3(p172) (1817-1893), the great 19th-century Plato nearly all countries. scholar, theologian, and master of Balliol theologian John Polkinghorne, a physicist Modern prayer-and-healing research College at Oxford, felt this way. He grum- and fellow of the Royal Society. He sug- was launched around the midpoint of the bled, “Research! Research! A mere excuse gests that one of the main reasons sover- 20th century. From 1951 through 1965, for idleness; it has never achieved, and will eigns lived shorter lives was because they three studies explored the correlation of never achieve any results of the slightest were exposed to one of the greatest health intercessory prayer with psychological value.”5 hazards of the day—the continual minis- well-being, childhood leukemia, and rheu- trations of the medical profession.8 If you matoid arthritis, respectively.3(pp170-179) were a European monarch in the 19th cen- Although one study claimed statistical sig- This essay is based on an address to the Inter- tury, there simply was no escaping the bru- nificance, the other two did not. These national Society for the Study of Subtle Ener- talities of physicians and the often lethal studies were not well designed and were gies and Energy Medicine, June 22, 2008, Boul- effects of their leeching, bleeding, and poorly reported. They contribute little to der, CO. purging. our understanding of healing intentions.

Explorations EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 341 We can, however, give these researchers a We found over 2,200 published State College of Medicine, and I have dis- nod of appreciation for getting the ball reports, including books, articles, dis- cussed these elsewhere.14 rolling. sertations, abstracts and other writ- What do these studies tell us? In their The most famous prayer study is that of ings on spiritual healing, energy med- assessment of this field, Jonas and Craw- icine, and mental intention effects. cardiologist Randolph Byrd, published in ford conservatively conclude: This included 122 laboratory studies, 80 1988.10 This controlled clinical study took randomized controlled trials, 128 sum- place at University of California, San maries or reviews, 95 reports of obser- There is evidence to suggest that Francisco, School of Medicine and San vational studies and nonrandomized mind and matter interact in a way Francisco General Hospital. It involved trials, 271 descriptive studies, case that is consistent with the assump- 393 patients admitted to the coronary care reports, and surveys, 1,286 other tions of distant healing. Mental in- unit for heart attack or chest pain. Al- writings including opinions, claims, tention has effects on nonliving though there was no statistically signifi- anecdotes, letters to editors, commen- random systems (such as random cant difference in mortality between the taries, critiques and meeting reports, number generators) and may have ef- and 259 selected books [emphasis groups, those receiving assigned prayer fects on living systems. While con- added].12(ppxv-xix) clusive evidence that these mental in- did better clinically on several outcomes. teractions result in healing of specific Areas of statistical significance included The following categories are included in illness is lacking, further quality re- less need for cardiopulmonary resuscita- 12(ppxv-xix) the data analyzed by Jonas and Crawford: search should be pursued. tion, less need for potent medications, and a lower incidence of pulmonary edema ● religious practice This conclusion is so cautious many and pneumonia in the group receiving ● prayer healers insist that it does not go far intercessory prayer from prayer groups ● “energy” healing enough. I disagree. The key question is not around the United States. These differ- ● Qigong (laboratory research) how large the effects are, but whether they ences, although statistically significant, ● Qigong (clinical research) exist at all. In fact, the Jonas and Crawford were not earthshaking: a 5% to 7% advan- ● laboratory research on bioenergy conclusion is radical because it suggests tage for the prayed-for group. ● DMILS (direct mental interaction with what conventional science considers un- thinkable: that human consciousness can Although it was the first major prayer living systems; remote influence on act nonlocally to affect the so-called mate- experiment, the Byrd study is not the best; electrodermal activity) rial world at a distance, beyond the reach it could have been improved in many ways, ● DMILS (direct mental interaction with 3(pp179-186) of the senses. This involves a fundamen- as I’ve described elsewhere. Byrd living systems, such as remote staring) tally new way of thinking about the nature deserves great credit, however, for this cou- ● MMI (mind-matter interaction, such as of human consciousness and its place in rageous effort, which could hardly have em- the remote influence of individuals on the world. bellished his career as an academic cardiolo- random event generators) These findings represent more than a gist at one of the nation’s best medical ● MMI (mind-matter interaction, such as new tool in the physician’s black bag. Al- schools. His great contribution was estab- the remote influence of a group with though it’s true that intentionality, includ- lishing a principle that came as a shock to random event generators, so-called field- most physicians, including me—one can ing prayer, has been used throughout his- REG experiments) tory to heal illness, this practical side is not study prayer in a clinical setting much as one ● healing in a group setting studies a physical intervention such as a new the primary contribution of the emerging evidence. The key significance is the non- medication. In assessing the quality of healing stud- local nature of consciousness that is sug- If we fast-forward to present time, we ies by using strict Consolidated Standards gested by these studies. This implication can identify around two dozen major-con- of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) criteria, dwarfs whatever pragmatic benefits these trolled studies in humans, approximately Jonas and Crawford give the highest grade, studies convey. half of which show statistically significant an A, to lab-based, mind-matter interaction Many skeptics realize what’s at stake results favoring the intervention group studies, and a B to the prayer-and-healing here. If only a single one of these studies is toward whom healing intentions were studies. Religion-and-health studies get a D 11(pp216-232) valid, then a nonlocal dimension of con- extended. because they are epidemiological-observa- sciousness exists. In this case, the universe Approximately eight systematic or meta- tional studies and are not blinded and is different than we have supposed, and analyses of studies involving healing in- controlled. the game changes. Therefore, all these tentions and prayer have been published This context does not permit us to re- findings must be rejected, or the conven- 11(pp226-229) in peer-reviewed journals. All view even the main healing studies, which tional, cherished views of consciousness as but one arrived at positive conclusions. I have done elsewhere.11(pp216-231) So too a completely local phenomenon will be The most thorough analysis is that of has Daniel Benor, MD, whose pioneering subverted. That is why many critics seem Wayne B. Jonas, MD, the former director contributions in this field deserve special to consider skepticism a blood sport and of the NIH National Center for Comple- recognition.13 why they pursue a scorched-earth policy mentary and Alternative Medicine, and Neither can we examine the main skep- in which all studies in the field of healing Cindy C. Crawford. In their 2003 review, tical responses to prayer-and-healing stud- are categorically condemned, often for the they state: ies in general. David Hufford, of Penn flimsiest reasons.

342 EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 Explorations What about the hundreds of studies “misSTEP.” The impact of STEP, how- had the worst clinical outcome of all, im- dealing with nonhuman, inanimate sys- ever, has been significant. Because of its plying that prayer might be harmful. tems? Overall, these studies demonstrate negative outcome, it has become the dar- The response of the media to these find- the highest quality of the various catego- ling healing experiment of skeptics. Many ings was enthusiastic and often playful. A ries of intentionality experiments. Many critics consider “the Harvard study” as the banner in Newsweek magazine, April 10, of these studies, such as those done at the final nail in the coffin of remote healing 2006, read, “Don’t Pray for Me! Please!” Princeton Engineering Anomalies Re- research. To the great glee of critics of this search lab, have demonstrated astronomi- area, it has had a chilling effect on future cally high levels of statistical significance research in this field because of the gravi- Analysis and have been consistently positive across tas associated with Harvard-based science. 15 Let’s imagine what the results of the exper- decades. Healing studies involving inan- Unfortunately, few critics take the time to iment might have been under three condi- imate systems, therefore, buttress the ask whether the study was well conceived tions: (1) if prayer is effective, (2) if prayer human studies and are potent evidence and whether its conclusions are valid. But is ineffective, or (3) if prayer is harmful. supporting the remote effects of healing there is another side to STEP. It has actu- intentions. ally contributed to healing research, be- 1. If prayer is effective, groups A and C We need to take all the studies in inten- cause some of the most instructive exper- should have benefited equally from it, tionality into consideration because, when iments are those that fail. with C having the added benefit of the taken together, they affirm a principle that placebo response owing to the cer- is highly prized in science—the concatena- tainty of receiving prayer. Group C, tion or interconnectedness of things that Methods then, should have had the best clinical appear unrelated. If we examine the array The STEP experiment involved 1,802 pa- outcome of the three groups. This was of categories analyzed by Jonas and Craw- tients undergoing coronary-artery bypass not the case; C had the worst out- ford, we find intentionality effects at the surgery in six different US hospitals. They come. So “effective prayer” is unable macroscopic level, as in healing studies in- were assigned to three groups: (1) 604 pa- to explain the outcome of STEP. volving whole persons; at the tissue level, tients were told they might or might not 2. If prayer is ineffective, it should not as in studies involving populations of var- be prayed for, and were (which we’ll call have exerted any effect on any of the ious types of cells; at the microbial level, as group A), (2) 597 patients were told they three groups, but group C should have in studies involving growth rates of bacte- might or might not be prayed for, and done better because of the certainty of ria, yeasts, and fungi; at the molecular were not (which we’ll designate as group receiving prayer, thus benefiting from level, as in studies involving enzyme kinet- B, and (3) 601 patients were told they the placebo effect. But group C did ics and biochemical reactions; and at the would definitely be prayed for, and were the worst of all the groups, so “ineffec- subatomic level, as in random event gen- (which we’ll call group C). tive prayer” is unable to explain the erators where people attempt to influence Two Catholic groups and one Protestant outcome of the experiment. the distribution of ones and zeroes. The group were chosen to be intercessors. They 3. If prayer harms, both A and C should fact that intentionality effects are demon- prayed for the subjects for two weeks, be- strated across this enormous spectrum of ginning on the eve or day of surgery. The have demonstrated worse outcomes nature, from the macroworld to the me- intercessors were given a prescribed than B (spared prayer), in which case B soworld to the microworld, suggests that prayer, following which they were permit- would have done better than the other we have discovered a general, pervasive ted to pray their customary way. They two groups. But B responded equally principle in nature—the ability of inten- were also given the first name and the ini- with A. Therefore, harmful or negative tionality to change the world. This unity tial of the last name of those for whom prayer cannot explain the results of of knowledge from disparate domains is they were praying. STEP. called consilience by sociobiologist E. O. Wilson.16 The STEP researchers essentially ig- Results nored in their report the possibility that STUDY OF THE THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS In group A—the 604 patients who were prayer might be harmful, simply saying OF INTERCESSORY PRAYER told they might or might not be prayed that the worst outcome in group C “may The second, best-known prayer-and-heal- for, and were—52% had postoperative have been a chance finding.” They were ing experiment is the Harvard Medical complications. In group B—the 597 pa- taken to task for this in a scathing rebuke School Study of the Therapeutic Effects of tients who were told they might or might in the American Heart Journal.18 The criti- Intercessory Prayer (STEP), published in not be prayed for, and were not—51% had cism is appropriate in view of the anthro- 2006 by physician Herbert Benson et al.17 postoperative complications, not statisti- pological evidence that negative beliefs The purpose of STEP was to assess the cally different from group A. In group and intentions can be lethal (curses, hexes, impact of certainty and uncertainty on the C—the 601 who were told they would be spells), as well as the controlled laboratory possible effectiveness of intercessory prayed for, and were—59% had postopera- studies showing that negative intentions prayer in patients undergoing coronary tive complications, a statistically signifi- can retard or harm living, nonhuman bypass surgery. cant difference from groups A and B. systems.19(pp165-192) Many proponents of prayer and healing In other words, the group that received What other possible explanations are have called STEP a “STEP backward” or a prayer and was certain they would do so there for STEP’s outcome?

Explorations EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 343 Extraneous Prayer compared with the other two groups, this eral Hospital. “It’s possible that we inad- Randomized controlled studies in prayer group had a higher incidence of chronic vertently raised the stress levels of these in humans acknowledge that patients in obstructive pulmonary disease (emphy- people.”23 both treatment and control groups may sema and chronic bronchitis), a higher in- pray for themselves and that their loved cidence of smoking history, a higher rate ones may pray for them as well, but it is of three-vessel coronary bypass surgery, Experimenter Effects assumed that the effects of this extraneous and a lower rate of beta-blocker use prior One of the most consistent findings in prayer is equally distributed between the to surgery, which many experts consider parapsychological research is that the intervention and control groups and does to be cardio-protective during coronary preexisting beliefs of the experimenter not create statistical differences between bypass surgery. For a fair trial of prayer, the often correlate with the outcome of his/ 24,25 the two. This assumption may or may not study should have established a level play- her experiment. This so-called ex- be true, and in any case does not eliminate ing field between all three groups through perimenter effect is assumed not to exist the problems posed by extraneous prayer proper randomization, such that no group in modern clinical research, because in controlled studies. The positive effects was worse off than any other going into it is believed that the subjective attitudes of extraneous prayer, if they exist, may di- the study. of an experimenter cannot penetrate a minish the effect size between the two controlled study and “push the data groups, therefore limiting one’s ability to around.” Yet, any study that attempts to detect the effects of assigned prayer in the Psychological Factors evaluate the effects of prayer should en- intervention group. As one of the coau- The overall design of the study may have tertain the possibility of experimenter thors of STEP said in a news release from created psychological dynamics in groups effects. After all, the assumption of an Harvard Medical School, “One caveat [of A and B that could have led to the results experimenter effect in a healing study is STEP] is that with so many individuals that were observed. Patients in groups A no more radical than the hypothesis be- receiving prayer from friends and family, and B were told they might or might not ing tested—namely that the beliefs and as well as personal prayer, it may be impos- be prayed for by the intercessors. Think intentions of intercessors might influ- sible to disentangle the effects of study for a moment what this means. Surveys ence clinical outcomes. If the beliefs and prayer from background prayer.”20 show that around 80% to 90% of Ameri- intentions of intercessors can change the An analogy would be a pharmaceutical cans pray regularly when they are well, and physical outcomes of an experiment, study in which the intervention group is it can be assumed that even more pray then why shouldn’t the beliefs and in- treated with 10 mg of the drug being when they are sick. Faced with the pros- tentions of experimenters also affect the tested, and the control group with 9 mg. pect of being denied prayer in the study, results? Even if the medication were effective, the subjects in A and B may therefore have Ian Stevenson, the late physician-re- could the effect be detected? aggressively solicited prayer from their searcher of the University of Virginia, ad- No one knows how extraneous prayer loved ones to make up for the possible dressed experimenter effects in his 1989 could be eliminated in human prayer-and- withholding of prayer in the experiment, Presidential Address to the Society for Psy- healing studies. It may be impossible to do and they may have redoubled their per- chical Research, entitled “Thoughts on so, especially in American culture where sonal prayers for themselves. Thus a para- the Decline of Major Paranormal Phe- 26 the great majority of individuals pray rou- dox may have resulted in which A and B nomena.” By “major” he meant “phe- tinely when they are well. Trying to elim- received more prayer—not less—than C, nomena so gross that we require no statis- inate prayer in a control group may be even though this was not the intent of the tics for their demonstration.” One reason unethical as well, for who has the right to study. If prayer is effective, this additional, he gave for this decline was the influence extinguish personal prayer and prayer by unforeseen, extraneous prayer may have of an increasingly pervasive mechanistic loved ones during sickness? In contrast, lifted A and B above C in terms of clinical and materialistic worldview. As he put it: extraneous prayer can be handily elimi- outcomes, accounting for the study’s re- sults. nated in nonhuman studies involving an- . . . the possibility [exists] that spread- imals, plants, or microbes. They presum- Another possibility is that patients in ing materialism has had an inhibiting ably do not pray for themselves, and group C, who knew that many outsiders effect on paranormal phenomena neither do their fellow beings pray for were praying for them, felt stressed and through paranormal causes. Critics them. In these studies, one often sees pressured to do well. Moreover, “It might tell us that allegations of their having profoundly positive effects of healing have made them uncertain, wondering, an adverse effect on the phenomena intentions.3(pp189-195) ‘Am I so sick they had to call in their are mere evasions of the painful truth prayer team’?” said cardiologist Charles that they have improved vigilance Bethea, MD, a member of the STEP and tightened controls, so that the Randomization Differences research team.22 “We found increased alleged phenomena do not occur in the presence of the controls they rec- In May 2008, Ariel et al21 examined the amounts of adrenalin, a sign of stress, in ommend. This may be true in some demographic differences between the the blood of patients who knew strangers instances, and I am far from saying three groups in the Harvard study and were praying for them,” said STEP re- that we can learn nothing from crit- found that group C, which had the highest searcher Jeffrey A. Dusek, PhD, associate ics. However, we for our part have rate of postoperative complications, may research director of Harvard’s Mind/Body obtained abundant evidence of the have been predisposed to do worse. When Medical Institute at Massachusetts Gen- effect of the participants’ beliefs on

344 EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 Explorations the delicate balance for or against they are attempting to harm other people STEP: A Summary paranormal effects in experimental through prayer. We can make several general statements 27 situations. An atmosphere of com- Could an experimenter effect explain about STEP. pletely unqualified belief appears to the results of the Harvard prayer study? facilitate and may indeed be essen- We cannot say with certainty because we 1. Nowhere in the world is prayer used as tial for the occurrence of paranor- in STEP. mal physical phenomena,28,29 and I do not know the preexisting attitudes and think this may be equally true of beliefs of the experimenters. We can say, paranormal mental phenomena. If however, that the Harvard group was not People universally say they pray for belief facilitates them, disbelief can block generally known to be advocates of the their loved ones. This suggests that they them, as Schmeidler’s experiments nonlocal, interpersonal effects of interces- intimately know them, they pray uncondi- showed many years ago [emphasis sory prayer prior to study; rather, the tionally for them, and they love and care 30(pp103-110,210-221) added]. group is widely known and admired as for them with empathy and compassion. proponents of the intrapersonal, mind- In their critique of STEP, researchers Marilyn M. Schlitz and Dean Radin say, Psi researcher Gertrude Schmeidler body perspective, toward which they have showed that the scores of subjects in card- made admirable, even landmark, contri- guessing experiments tended to be high or butions for decades. None of the clinical trials [of distant low according to whether an experimenter Experimenter effects may not be lim- healing intention] has made use of was wishing the percipient to succeed or ited to the immediate investigators but what scientists call ‘ecological valid- 31,32 fail. Other experiments suggest that may involve the larger experimental sur- ity.’ This means the trials were not unfavorable influences may not reach the round. No one knows where experimenter designed to model what happens in real life, where people often know the level of an overt wish that a percipient fail, effects begin or end. Could the negative person for whom they are praying says Stevenson, but may remain largely attitudes of skeptical or hostile scientists in unconscious. Moreover, Stevenson cites and with whom they have a meaning- the larger Harvard scholarly community ful relationship. In the Harvard experimental evidence that a person need have been a factor in group C’s negative Study, for example, prayer groups not be physically present to adversely af- results? Might the effects of negative were instructed for the sake of stan- fect an experiment in extrasensory percep- thoughts, intentions, wishes, or willing ex- dardization to use a prescripted tion.26 tended even further? More than any other prayer that was different from what Are these findings from psi research rel- those who prayed used in their nor- healing study on record, STEP was the evant to the biological domain? Almost mal practice. So the Harvard study subject of media attention for years before certainly the answer is yes. This author re- did not really test what the healers it was published. While still on the draw- viewed several studies in nonhumans in claimed works for them. In addition, ing board, it commanded notice from in- which negative thoughts and intentions in most of the clinical studies, the terested parties in both America and Eu- investigators were tightly focused on of experimenters were correlated with rope. Several scholars predicted this medical outcomes, and hardly any at- negative biological effects in a variety of tention was paid to the inner experi- 19(pp165-192) experiment would decisively settle the living systems. During the late ences of the healers and patients.42 19th century, several experiments, by controversy about the effectiveness of Janet, Richet, and others showed that prayer, and most of the predictions of certain subjects could be put to sleep by which I am aware were that prayer would fail. Some critics gleefully anticipated a suggestions directed at them from a long 2. Patients in STEP were not known to 33-36 failed experiment and the demise of such distance. Experiments in the 20th the intercessors. Neither were all the studies. Did these negative beliefs and in- century by Vasiliev showed that this subjects offered unconditional prayer. tentions affect the results? In view of the effect could operate under conditions of Two of the three groups were essen- 37,38(pp12-17,102-111) evidence for nonlocal experimenter ef- electromagnetic shielding. tially told, “We may or may not pray fects, this possibility cannot be handily The anthropological literature provides for you.” The perceptions of the sub- dismissed. abundant evidence suggesting that neg- jects could hardly have been those of ative intentions can harm or even kill It may be difficult to assess the preex- unconditional love and caring. To individuals at a distance, beyond the isting beliefs of experimenters even if we grasp the significance of uncertainty range of sensory influences, even when try. Some investigators may claim they of prayer, imagine going to the bed- the victim is unaware the attempt is be- are neutral toward the remote effects of side of a loved one the evening prior to ing made.19(pp53-133) intentionality and prayer even though cardiac surgery and saying, “I have not A surprising number of Americans em- they may disbelieve them, because the decided whether or not I am going to brace the possibility that thoughts, inten- scientific ideal is openness, not close pray for you.” tions, or prayers may harm others re- mindedness. Sometimes prejudice slips 3. People do not ordinarily pray scripted motely. A 1994 Gallup poll found that 5% out, however, as with a peer reviewer prayers in real life but pray from the of Americans have prayed for harm to who rejected a paper on the nonlocal heart in ways that vary according to come to others.39 It is likely that the per- manifestations of consciousness with their individual temperament, person- centage is much higher, since many indi- the comment that he would not believe ality, and spiritual beliefs. Some pray viduals are reluctant to admit to pollsters such a thing, even if it were true.40,41 for specific outcomes, others pray in

Explorations EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 345 an open-ended, nonspecific way—“thy THE ACHTERBERG fMRI STUDY time to question whether the randomized dou- will be done” or “may the best out- Researcher Jeanne Achterberg, who is well ble-blind protocol favored in conventional clin- come prevail.” Scripted prayers de- known for her decades-long research in ical research is adequate for healing experi- grade the “ecological validity” of real- imagery, visualization, and healing inten- ments. life prayer. tions, moved to the Big Island of Hawaii Because all double-blind prayer experi- 4. Ritual and context help strengthen the to investigate healing.43 She spent two ments employ the uncertainty of receiving emotional bond in real life between years integrating with the community of prayer, all double-blind protocols distort intercessors and subjects (community healers, who accepted her and shared their real-life prayer. The double-blind proto- prayer, prayer in religious settings, etc) methods. After gaining their trust, she and col, therefore, while useful in other areas We are not told about the context in her colleagues recruited 11 healers. Each of medical research, is not ideal for assess- which STEP prayers were offered. was asked to select a person they had ing intercessory prayer. 5. Strangely, the study could not gener- worked with previously with distant inten- Obsessive reliance on double-blind pro- ate a placebo effect, suggesting that tionality, and with whom they felt an em- tocols to test healing intentions may re- factors were afoot in the study that pathic, compassionate bond. The healers flect what researcher Edward F. Kelly of were not taken into account by the were not casually interested in healing; the University of Virginia calls “meth- odolatry”—blind worship of a particular research team. they had pursued their healing tradition an average of 23 years. They described method of investigation. Kelly states, 6. Although it is the largest and most ex- their healing efforts variously—prayer, pensive prayer study to date, STEP is sending energy or good intentions, or not the most rigorous and scientific. wishing for the subject the highest good. Several other studies appear much Each recipient was placed in a functional Laboratory research using random more thoughtful, such as the strongly magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan- samples of subjects, control groups, and statistical modes of data analy- positive study of Achterberg that uti- ner and was isolated from all forms of sen- sis can be wonderfully useful, but lized Native Hawaiian healers, which sory contact with the healer. The healers 14,43,44 obsession with this as the only valid we shall examine shortly. Al- sent forms of distant intentionality related though published just prior to STEP, means of acquiring new knowledge to their own healing practices at two- readily degenerates into ‘meth- this positive study generated almost minute random intervals that could not be odolatry,’ the methodological face no media attention, illustrating the anticipated by the recipient. Significant of scientism....The experimental media’s preference for controversy differences between the experimental literature itself is replete with exam- and bad news. (send) and control (no send) conditions ples of supposedly ‘rigorous’ labora- were found; there was less than approxi- tory studies which were in fact per- The most important criticism of the mately one chance in 10,000 that the re- formed under conditions that Harvard prayer study is that prayer was sults could be explained by chance hap- guaranteed their failure from the outset.45(ppxxvii-xxix) employed in ways that simply do not oc- penings (P ϭ .000127). The areas of the cur in ordinary life. “Prayer in the wild” in brain that were activated during the send “free-range humans” does not resemble periods included the anterior and middle Inserting uncertainty of receiving STEP prayer. In fairness, this criticism ap- cingulate areas, the precuneus, and frontal healing intentions or prayer erodes trust between healer and healee, and trust is plies not just to STEP, but to nearly all areas. This study suggests that remote, considered crucial in real-life prayer and randomized controlled clinical trials of compassionate, healing intentions can ex- healing. As physicist Russell Targ and healer prayer in humans as well. ert measurable effects on the recipient, Jane Katra state, “Rapport [is] . . . paramount Large randomized controlled clinic tri- and that an empathic connection between [in healing] . . . . Commonality of purpose als of prayer in humans contain so many the healer and the recipient is a vital part and mutual trust are essential prerequi- pitfalls that even the most assiduous re- of the process. Strictly speaking, this is not a healing sites . . . such agreement and coherence searchers may not be able to anticipate among individuals . . . can be attained them all. This does not mean that this type study because no one was sick. It can be considered a healing analogue, however, whenever people surrender their individual of trial should be abandoned, because re- identities and join their minds together, fo- search methodologies in any young grow- because the healers were performing what they usually do during healing rituals. cusing their attention on creating a com- ing field in medical research generally im- mon goal . . . the trust and rapport can then prove with time. And some of the more be quickly achieved.”46(pp81,82) carefully done controlled trials have pro- CONSIDERATIONS FOR A more appropriate experimental ap- duced positive results. But perhaps it’s FUTURE RESEARCH proach may be that of Achterberg et al,43 time to focus on healing research in hu- What can we learn from these studies? which we’ve examined. This experiment mans in ways that preserve the ecological Where do we go from here? What should maximized the key features of intercessory validity of prayer, even though these we do differently in future experiments? I prayer: trust, rapport, empathy, compas- methodologies depart from the cherished have several suggestions. sion, and unconditionality of healing in- randomized double-blind protocol. As 1. Experiments involving prayer should rep- tent. This true-to-life approach is more we’ll now see, some researchers have be- licate, not subvert, how prayer is employed in likely to capture whatever effects of prayer gun to do exactly this. the daily lives of ordinary people. Therefore, it is and intentionality may exist.

346 EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 Explorations There is no need to apologize for depart- and Reiki have taken steps in this direction mised because many studies use a variety ing from a double-blind controlled ap- through certification programs. of healers simultaneously. How would we proach to prayer. Where healing is con- Some of the most successful studies know which one worked and which ones cerned, one should adapt the experimental have employed healers with years or de- did not? methodology to the technique and not vice cades of experience and who considered Yet we must be careful when using a versa, as is often done. This is not only com- themselves professional healers.43,48 A homogenous group of healers or interces- mon sense, but good science as well. competing approach seeks to democratize sors. This has led to a charge of religious 2. Single case reports of single individuals’ healing by using relatively unskilled heal- favoritism toward some studies, includ- responses to healing efforts should be encour- ers/intercessors. This reflects a desire to ing the celebrated 1988 Byrd study, in aged. show that healing abilities are widespread which only born-again Christians were re- 10 It may not be accidental that the most or universal, present in some degree in per- cruited as intercessors. Religious agen- dramatic responses to prayer are reported haps everyone. Democratizing healing das, whether real or implied, are a guaran- not in randomized controlled trials but in abilities is a noble effort, but the evidence tee for criticism of this field. instances in which single individuals re- so far suggests that this often results in Thus far, evidence suggests that reli- ceive prayer from family, loved ones, the marginal or nonsignificant outcomes. gious affiliation in prayer-and-healing faith community to which they belong, or Prodigies exist in every area of human studies does not greatly matter. Successful from healers whom they know and trust. endeavor, such as athletics, music, mathe- studies have used secular healers, or spiri- These individualized settings maximize matics, and art. Throughout history they tual, but not religious healers, or devotees trust, unconditionality, love, empathy, have existed in healing as well. Selecting of a variety of faiths. Thus far, no particu- and compassion on which healing de- seasoned, experienced, veteran healers lar faith tradition appears to have cornered pends, whereas controlled trials do not. should not be seen as an exercise in elitism the market on effective healing. When dramatic responses occur in con- but as an effort to provide an experiment In a world aflame with religious zeal and ventional randomized clinical trials in- with the optimal chance of success. And if narrow fundamentalism, healing research- volving pharmaceutical treatments, they the use of veteran healers is considered ers should not add to the epidemic of re- are usually dismissed as “statistical outli- elitist, it is a “democratic elitism” to which ligious intolerance and bigotry. This cau- ers” and are ignored. In healing experi- all are invited through training and expe- tion may seem unnecessary, but I believe ments, we need to treat them not as an rience. otherwise. An example involved a physi- inconvenience or embarrassment but as a If we wish to know whether humans can cian friend of mine who is a sincere pro- possibly meaningful response to healing run a four-minute mile, we test excep- ponent of religious-based healing at a lead- efforts, as emphasized by authors Hirsh- tional athletes to find out. To determine ing medical school. He suggested to me berg and Barasch in Remarkable Recovery, whether prayer is effective, why not test that we need a prayer-and-healing contest. an admirable review of the field of spont- the most experienced, seasoned interces- Healers of various faith traditions would aneous healing.47 sors or healers? The strongly positive be invited to participate in a uniform heal- Achterberg study43 and the positive study ing experiment, and their results would be 3. In view of the evidence for experimenter in advanced AIDS by Sicher, Targ, and quantified and compared. This would be a effects, the preexisting beliefs of prayer experi- colleagues48 illustrate this principle. “prayoff,” rather like a playoff in profes- menters should be ascertained and recorded as sional sports. In the end, the healers of a part of the study. 6. The actual techniques of healing and prayer deserve attention. single religious tradition would be The longitudinal assessment of this fac- crowned the winner. He called this the tor, over many decades and scores of stud- According to a Buddhist saying, “When the wrong person uses the right method, “Elijah Test,” after the Old Testament ies, would help clarify whether or not the the right method works in the wrong way.” prophet who trounced a group of pagan experimenter effect applies to healing- In healing, we want the right person to use priests in a head-to-head contest of sorts (1 and-prayer studies as it does in studies in the right method. The right person may be Kings 18). Although I initially thought my other areas, as we have seen. a veteran healer, as mentioned, but what is friend’s proposal was a joke, he was quite 4. Studies involving healing intentions the right method? serious. “Why do you want to do this?” I should not be conducted in the full glare of the Many researchers consider healing to be asked. “I just want to bring praise to the media. a black box and pay little or no attention Lord,” he replied with incandescent en- Healing studies are best done out of the to the techniques that are used. This is thusiasm. He had no doubt that his own way, with a minimal amount of fanfare akin to regarding all pharmaceuticals as religion would triumph. He seemed not to and public attention. This will minimize “drugs,” without distinguishing between care that his proposal would evoke divi- any influence of extraneous intentions— antibiotics, antiarrhythmics, anti-inflam- siveness and enmity between faiths. I am experimenter effects—from both cordial matories, chemotherapeutic agents, and happy that a prayoff has not been con- and hostile sources. so on. Want to get better? Take a drug; ducted, and I hope it never is. In healing, 5. Careful consideration should be given to don’t ask what it is. Our failure to differ- we should not be promoting winners and the selection of intercessors or healers. entiate healing methodologies may be losers. We have made only halting efforts at equally naive. 7. We should determine whether certain con- gauging the skills of healers, although the Our efforts to distinguish the efficacy of ditions are more susceptible to healing than fields of therapeutic touch, healing touch, different healing techniques are compro- others.

Explorations EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 347 In conventional medicine, appendicitis lem. Experiments using single healing The successful triple-blind study of is easier to cure than brain tumors, and methods would help answer this question. Cha et al,50 involving pregnancy rates in some brain tumors are easier to cure than 9. We should seek to understand the inter- women undergoing in vitro fertilization others. Is this true where healing inten- connections between healing, prayer, and med- and embryo transfer, employed this 50 tions are concerned? Are some illnesses itation. method. The MANTRA II study by Kru- 51 more responsive to healing than others? Several studies have compared experi- coff et al at Duke University Medical We don’t yet know, but we should be pre- enced meditators with nonmeditators in Center also added a tiered feature at a cer- pared for surprises. It may turn out that performing certain psi tasks. As psi re- tain point in the experiment. Although some serious illnesses are more susceptible searcher Dean Radin says, “The medita- the overall study was not statistically sig- to healing intentions than mild ailments tors almost always perform better, usually nificant, analysis revealed that significant are. significantly better....These abilities results were achieved beginning with the Many years ago I had a conversation have something to do with the subtle as- addition of the tiered feature. about this issue with physician-researcher pects of mind....Thephenomena seem By a rotating design is meant that prayer Elisabeth Targ when she and her research to bubble up from our unconscious, so the assignments are rotated during the course team were designing their landmark heal- more that we are aware of what’s going on of the experiment, so that by its conclu- ing study. I had just learned that she had in our unconscious, the better people are sion all patients have been subjected to the decided to use subjects with advanced likely to do.”49 prayers and healing intentions of all the intercessors or healers. This helps mini- AIDS for the experiment. I called her and Do skilled meditators make better heal- mize any difference in the skills of healers said something like, “Elisabeth, why on ers? As far as I know, there have been no by ensuring that efforts of healers who earth did you pick advanced AIDS? healing studies that have specifically used may be uniquely gifted are conveyed to all There’s no good conventional treatment for only skilled meditators. There needs to be. the patients in the treatment group, not this problem (this was prior to the use of 10. What is the difference between prayer multiple antiretrovirals). Why do you just to a few. Targ and her colleagues em- and focused intentionality? ployed this method in a positive study ex- think healing is going to work? Why not When patients respond to intercession, amining healing intentions in patients pick a milder illness, like the flu? I’m afraid what is responsible for their response—in- with advanced AIDS, as we’ve seen.48 you’re going to give healing a bad name!” tercessory prayer itself, or focused atten- 12. Close attention should be paid to the du- She laughed heartily. “Larry,” she chided, tion such as one sees in skilled meditators? ration and frequency of the healing therapy that “I thought you believed in healing!” She And is the prayer mediated by a higher is used. patiently explained her reasons. “If we can power, or is there a direct, mind-to-matter These factors vary so widely in experi- make a difference in advanced AIDS, interaction, which psi researchers called ments to date that comparison between skeptics can’t say that healing did nothing psychokinesis? No one knows for sure. studies is often difficult. For example, because the illness would have got better Most religious-based healers insist that prayer duration has varied from only a anyway. Besides, healers like a challenge. the effects of prayer are mediated by a few minutes52 to hours.48 One “minutes- They’d much rather work on patients with higher power. Yet not all religions are the- only” prayer study involving patients re- a problem like AIDS than someone with istic. The classic example is some forms of ceiving renal dialysis actually prohibited the flu.” Buddhism, in which healers pray not to a the intercessors from praying more than She was right. Her study found that the specific deity but to the universe at large. just a few minutes a day, whereas the Targ patients with advanced AIDS who were What mediates Buddhist healing prayer? et al study in patients with advanced AIDS extended healing intentions did better on I confess that I cannot conceive of an required healers to extend healing inten- several counts. They had a lower incidence experiment that would tease apart this tions for hours a day. The Targ study was of AIDS-associated illnesses that kill AIDS question. After all, there are no “God successful, while the “minutes-only” study patients, such as pneumocystis pneumo- meters” in science. Perhaps this is an indi- was not. nia, encephalitis, and so on. They had a cation that we ought to leave this question This does not necessarily mean, how- lower rate of hospitalization. If they were open and encourage people simply to pray ever, that more prayer and healing inten- hospitalized, their stays were briefer. They in the way that feels most genuine and tions are always better. There does not ap- had a higher quality of life score than the authentic to them without trying to prove pear to be a dose-response curve in controls, and there was no correlation be- “what did it.” After all, the person who is healing, like we see with medications. Al- tween their outcomes and whether or not healed is more concerned with the fact of most certainly we will find that it is not they believed they were receiving healing her healing than how it happened. 48 just quantitative factors such as the fre- intentions. 11. More attention should be paid to a tiered quency and duration of healing intentions 8. We should determine whether specific and rotating experimental design in prayer- that matter, but also qualitative factors— healing techniques are compatible or incompat- and-healing studies. the degree of genuineness, sincerity, com- ible with conventional drugs and surgical pro- By a tiered design is meant a “backup” passion, empathy, and love that are of- cedures. group of intercessors who simply pray for fered. For my part, if I were sick I would Some healers say there’s never a conflict a successful outcome of the overall study, prefer the brief prayers of a single em- with conventional therapies, whereas oth- in addition to a group of intercessors who pathic, loving individual to those of a ers say incompatibility is always a prob- pray specifically for the subjects. hundred people who were bored stiff.

348 EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 Explorations 13. We should acknowledge that healing re- ● Dean Radin, The Conscious Universe54 that the most decisive proof is not in hu- search may not be for everyone. and Entangled Minds,55 as mentioned man studies but in nonhuman ones. In conventional science, it is believed ● Damien Broderick, Outside the Gates of In order to further answer these press- that any researcher may investigate any Science: Why It’s Time for the Paranormal ing, fundamental questions, Jonas and subject, provided he or she has the requi- to Come In from the Cold56 Crawford have wisely suggested that we site expertise. But we’ve noted that the ● Elizabeth Lloyd Mayer, Extraordinary need to develop a biological model for conscious and unconscious beliefs and in- Knowing: Science, Skepticism, and the Inex- healing. They say, “Laboratory models al- tentions of a researcher may influence the plicable Powers of the Human Mind57 low for rigorous and controlled studies to outcome of a carefully designed experi- ● Robert G. Jahn and Brenda J. Dunne, test mechanisms and theories of heal- ment. If intentions and beliefs matter, it is Margins of Reality: The Role of Conscious- ing....A bioREG (biological random 58 best that those who are hostile to the pos- ness in the Physical World event generator) is one focus for develop- sibility of remote healing bypass this field ● Stephan A. Schwartz, Opening to the Infi- ment. Other models might include a cell of investigation, because their negative be- nite: The Art and Science of Nonlocal biology model of cancer and a neuro- 59 liefs may poison their efforts. Awareness science model examining the neurological 13 Barbara McClintock, the Nobel geneti- ● Daniel J. Benor, Healing Research correlates of healing and consciousness ● Wayne B. Jonas and Cindy C. Craw- technologies such as functional MRI and cist, expressed a similar idea. She believed 12(ppxv-xix) that her success depended in large mea- ford, Healing, Intention and Energy Medi- PET, MEG or qEEG.” 12 sure on what she called a “feeling for the cine A promising example along these lines 53 ● is a recent study examining the effects of organism.” Those who have no “feeling Edward F. Kelly et al, Irreducible Mind: 45 therapeutic touch on the proliferation of for the organism” in healing should cede Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century ● normal human cells in culture, compared this research area to those who do. Cardeña Etzel, Lynn Steven Jay, Kripp- ner Stanley, eds. Varieties of Anomalous with sham and no treatment. These re- 14. Healing researchers should familiarize Experience: Examining the Scientific Evi- searchers found that therapeutic touch themselves with the accomplishments of para- dence60 administered twice a week in 10-minute psychology. ● Richard Broughton, Parapsychology: The intervals for two weeks significantly stim- Research involving human intentional- Controversial Science61 ulated proliferation of fibroblasts, teno- ity has been done in the field of parapsy- ● Russell Targ, Do You See What I See?62 cytes, and osteoblasts in culture (P ϭ .04, chology for decades, including hundreds ● Russsell Targ and Jane Katra, Miracles of .01, and .01, respectively) compared with of careful studies in a variety of living Mind: Exploring Non-local Consciousness untreated controls.64 12(ppxv-xix),13 systems. However, prayer- and Spiritual Healing46 16. The goal of a single “killer study” in heal- and-healing researchers generally appear ● Robert M. Schoch and Logan Yonav- ing, which would sweep all opposition before it, oblivious to this work. For example, one jak, The Parapsychology Revolution: A should be abandoned, because such a study is can read the literature review sections of Concise Anthology of Paranormal and Psy- unnecessary. healing papers and see no mention of chical Research63 As historian Thomas S. Kuhn main- prior intentionality studies in parapsy- tained in his landmark book The Structure chology. To compound this situation, Every healing research team should in- of Scientific Revolutions, paradigm shifts in most healing researchers seem not to have clude one or more coinvestigator, advisor, science usually occur as a result of an in- learned very much from prior studies in or consultant with experience in parapsy- creasing number of exceptions to prevail- their own field. Protocols meander in every chology research. Not doing so is like con- ing views, not because of a single experiment direction without incorporating features ducting brain surgery without a neurosur- that suddenly demolishes conventional of earlier studies that have been successful. geon. thinking.65 This is already happening in Some studies have even duplicated fea- 15. We should emphasize more bench science healing research, as more data points are be- tures of prior failed studies. and proof-of-principle studies. ing added to the healing canon. This willful ignorance is dreadful, be- There are a great many advantages to 17. Experimenters should strive to conduct cause psi researchers have dealt for de- simple healing studies involving not hu- their experiments in surroundings that are cor- cades with issues that are critical in healing mans but animals, tissues, cells, biochem- dial to the idea and possibility of healing. research. Decline phenomena and experi- ical reactions, plants, or microbes. Some It may matter greatly where one does menter effects are examples. Moreover, of the issues we’ve examined—whether healing research. For example, the Big Is- theory development and hypothesis for- skilled healers are preferable to laypersons, land of Hawaii, where Achterberg, as mation in the psi literature is leagues whether some healing methods are more we’ve seen, did her positive fMRI study ahead of the situation in healing research effective than others, or questions about involving healers, is often called the in medicine. the duration and frequency of healing in- Healing Island. There, healing seems to No healing researcher should venture tentions—are more easily approached in be in the air, assumed to be a part of ev- into this area without familiarizing him/ nonhumans. eryday life. In contrast, in many academic herself with the basic literature in parapsy- The mother of all questions is whether settings remote healing is considered an chology. This is no longer a daunting task. the healing effect is real or whether we’re embarrassment to the institution—hereti- Several excellent books are now available, fooling ourselves. I believe this question cal, blasphemous, antiscientific, implausi- among which are has been answered in the affirmative, and ble, impossible, or threatening. Inimical

Explorations EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 349 situations such as these can suffocate the the Absolute. If She enters, the experiment responsible for this breakthrough. She best efforts of healers and perhaps prevent works. If not, it’s back to the drawing said, “Really?” and we shared a laugh. the effects that experimenters are investi- board to figure out how to make the ex- But we have to be realistic. Those of us gating. periment more inviting the next time.” who work in this field will continue to face Psychiatrist Ian Stevenson, of the Uni- Elisabeth’s healing experiments were all skepticism, which is as it should be, be- versity of Virginia, mentioned above, was about invitation, not manipulation or cause science cannot progress without it. an authority on children who claim to re- control. She knew that the words healing, But we will also continue to meet willful member past lives. He and his colleagues wholeness, and holy are related. Elisabeth ignorance, prejudice, and bigotry. The investigated thousands of these cases. believed it is not enough for healing re- best response is simply to do our work They found that few of them originate in searchers to be clever; one’s inner life is patiently and take the long view. Dean Ra- the United States. Stevenson attributed also important. I agree completely. In fact, din has described this situation accurately. this largely to the inhibiting effects of our I have never known a healing researcher In a fascinating review of the scientific ev- materialistic mindset. He said, “If I were who made a significant contribution to idence for time-reversed effects, he offers advising a young scientist entering psychi- the field who did not have a rich inner life predictions that apply also to healing re- cal research today, I would reverse Horace and who was not following a spiritual search, saying, “These implications, of Greeley’s advice to young Americans of path. course, are heresies of the first order. But I the mid-nineteenth century and say ‘Go We will never compel or bludgeon heal- believe that if the scientific evidence con- East, young man”26—for that is where the ing to yield its secrets. A light touch is tinues to compound, then the accusation cultural atmosphere is friendliest to such required—Elisabeth’s gentle, respectful in- of heresy is an inescapable conclusion that phenomenon. I’m not suggesting that vitation, by which one approaches the we will eventually have to face. I also be- healing studies literally be conducted in world like a lover. lieve that the implications of all this are sufficiently remote from engrained ways the East, but in surroundings that are at 20. We should shed our timidity about what of thinking that the first reaction to this least cordial to the possibility of healing. has been accomplished in healing research. work will be confidence that it is wrong. 18. We should consider a temporary mora- Healing research hardly existed 40 years The second reaction will be horror that it torium on healing studies. ago. If someone had told me when I grad- may be right. The third will be reassurance At the risk of sounding censorious, I uated from medical school that I would that it is obvious.”67 suggest a temporary halt to prayer-and see studies in remote healing conducted at In the end, it is unclear how much we healing studies. Currently, researchers some of the finest medical schools in the can know about the abundant mysteries of seem to wander almost without direction world—Harvard; Columbia; Duke; UC; healing and the nature of human con- in this field, with little awareness of what San Francisco; and others—I’d have con- sciousness. William James, the father of has worked and what hasn’t. A make-it-up- sidered them lunatic. We should be proud American psychology, said late in life, “I as-you-go-along philosophy often seems of these achievements. But that is possible firmly disbelieve, myself, that our human to prevail. A time-out is needed to assess only if we know our history—what studies experience is the highest form of experi- where the field has come from and where have been done, what they showed, why ence extant in the universe. I believe rather it is headed. All healing studies need to be they worked, or why they didn’t. that we stand in much the same relation to critically assessed, analyzed, and dissected. People working in this field are what the whole of the universe as our canine Which factors correlate with success and medical futurist Leland Kaiser calls “edge and feline pets do to the whole of human which with failure? Of the many hypoth- runners”—risk takers who are out front in life. They inhabit our drawing rooms and eses that have been advanced to account 66 controversial territory. But edge runners libraries. They take part in scenes of whose for remote healing, which hold promise? can get discouraged, because they are al- significance they have no inkling. They We need a Healing Summit that would ways swimming upstream. are merely tangent to curves of history the bring together key healing researchers to I recently I had a conversation with a beginnings and ends and forms of which confront these questions. Healers should healing researcher who was having a really pass wholly beyond their ken. So we are also be a part of this discussion. Too often bad day. She lamented, “We have learned tangents to the wider life of things.”68 they are marginalized and their opinions almost nothing from all these experi- These mysteries are certain to exhaust ignored in favor of the intellectual gyra- ments. It’s as if we are back where we us before we exhaust them. But this is no tions of investigators who may be clueless started.” So I had the opportunity to talk concession or admission of defeat. In the about the inner dimensions of healing her down from that ledge. I told her that, human drama, it is the journey, not the that are important to the healers them- in my opinion, we have decisively demon- destination, that is most important. selves. strated that consciousness operates nonlo- 19. Healing research should be conducted cally to change the state of the physical with respect. world. We’ve learned that these effects oc- TWO HEALERS Before she died in 2002, Elisabeth Targ cur throughout nature, including in the In our enthusiasm for healing, we ought told me, “When I go into my lab to do a context of health and illness. History, I always to bear in mind that, in the end, all healing experiment, I feel as if I am walk- said, will record this as one of the most the attempts of healers to eradicate illness ing on sacred ground.” She compared her remarkable contributions in human fail. Everyone dies; so far the statistics are experiments to invitations. “I set up the knowledge, perhaps the most remarkable. quite impressive. This is a blessing for hu- experiment as if I’m opening a window to And I reminded her that she was partly man life in general, because if all the

350 EXPLORE November/December 2008, Vol. 4, No. 6 Explorations prayers for the eradication of illness were healing, not least because she was herself a Special issue. 2007;3(special issue):191- answered, few would die and the earth healer and knew healing from the inside out. 345. would have become overpopulated and Shortly before her death, she said her fond- 16. Wilson EO. Consilience: The Unity of Knowl- rendered unfit for habitation long ago. est wish was to return as “the Virgin Mary’s edge. New York, NY: Knopf; 1998. But in another sense, healing never fails assistant to help people love and heal.”70 17. Benson H, Dusek JA, Sherwood JB, et al. Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Inter- because the very fact that remote inten- It is to the memory of these two extraor- cessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass pa- tionality exists reminds us that our con- dinary women—Charlotte McGuire, RN, tients: a multicenter randomized trial of sciousness is nonlocal or infinite in space MS (1942-2008) and Elisabeth Targ, MD uncertainty and certainty of receiving inter- and time. This means that immortality is (1961-2002)—that I dedicate this essay. cessory prayer. Am Heart J. 2006;151:934- our birthright. It is part of our original May our efforts be worthy of their mem- 942. equipment. We do not have to acquire it. ory. 18. Krucoff MW, Crater SW, Lee KL. From It comes factory installed. efficacy to safety concerns: a STEP forward Two remarkable women reminded me —Larry Dossey, MD or a step back for clinical research and in- of this fact, both of whom were extremely Executive Editor tercessory prayer?: the Study of Therapeu- tic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP). influential in advancing the art and sci- Am Heart J. 2006;151:762-764. ence of healing. 19. Dossey L. Be Careful What You Pray For. San One was Charlotte McGuire. Many of REFERENCES Francisco, Calif: HarperSanFrancisco; 1997. her colleagues remember Charlotte’s guid- 20. Jain M. Quoted in: Largest study of third- 1. Eddington AS. Quoted in: Wilber K. ing principle, “Love is the essence of heal- party prayer suggests such prayer not effective 69 Quantum Questions: The Mystical Writings of ing.” At the height of her nursing career, the World’s Great Physicists. 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New York, NY: tial Address to the Society for Psychic Re- days later in perfect peace. Churchill Livingstone; 2003. search, 1989. Proc Soc Psychic Res. 1990;57: I wish also to honor the late physician 13. Benor DJ. Healing Research. Vol 1. South- 149-162. 27. White RA. The influence of persons other Elisabeth Targ, whom I have mentioned field, Mich: Vision; 2002. 14. Dossey L, Hufford DB. Are prayer experi- than the experimenter on the subject’s many times. Elisabeth was one of the great ments legitimate? Twenty criticisms Explore scores in psi experiments. J Soc Psychic Res. geniuses of healing research. She had the (NY). 2005;1:109-117. 1976;70:133-166. distinction of being able to do something 15. The pertinence of the Princeton Engineer- 28. Batcheldor KJ. Report on a case of table many scientists simply are incapable of—she ing Anomalies Res (PEAR) laboratory to levitation and associated phenomena. J Soc could produce a positive study in remote the pursuit of global health. 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