The Writing Anthology

Edited by K.E. Daft and Marin Harrington Advisors: Valerie Billing and Michael Harris

A Publication of the English Department and the Art Department

Central College Pella, Iowa 2019 Dear Readers,

Welcome to the 39th edition of The Writing Anthology.

Founded in 1981 by now-retired Central College professor Dr. Walter Cannon, The Writing Anthology is a compendium of exceptional student work from across the liberal arts curriculum. After reviewing dozens of submissions, we selected the following eleven pieces for inclusion in this year’s anthology. The difficulty of this selection process is a testament to the excellent quality of student writing at Central College, and we are proud to see all the hard work put in by our peers.

There are an unlimited number of perspectives a person can use to examine a single topic. When we consider something assumedly familiar in a new context, we not only expand our personal mindset, but also create the opportunity for deeper conversation between individuals. The pieces in this year’s anthology are dedicated to exploring unique contexts of well-known topics, such as the Vietnam War, the pop culture phenomenon Game of Thrones, and one of the Midwest’s most celebrated writers–Willa Cather. Considered as a whole, we believe this anthology develops a compelling statement about the importance of reading authors, literature, and experiences in their proper context.

Each year, the John Allen Award is granted to the author of the highest quality student writing. This year, we are pleased to announce that Marina Paul will receive this honor. Marina’s essay “Teaching Elementary Mathematics to Students with Disabilities” is a persuasive call-to-action which highlights the lived experiences of students with disabilities in considering alternative strategies for mathematics instruction. Marina’s attention to a context which is so often overlooked shows her dedication not only as a writer and a researcher, but also as a developing educator.

We would like to congratulate all of the student authors on their accomplishments and for producing such excellent work. Additionally, we thank the professors who took notice and submitted these essays to The Writing Anthology. Thanks also to Professor Mat Kelly for his discerning eye and for again agreeing to design this year’s cover, and to all of the talented artists for their outstanding contributions which make The Writing Anthology a well-rounded and visually-interesting publication. We would particularly like to recognize Sheridan LaCoste for producing this year’s cover art. Finally, we offer our thanks to Steffanie Bonnstetter for her expertise, and to Jordan Bohr and the student workers of Central College Communications for their outstanding work in bringing The Writing Anthology’s website to life.

Most importantly, we acknowledge our faculty advisors, Dr. Valerie Billing and Dr. Michael Harris. Thank you for your contributions and willingness to step into this role in such a pivotal year.

Again, thank you to all who made this year’s publication possible, and please enjoy the 2019 Writing Anthology!

K.E. Daft ‘19 Marin Harrington ‘21

2 Table of Contents

A Note from the Editors...... 2 The Bohemian Problem: A Sociological and Literary Examination of Willa Literary Style in Nervous Conditions..... 4 Cather’s Fraught Relationship with Brandon Rosas Czech Culture...... 35 K.E. Daft Dionysian and Apollonian Elements in David’s The Tennis Court Oath...... 9 Bioluminescence in Lantern Sharks..... 43 Christian Warner Braden Furness

The Man in the Wagon...... 13 Face Value...... 47 Delanie Donovan Marin Harrington

Last Refuge: The Escape from Violence Teaching Elementary Mathematics to in Kafka on the Shore...... 16 Students with Disabilities: Strategies for Bailey Anderson Instruction...... 51 Marina Paul La casa y la identidad en La casa en * Recipient of the John Allen Award Mango Street...... 24 Molly Timmerman Machiavelli’s Politics and A Game of Thrones: The Board Game...... 60 Presidential Case Study: Lyndon B. Matthew Wells Johnson and the Vietnam War...... 29 Amelia Howard

3 Literary Style in Nervous Conditions Brandon Rosas

ENGL-212: African and I was impressed by the boldness of Brandon’s analysis of Tsitsi Caribbean Literature Dangarembga’s “baroque style” in Nervous Conditions. He demonstrates how her distinctive literary style is an essential “One of the most infuriating aspect of her remarkable Bildungsroman. In doing so, Brandon habits of these people was their helped me understand why I’ve always enjoyed this novel so love of superfluous words.” – Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart much. - Michael Harris Tsitsi Dangarembga glare from the sand scratched Mengestu’s All our Names, writes her debut novel, at your eyes, there was always and Helon Habila’s Waiting Nervous Conditions, with a shade by the fields where clumps for an Angel. liberatingly dense style. Unlike of trees were deliberately left Dangarembga’s that of many other African standing to shelter us when we superabundant style stands writers, Dangarembga’s ate our meals or rested between in stark contrast to that used periphrastic, prolix prose cultivating strips of the land. (2) by her African forebear, harkens back more to that of Dangarembga’s sentence Chinua Achebe, in his novel Charles Dickens than to that above spans seven lines of Things Fall Apart, but is of Chinua Achebe. In Nervous text (in the book), two miles perhaps similar to that of Conditions, Dangarembga’s of road, and eight months, her contemporary, Ta-Nehisi writing style paces her while taking the reader from Coates. Whereas Dangarembga narrative and characterizes a leisurely walk to exhausting writes sentences like the one in her narrator, Tambu. work in the fields. Punctuation the above paragraph, Achebe Dangarembga’s writing style interrupts thoughts, such as lets shorter sentences suffice: separates Nervous Conditions the nature of the expanse of “The night was very quiet. from the majority of its fellow road that Tambu describes, It was always very quiet, entries into the Postcolonial with not only supplementary except on moonlit nights. African novel genre. but also restrictive statements. Darkness held a vague terror Dangarembga’s writing As such, the descriptive for these people, even the style in Nervous Conditions focus of Dangarembga’s text bravest among them” (9). might be termed baroque. wanders, just as her narrator Dangarembga’s style is closer Accordingly, the author’s recounts doing across the hills to that used by the African- prose strikes the reader as of her homeland. However, American author Ta-Nehisi circumlocutory, cerebral the author uses this sentence Coates in his essay, “The and clever. For example, structure not only for detailed Case for Reparations”: “If we Dangarembga writes, in description of scenery, but also conclude that the conditions the voice of her narrator, for rapid analysis of anything in North Lawndale and black Tambudzai: which Tambu deems worthy America are not inexplicable of reporting to her reader. but are instead precisely what And although the stretch of road between the fields and the For this reason, Nervous you’d expect of a community terminus was exposed to the Conditions is markedly distinct that for centuries has lived sun and was, from September from other Postcolonial in America’s crosshairs, then to April, except when it rained, African novels, such as Yaa what are we to make of the harsh and scorching so that the Gyasi’s Homegoing, Dinaw world’s oldest democracy?” 4 Writers are often encouraged commentary allow her novel was swaying of hips, stamping to “show, not tell,” but Achebe to focus on the psychology of feet to the pulse of these has already done a stellar job of her characters. The author social facts” (4). Because of “showing” what Frantz allows readers to get a sense of rhythm is highly valued in Fanon calls the “nervous the idiosyncratic personality of African society, it is likely condition” of Africans (v), so Tambu through the narrator’s that rhythmic writing comes modern African writers, like lengthy commentaries on what naturally to Dangarembga, and Dangarembga, and writers of she observes and feels: “I was it evokes a feeling of “African- African-American descent, not sorry when my brother ness” that distinguishes like Coates, are able to engage died. Nor am I apologizing for Nervous Conditions from more actively in “telling” my callousness, as you may many Western novels that are modes of writing. define it, my lack of feeling” also written in English and First, Dangarembga’s (1). From Tambu, the reader some of which are also set in baroque writing style paces also receives insight into Africa. Besides imparting an her novel. The slower rate at the working of the minds of authentic African flavor to her which Dangarembga presents the novel’s other characters: novel, Dangarembga’s rhythm her story allows the reader “Thus my uncle’s gesture also lays the foundation for to slow down and digest Tambu’s witty barbs to snag each image or idea at her or The careful craft- the reader’s attention. his leisure. The punctuation Dangarembga’s style of the baroque style allows ing of the right helps Tambu divulge her Dangarembga to almost expository buildup feelings in a rhetorically- “freeze time” and present the impactful manner. She pictures that she creates like a creates a “kairotic comments continuously series of tableaux: moment,” or “the on a character or situation, attempting to evaluate her The bus terminus – which is right time” subject fairly, and then bites also the market, with pale dirty (rhetorically) in with an unexpectedly bitter tuckshops, dark and dingy inside, observation: which we call magrosa, and which to say “the women under msasa trees selling Perhaps I am being unfair to [my hard-boiled eggs, vegetables, right thing”... brother], laying all this blame seasonal fruit, boiled chicken on him posthumously, when he which is sometimes curried and cannot defend himself and when sometimes not, and anything was oceanic, and my father, who liked hyperbole, did not I have seen enough to know that else that the villagers or travelers blame does not come in neatly need much persuading to see might like to buy – is at least packaged parcels….Thinking two miles’ distance from our the sense of this plan” (4). about it, feeling the injustice of it, homestead. (2) Not all of Dangarembga’s this is how I came to dislike my sentences are long, however; brother, and not only my brother, With each appositive, it is she purposefully varies their my father, my mother – in fact as if the narrator leads us to length. everybody. (12) step into an Umtali tuckshop, Dangarembga’s sniff a merchant’s fruit, or variation of the length of her The careful crafting of the sample her chicken, without sentences creates a rhythm in right expository buildup sacrificing any time in the the novel. We see this rhythm creates a “kairotic moment,” or narrative. even in the span of a single “the right time” (rhetorically) Second, sentence, with dependent in which to say “the right Dangarembga’s long, clauses adding the additional thing,” for each of Tambu’s descriptive sentences measures that shape that scathing declamations. It is with frequent pockets for sentence into music: “There this viperous voicing of her 5 thoughts that reveals not only only describes her subjects at as one of the primary actors in Tambu’s intelligence and length, but also analyzes them her story, despite her relatively acculturation, but especially from multiple angles: “I could limited scope of action as the acrimony that she feels not cold-bloodedly inform my a young girl in Rhodesia. about the injustice embedded sisters that I had been thinking Tambu’s commentary also in her experiences. While of how much I disliked our makes her sound decidedly the facilitation of these brother. I felt guilty about more “English” than most of statements’ rhetorical power it. As he was our brother, he her compatriots. completes the effects of the ought to be liked, which made Dangarembga’s pacing of Nervous Conditions disliking him all the more baroque style gives the elder by Dangerembga’s style, the difficult. That I still managed Tambu what the protagonist’s resulting characterization of to do so meant I must dislike mother calls “Englishness.” Tambu is this style’s second him very much indeed!” (65). Tambu frequently uses formal major effect. Tambu is highly self-aware, register and dry humor: “[The Beyond pacing her story of my family] was truly novel, Dangarembga’s baroque a romantic story to my ears, writing style reveals the Dangarembga’s a fairy-tale of reward and character of her narrator and punishment, of cause and protagonist, Tambu. Tambu style gives Tambu effect. It had a moral too, a tells the story of Nervous the opportunity to tantalising moral that increased Conditions as an adult looking your aspirations, but not back on her youth with a tell her audience a beyond a manageable level” more informed perspective. great many more (19). Tambu’s discursive The baroque voice that the narration harkens back to elder Tambu inherits from things than are the writing of the English Dangarembga first sets her appropriate to say authors Charles Dickens, apart from almost all the other J.R.R. Tolkien, and C.S. characters in her novel and aloud. Lewis, and therefore not only secondly reveals the sort of makes Tambu sound English person that she has become as herself, but also implies that a result of the transformation and her constant analysis of she has studied these (or that she undergoes between the herself and others sets her similar) authors at length. The events of this novel and her apart from all of the other pragmatism that underlies the telling of them. characters—with the possible aforementioned quote is also Principally, exception of her anglicized characteristically English. Dangarembga’s style becomes cousin, Nyasha. In fact, The formality that Tambu’s narratorial voice and Tambu’s erudite discourses Dangarembga’s style imparts separates the protagonist from make the precocious Nyasha to Tambu imbues her with her supporting characters. seem less out of place in her reliability as a narrator. The Though this sophisticated family. Dangarembga’s style adult Tambu’s observations voice belongs to the elder gives Tambu the opportunity bely a sharp mind that appears Tambu, her ability to recount to tell her audience a great to distinguish her as a superior so much detail and to make many more things than are candidate for schooling to such keen observations about appropriate to say aloud. This her brother Nhamo, and also other characters shows the feature makes Tambu herself shows that she has achieved curiosity that carried her to appear perhaps precocious her mission of becoming the top of her class and set the toward her elders, and a “wom[a]n of the world” stage for her transformation. judgmental towards her peers. (134). The reader is inclined Unlike other observant The sheer volume of Tambu’s to consider and trust Tambu’s narrators, however, Tambu not insights also foregrounds her many words because she or 6 he can sense that Tambu has Whereas before I had believed style not only makes Tambu given considerable thought with childlike confidence that sound more mature, but also to them. The fact that Tambu burdens were only burdens in so allows her to stay young. has so much to say about far as you chose to bear them, Dangarembga’s literary her experiences shows us now I began to see that the style also reveals a related disappointing events surrounding that she does, indeed, “feel aspect of Tambu’s character Babamukuru’s return were the many things these days, much serious consequences of the same that has developed since more than [she] was able to general laws that had almost her sober-minded youth: a feel when [she] was young brought my education to an sense of humor. The author’s and [her] brother died” (1). abrupt, predictable end (38). style establishes the rhythm However, Tambu’s critical that allows the older Tambu perspective also suggests At other times, however, to express a wry, ironic a maturation process that Tambu voices the sense of humor that pokes has involved more than just comparatively simpler inner fun at the inequities of her intellectual development; thoughts of her younger self experiences. By going so for example: “That first directly, such as when Anna slowly, Dangarembga builds impression of [the house’s] allays her fears of being a foundation for the “sudden grandeur was too exotic ever attacked by Babamukuru’s perception of incongruity” to fade, but I have learnt, in dogs: “Tied…tied…ah, yes, on which the joke proper the years that have passed they were tied!” (26). Though “turns,” in the words of C.S. since then, to curb excesses these inclusions provide Lewis in The Screwtape and flights of fancy. The point color to her older self’s Letters (58). Tambu’s erudite has been made: I can now analytical narrative, they also elocution lures her reader into refer to my uncle’s house as constitute an attempt by the a gently undulating current no more than that—a house” mature Tambu to validate of commentary, then dashes (62). This makes the reader her younger, more innocent her or him against the rocks curious about what Tambu self. Tambu’s older self has of unexpected frankness: “A calls the “reasons for [her contorted to deal with the way marvellous chicken lunch had feelings] more than the mere of the world, but still believes been prepared in my honour, consequence of age” (1), for that her younger self is worthy with chocolate cake afterwards though Tambu strikes the of the world’s interest and so deliciously rich and sticky reader as a reliable narrator, affection. Although the older that even Nyasha had forgotten she is not a conventional one. Tambu’s scholarly self- her figure long enough to put An unconventional analysis is intensely cerebral, away two slices of it” (195). dynamic facilitated in Nervous perhaps laboriously so for The humor that Dangarembga Conditions by Dangarembga’s some readers, what she does imparts to Tambu becomes literary style is the duality of with all of these words and all a tool for her protagonist to its narrator. Tambu exists in this wit is play: “Excitement. criticize prevailing hierarchies, the novel as two temporally- Anticipation. Elation and as Pauline Ada Uwakweh distinct iterations of herself: exultation...[T]here should suggests in her essay, the older, psychologically- have been trumpets, truly there “Debunking Patriarchy: the contorted self that directly should have been.” The older liberational quality of voicing narrates the story, and the Tambu plays with her words to in Tsitsi Dangarembga’s younger, unexamined self that engage her readers in the sort Nervous Conditions”: “[The takes part in the events that of play that was systematically missionaries’ coming to are narrated. Normally, Tambu denied to her, first by her Africa] was a sacrifice that comments on the experiences cousins, then by her mission made us grateful to them, a of her younger self with the school classmates, and sacrifice that made them not wisdom of her older self, presumably later in life by the only superior to us but to those saying things like: adult world. Dangarembga’s other whites as well who were 7 here for adventure and to help fitfully, something in my that Tambu has emerged themselves to our emeralds” mind began to assert itself, from her experiences with a (Dangarembga 105). Tambu’s to question things and refuse defensive mentality that causes sense of humor reveals that she to be brainwashed….It was a her to encode her potentially is conscious of and perhaps long and painful process for unpopular ideas in cryptic complicit in the incongruity me” (208). Dangarembga’s circumlocutions. Thus, Tambu that she observes in the world: use of the term “psychological does not express herself in “The discussion [of my future] contortion” implies that such a complex way by choice, took place in the house. I was Tambu has made major and but rather does so out of obliged to eavesdrop” (180). perhaps unhealthy changes to necessity. Tambu uses humor to show her understanding of herself In sum, Tsitsi not only when something is in order to accommodate Dangarembga’s baroque cause for laughter, but also the difficult things that she writing style in Nervous when something is cause for has learned about the world. Conditions powerfully shapes concern. These changes, which include her novel. The author’s Significantly, lowered expectation of her winding, wordy, and witty Dangarembga’s baroque style value in society, raised prose paces the novel and, shows the psychological personal standards of approval, as Tambu’s inherited voice, contortion that she attributes to and a hardening of her heart, characterizes its narrator. Tambu in Seal Press, USA’s are the “reasons for [Tambu’s This style allows readers interview with her: “[T]hough feelings] more than the mere to appreciate each image Tambu may not have been consequence of age” (1). As an and moment in the story, psychologically contorted expression of her psychological creates rhythm, sets up when she was fourteen, she contortion, Tambu frames the humor, distinguishes Tambu definitely is now” (209). story of Nervous Conditions from other characters, The term “psychological using some loaded, as well simultaneously distinguishes contortion” is described as circuitous, language: “My and connects her younger by psychoanalyst R.D. story is not after all about and older selves, anglicizes Hinshelwood as “an extreme death, but about my escape and her, sets up her socially- distortion and cleavage in Lucia’s; about my mother’s charged quips, evinces her the self” (151), such as is and Maiguru’s entrapment; psychological contortion. required of a psychiatrist and about Nyasha’s rebellion Dangarembga’s baroque style to remain outwardly serene – Nyasha, far-minded and makes Nervous Conditions when dealing with psychotic isolated, my uncle’s daughter, a unique and memorable patients. At the close of her whose rebellion may not in the addition to the Postcolonial novel, Tambu writes, “Quietly, end have been successful” (1). African novel genre. unobtrusively and extremely This sort of language suggests

Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Penguin Books, 2017. Coates, Ta-Nehisi. “The Case for Reparations.” The Atlantic, June 2014, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/ar- chive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/. Accessed 10 Dec. 2018. Dangarembga, Tsitsi. Nervous Conditions. Banbury: Ayebia Clarke, 2004. Gyasi, Yaa. Homegoing: A Novel. Vintage Books, 2017. Habila, Helon. Waiting for an Angel. W.W. Norton & Company, 2003. Hinshelwood, R. D. Suffering Insanity: Psychoanalytic Essays on Psychosis. Brunner-Routledge, 2004. Lewis, C.S. The Screwtape Letters. The MacMillan Company, 1945. Mengestu, Dinaw. All Our Names. Vintage Books, 2015. Uwakweh, Pauline Ada. "Debunking Patriarchy: The Liberational Quality of Voicing in Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions." Research in African Literatures, vol. 26, no. 1, 1995, pp. 75+. 8 Dionysian and Apollonian Elements in David’s The Tennis Court Oath PHIL-290: Philosophy of Art Christian Warner

Jacques-Louis David’s Le Serment du Jeu de Paume, This assignment required that the students describe in detail some or The Tennis Court Oath work of art, analyze a short philosophical text relevant to the presents us with a chaotic work, and show how the ideas in the text apply to the work they scene. In this unfinished described. For his essay, Christian chose Jacques-Louis David’s painting, there are hundreds unfinished painting,The Tennis Court Oath. After giving a brief of people clustered together, analysis of the Apollonian and Dionysian forces in Nietzsche’s seemingly in a frenzy. Yet, The Birth of Tragedy, Christian shows how these forces are in there is no physical violence play in David’s painting. in the painting. Although - Mark Thomas there is a sense of chaos from the sheer volume of the Tennis Court Oath was Why the painting is so empty people crammed in the tennis written. The man holding the in the middle requires further court, there is also a sense of Tennis Court Oath seems to examination, but the emptiness communion—communion in be in the process of reading leads the eyes to seek more the sense that all the people in it: his arm is outstretched, detail, and the eyes find it the painting are together and with his palm facing outward on the top left and right of regard each other as brothers towards the viewer. We see the painting. On the left, we or allies. In the front center of that this gesture is repeated notice a lot of movement. the painting, we see men of amongst the many people The curtains and umbrella three different social groups: inside the painting. When are being violently pulled by a priest, a merchant, and someone stands with palm wind. Looking more closely, another man of some other faced outward, it is a symbolic we notice that there is even class standing. These men, gesture showing that the lightning present. Outside, even though they come from person has nothing to hide. there is a violent storm that is different classes, are shaking When we look to what is sweeping into the tennis court. hands and embracing each behind the man in the center, In a sense, the storm fills the other. When we look to the we see more or less the same empty space that was left by left and right of the painting, as we see in the front—except the painter. In the top right, we we see that both sides are that individual elements notice less movement. Things pointed towards a common become much more difficult are more orderly and there is middle. The people on both to identify. There is an less happening. While there are the left and the right seem to impression that the people in people still celebrating what be possessed, stricken, or in the back have all morphed into has happened in the middle, awe of the person who is in a single element. we also notice that there are the dead center of the painting. After observing the people casually observing. The person in the middle is bottom part of the painting, What is it that these people are standing on a table holding where most of the action is thinking as they observe the a piece of paper, which is located, we notice a very storm that is happening outside certainly the paper on which empty top half of the painting. as well as inside? Overall, 9 the movement of the painting individuation. The individual good, and must venture forth all points to the middle, and is necessarily an abstraction on a quest to slay some sort of the middle leads us to realize from the whole—human beast that is causing problems. the emptiness of the top. Yet, beings, believing in nothing We are quick to think that the the storm from the outside but themselves, in their own beast is unequivocally evil, seems to fill the empty space project, can take comfort in the yet the hero has no quest and in the middle. Although it is beautiful illusion that nothing has no journey unless there is empty, it is charged with the is beyond them. Hence, they some beast to slay. The hero’s unstoppable forces of nature. can take shelter from the quest, which is the quest for Perhaps David is implying terror of an inconceivable creating order, is symbolized that whatever is possessing whole. Dionysus, on the other by Apollo, while the beast that the top of the painting is also hand, embodies the opposite must be slayed is symbolic of possessing the people in the characteristics: Dionysus, the unknown, the bottom of the painting: some thing of nature. It is also not inevitable force of nature. Under the charm of the Dionysian necessarily Apollo defeating How do we further not only is the union between Dionysus, but the battle man and man reaffirmed, but understand the essence of this between the two that creates nature which has become work? Nietzsche proposes alienated, hostile, or subjugated, art. a metaphysics of art in The celebrates once more her To further understand Birth of Tragedy, and this reconciliation with her lost son, Apollo and Dionysus, we metaphysics of art can help us man. Freely, the earth proffers must understand a little bit ‘fill in the space’ that David her gifts, and peacefully the about Schopenhauer, who leaves empty in his painting. beasts of prey of the rocks and greatly influenced Nietzsche’s According to Nietzsche, the desert approach. The chariot of early philosophy. In his gods Apollo and Dionysus Dionysus is covered with flowers symbolize opposite realities. and garlands; panthers and tigers The Apollonian is analogous walk under its yoke. Transform In Apollo, we take to illusion, and the Dionysian Beethoven’s “Hymn to Joy” into a painting; let your imagination enjoyment out of is analogous to intoxication. conceive the multitude bowing the intelligibility Nietzsche further develops the to the dust, awestruck—then you essence of the Apollonian by will approach the Dionysian. of the appearances describing a “frail bark” that (Nietzsche 37) protects the individual from that we see, while the vastness of the sea, which In Dionysus we find revelry, in Dionysus, we otherwise would swallow him the melting of the individual, take part in some- whole: intoxication, and chaos. While the Apollonian art is thing underneath Just as in a stormy sea that, symbolized in the intelligible the appearance. unbounded in all directions, raises images of forms and shapes, and drops mountainous waves, the chaotic essence of howling, a sailor sits in a boat Dionysian art is portrayed in magnum opus, World as and trusts in his frail bark: so in the midst of a world of torments music. This is not to say that a Will and Representation, the individual human being sits painting cannot be Dionysian, Schopenhauer divides mere quietly, supported by and trusting or a piece of music Apollonian; appearance and ultimate in the principium individuationis it is instead the case that the reality. Ultimate reality is the (Nietzsche 36) Apollonian and Dionysian will underneath appearance, interact with each other to while what we see in This frail bark is Apollo, create art. It is analogous to appearances is representation. who embodies order, any heroic story: the hero In Apollo we take enjoyment 10 surety, and the principle of embodies the intelligible, the out of the intelligibility of the appearances that we see, of them we even have a man the painting can observe the while in Dionysus, we take who is writing, completely action on the ground. They can part in something underneath entranced in his work. He perceive more, and at times, the appearance. Describing the does not notice the chaos that can perceive the whole of what Dionysian is elusive, because is going around him. This is happening at the ground. conceiving it requires a state man is entranced in his own Naturally, they are also of mind that is inherently veil of māyā: his frail bark, detached from the action of the difficult to describe; only represented by the act of ground. While they are still in when in the drunken state writing, keeps him assured in danger of being possessed by and when our individuality the midst of the hundreds who the spirit of the ground, if they is melted away wish, they can can we start to simply detach perceive the things themselves underneath the from the action, mere appearance, still enjoying but when these their own spirit, things happen it their principium becomes difficult individuationis. to remember or This vantage describe in orderly point serves terms what actually as their frail occurred. bark—and frail If we return indeed is their to Jacques-Louis bark, for if they David’s painting, are not careful, Le Serment du Jeu they will be de Paum, what swallowed up elements of the in the sea of the Apollonian and action on the Dionysian can ground. be identified? In These are the the middle front Brandon Rosas, “Enigma,” graphite Apollonian of the painting, Apollo is elements, and it is embodied. We have a man important to note that in the center with his piece are possessed by something. these are not exhaustive. The of parchment, and there is In the top right of the painting, Dionysian elements can be nothing that is unintelligible. we again have mostly most easily identified in the His own identity can be Apollonian elements. We have background. In the front, readily identified. Also, to people observing the action we have easily perceivable the left of the man holding of the floor: they are detached individuals, but in the back, parchment we have three because of their vantage point. we have a sea of people, individuals who embrace The very act of being placed melted and possessed: they each other, apparently from higher has both a symbolic are many but one—a single different walks of life. They and a literal effect. It was blob of chaos. Nature also are not blended together often the case that, whenever is reconciled with the men in any way, despite them kings wanted to see the state in the painting. From the embracing each other. Their of their city, they would Apollonian perspective, appearances can be identified, place themselves at a higher nature is something to be and they seem to be in a point. From this higher point manipulated, turned into art or happy disposition. To the left in the painting, the people in to into tools. It is principally 11 a detachment from nature, and Tennis Court Oath, where the the egalitarian principle exists, often degenerates into viewing Third Estate, the commoners of the distinguishing of higher nature as standing-reserve France’s Ancien Régime, took and lower is reduced. All men (a term from Heidegger). a defiant stand against the First are equal, and all men can The Dionysian, however, is and Second Estates, the clergy sing and dance together. It is the celebration, the joining this equality that reconciles and embracement of nature’s nature with man, for no man pleasures. At the top left of One cannot control is above nature; no man the painting, we have a violent is above man. However, storm that can be seen through the storm of even in this storm some the windows. The movement democracy, one are able to hold on to their of the curtains shows that individuality. They partake the storm has swept into the must simply take in a practice—either writing, building. It fills the emptiness shelter in some doing history, or taking shelter of the top half of the painting, in solitude. All these things and more importantly, it takes form. Democracy is are Apollonian. The Dionysian part in the central action of the inherently needs the Apollonian, for it painting. It dances and rejoices is the Apollonian that writes with men. Dionysian: where and records, and in turn While I have at length the egalitarian immortalizes the principles described Apollonian and of democracy. It is often Dionysian elements in the principle exists, the the case that the spirit of painting, I have not mentioned distinguishing of Dionysus gets out of hand, a what for. What are these and it needs Apollo to bring men possessed by, and what higher and lower is forth an individual who will does the storm represent? The reduced. bring order so that the drunken storm is the inevitable force festival does not extinguish of democracy which seeps itself through orgiastic frenzy. into the ground and possesses and nobility respectively. And that is The Tennis Court the men. This painting was One cannot control the Oath: the inevitable storm of created in 1791, in the midst storm of democracy, one democracy must be preserved of the French Revolution, must simply take shelter in by the individual, it must be and it was David’s way of some form. Democracy is ordered, or else that violent commemorating the pivotal inherently Dionysian: where spirit will extinguish itself.

Works Cited

Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. Basic Writings of Nietzsche: Birth of Tragedy: Beyond Good and Evil: On the Genealogy of Morals: Ecce Homo. Translated and Edited by Walter Kaufmann, Modern Library, 2000.

David, Jacques-Louis. The Tennis Court Oath. 1790-1794. Palace of Versailles, Versailles. Château de Versailles, http:// en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/royal-tennis-court. Accessed 22 April 2019.

12 The Man in the Wagon Delanie Donovan

ENGL-343: Travel Writing

The Irish Sea breeze This was an open essay assignment in ENG 343, “Travel blew my hair, tickling my Writing.” In “the Man in the Wagon,” Delanie bikes across one face and ears as it danced in of Ireland’s Aran Islands. It’s a lyric meditation on books, land- the wind and I swore I could scape, prayer, and a traveler’s ability to see even the most mun- taste the sea salt on my lips. I dane things with new eyes. blame my favorite childhood -Keith Ratzlaff novel, Anne of Green Gables by L.M. Montgomery for making me fall in love with ride from the pier across the wasn’t pavement either. Tiny the outdoors. Although her island, but I was in no rush rocks kicked up and kissed novels are based on the to get there. I figured, if the my calves. A man riding in a eastern coast of Canada, Anne fort had stood for this many wagon behind a horse tipped of Green Gables his hat as our paths described the world crossed. I was sure I imagined Ireland to he was used to seeing be. To my left stood tourists in his village. a cottage with smoke I wondered if our curling out of the marvel for the beauty chimney. A single of his home made him dirt track led up to more appreciative the front of the house of it. Instead of the and a stone fence “same old view” separated the yard day in and day out, I from the road I was hoped he woke each on. morning and saw At the mouth something through the of the Galway eyes of a newcomer. Bay, the western My wandering most of Ireland’s eyes couldn’t decide Aran Islands, sits if they wanted to Inishmore. A mostly gaze at the sea or Gaelic speaking country side, so they community, the Aran darted back and forth. Islands are popular Tim Brunnert, paper I pondered the man for their sweaters, although I in the wagon. What did he wasn’t incredibly impressed centuries, it could stand for do, every day, on this small with the nearly 200 euro price another hour while I made my island? It was completely tags. I was more impressed way across the island. surrounded by water and had with the quaint village and My feet pumped up taken me nearly an hour to get prehistoric clifftop fort I was and down on the pedals, but here by ferry. I hadn’t heard biking towards. The clifftop my legs felt no burn as my him talk but knowing that fort, named Dún Aonghasa bike glided on the road. It the majority of the islands’ was only a thirty-minute bike wasn’t quite cobblestone but it population spoke Gaelic, I 13 wondered if he would have said that traveling marks an rainy season. I stuffed my understood me if I tried to epoch in life, but the best part raincoat into my backpack and express my appreciation for his of all is coming home. Coming took a swig of water, relishing home. home to a quaint cottage, sheep the soft sunshine that rested But more than that, I grazing in the yard and the gently on the surface of my wondered what he saw. What sunset over the sea is likely all sweatshirt. The wind tugged did he see when he woke up this man had known. I bet he at my hair; I had gotten it cut every morning, with the sound fell asleep every night with the right before leaving America of the waves crashing against sunset stuck in his mind and and it was in its beginning the rocks? Was he seeing that he rose every morning in stages of growing back everything like me, in this anticipation for the routine he out. My heart pounded, not moment, or was he taking in had built for himself after so because of the physical toll of the scenery with a seasoned many years on the island. biking but because I was truly eye? What I saw as a perfectly convinced I had never seen quaint cottage could really be “Dear old world,” anything more beautiful. in desperate need of repair. With the countryside There is comfort in the I muttered, pull- at my back, the sea swallowed familiar and awe in the new. ing from my col- me. I had never felt so small, Both are good, none above so insignificant, and yet the other, and each has its lection of favorite so completely whole and place. Since stepping foot in L.M. Montgomery understood at the same time. Ireland, I had been completely I imagined the man pulling awestruck. I felt as if all of quotes, “you are his wagon off to the side to my favorite childhood authors, very lovely and I breathe in the scenery. I hoped L.M. Montgomery, Jane this was a view he never tired Austen, C.S. Lewis and Laura am glad to be alive of – how could you? Waves crashed against the beach, its Ingalls Wilder had captured in you” pebbles dancing in and out my wonder of new, glorious, with the tide. They clicked and simple things and put “Dear old world,” I together in a sing-song way. it all into one place. Every muttered, pulling from my Standing on the rocky shore, girlhood dream to have ever collection of favorite L.M. I was reminded of C.S. Lewis crossed my mind, no matter Montgomery quotes, “you are describing God as flowing into how silly, felt as if they could very lovely and I am glad to us from the blue of the sky. I come true. This was the land be alive in you.” I angled the had never understood what he of leprechauns and fairies, of front of my bike to prepare meant until that moment. wonderful accents and kind for a bend in the road. A I wish I had seen eyes. sheep grazing to my left lazily what the man had in the back On the other hand, nibbled grass as I peddled of his wagon. The romantic I loved the comfort and passed. If reincarnation is real part of me, the part who was familiarity of home, as I’m and I had lived a different life, obsessed with Laura Ingalls sure this man did as well. Jane I hoped it involved this island Wilder and Little House on Austen’s character Emma with grazing sheep and the the Prairie, imagined a wagon understood perfectly well that pebbly shores of the Irish Sea. full of fabric parcels to turn there is nothing like staying The sun broke through into beautiful dresses, but I at home for real comfort. He the clouds and I pulled off to knew that wasn’t logical. Irish looked quite content up on his the side to remove a few layers people wore normal clothes, wagon, tipping his suede hat of clothing. I was still getting not dresses from the 1800’s. with his blue eyes twinkling. used to the United Kingdom Perhaps it was timber or stones Anne of Green Gables always 14 and its seemingly never-ending for a fence. I couldn’t imagine it being food for sheep, since come from? I had ridden the always called Holy Spirit it appeared to me that all they length of the island and had Goosebumps. I thought of needed was a pasture of grass no indication of where he Laura Ingalls Wilder, how she and Lord knew Ireland had had come from or where he believed that old fashioned plenty of that. was going. Maybe he was things like air and sunshine are I knew I was ending unloading his wagon onto hard to beat. I thought of L.M. the trail when up ahead I a ferry. That’s what Laura Montgomery’s description of saw several buildings with Ingalls Wilder’s father did, Anne, who said she would bike racks and signs for only he loaded it onto trains. pray by going into a great big sandwiches. I field all alone highly doubted or into the deep, the man in the deep woods and wagon ate here; look up into it had the look of the lovely blue a tourist shop as sky and just opposed to a local feel a prayer. deli. Where would My footsteps he go for lunch sounded steady today? against the As excited rocks. I looked as I was to get to up to the sky, the fort, I wasn’t remembering quite ready for the C.S. Lewis bike ride to end. saying that proud From the corner men never see of my eye, I saw God because a black swish, and they were always it caused me to Ryan Berg, “Escape,” graphite looking down. swerve on the road. The trail Icon image God was in his heaven, as had led me to an open field Anne would say, I was sure of of cows. This made me pause Upon parking my bike, it. – there were cows in Ireland? stone steps were carved into God was probably They moseyed their way the earth that led me through really close friends with around, noses shoved to the a countryside where the wind the man in the wagon. I bet ground. Their tails whipped whistled freely and smelled they went on walks together back and forth and they kicked of sea. I brushed my hair out along the coast every night. I their hooves against the dirt. of my eyes again, reveling wondered what God and the Their dung stung my nose in the wide-open meadow man talked about, or if they the same way it does when surrounding the path. Around even talked at all. After their at home, and that’s when I me I heard a variety of accents walk, the man probably went realized that cows are cows no but recognized none as what home to his cottage, stopping matter what country you find I imagined the man on the momentarily at the fields yourself in. I got as close to wagon to have. Surely, he had with his cattle and sheep as the stone fence separating us been up to this cliff before. the sun slowly inched its way as I dared and stared. A cow All my life, I had heard under the horizon. Once home, came up to me, sloshing his people say they preferred to he would unload his wagon food around in his mouth with pray in nature rather than in full of bags and retire to his drool sliding out of his lip. church. I had never understood cottage where he would kiss Where could the that, until this moment. My his wife goodnight before they man on the wagon have arms erupted in what I’ve fell asleep. 15 Last Refuge: The Escape from Violence in Kafka on the Shore ENGL-375: 20th Century Literature Bailey Anderson

Postmodernist novels In her essay, Bailey brings together Japanese history during World famously defy convention War II, the psychological condition known as dissociation, and and resist unifying theories the characters’ response to traumatic violence in their lives. It is or ideologies. They lack a rich and compelling reading of a fascinating novel. I also enjoy conclusionary details and the Bailey’s referencing of the Japanese literary tradition of “living most bizarre occurrences are spirits” to probe the elusive meaning of Haruki Murakami’s Kafka often left “up in the air.” Even on the Shore. in the novels themselves, -Michael Harris readers are sometimes advised against trying to make too Nakata, one of the inconsequential detail, or much out of the stories they protagonists in Kafka on merely something Murakami tell. Haruki Murakami, in his the Shore, grows up with had to address due to the novel Kafka on the Shore, the violence of World War setting of the event. writes a character who decides II, as is clear in the papers However, in a letter “Better not to try to make surrounding Nakata’s period the same teacher later writes sense...of what basically of unconsciousness. In the to a psychiatrist investigating doesn’t make any” (344). interview with Nakata’s school Nakata’s case, she reveals her Despite the author’s own teacher, she speculates about own violence toward Nakata embedded warning, readers the purpose of a military in this moment by admitting are compelled to rise to the plane’s flight overhead in the that she slapped him, even challenge, creating a meaning moments before the children’s though “I’d never, ever struck from the book by noticing collapse. She thinks it was “on one of the children before” patterns in the narrative. its way to bomb some large After all, nothing is truly city somewhere, or maybe random. Murakami must have on its way back from a raid” For the teacher, a process and purpose behind (Murakami 14). The ease with what he writes. Knowledge in which she discusses bombs and the barbarity of other areas of interests, like raids indicates the normalcy war muddles her psychology, explains these of violence during this time patterns. One such pattern, and in Japanese history. She does own sense of ethics, its accompanying explanation, not at all seem alarmed at the blurring the lines is the use of dissociation by proximity to the war, and in characters like Nakata, Kafka fact muses it “seemed like between good and Tamura, and Miss Saeki, something in a faraway land evil... in order to escape from the that had nothing to do with us” violence of their realities, (Murakami 16). Given these and the use of a separate reflections upon the impact of (Murakami 100). She connects otherworldly physical space as the war, it might be tempting both scales of violence when 16 a refuge. to understand the war as an she reasons, “Just over the horizon the violence of the war comatose state lasts for weeks, of his unconsciousness, the went on, with countless people and is investigated by the name for his state did not dying. I no longer had any American military because it exist, but that does not mean idea what was right and what may have a connection to the the phenomenon itself did not was wrong” (Murakami 101). war. In the transcript of an exist, and Murakami certainly For the teacher, the barbarity interview with the psychiatrist was aware of dissociation as of the war muddles her own Doctor Shigenori Tsukayama, he wrote the scene. sense of ethics, blurring the he observes “It seemed like Apart from the lines between good and evil, the real Nakata had gone off splitting of the self in which, she seems to suggest somewhere, leaving behind for Nakata’s character in Kafka here, contributed to her a time the fleshly container, on the Shore, he also displays violence toward Nakata. In Ian which in his absence kept all other symptoms of a “fugue Buruma’s article “Becoming his bodily functions going at state,” or a state in which a Japanese” in which he the minimum level needed to person dissociates from her interviews Haruki Murakami, preserve itself” (Murakami or his surroundings and her Murakami himself addresses 67). The psychiatrist or himself, according to the his awareness of violence in introduces the idea of potential interview with Dr. Tsukayama Japanese history. Buruma separation of the self, although (Goldberg). Upon awakening narrates: “He could no longer he does not yet have a word to from his comatose state, escape from something he had describe it. Sigmund Freud and Nakata forgets everything always feared: the capacity for Josef Breuer, as they studied about his previous life: irrational violence in Japanese dissociation in 1955, described names of family and friends, society” (Buruma 61). dissociation as a “splitting of reading and writing skills, Nakata’s teacher also realizes the consciousness” in moments and even which planet he the capacity for “irrational that “are to be described as inhabits; in essence, he loses violence,” as is revealed in the ‘traumatic’” (Spiegel 126). much of his identity. The text of Kafka on the Shore, but Although the psychiatrist does psychiatrist in the interview at the same time participates in not explicitly use the word conjectures, “rather than a an act of violence herself when “dissociation” to describe memory loss, it was more a she slaps him as a child. The Nakata’s state at this time, memory lack” (Murakami setting of violence in Nakata’s because Freud and Breuer 63). Nakata’s memory childhood is therefore had not yet studied it in those “lack” hints at an answer to purposeful and reflects terms, the dissociative state his condition, for which the Murakami’s own interest in would have existed before phrasing would not emerge Japan’s role in World War II the word for it did, so Dr. until later in the development and the capacity for violence Tsukayama seems especially of psychological theory. In it indicates (New York Times). attuned to it. Matthew “Hypnosis, Dissociation, This violence, especially as it Strecher, in his book The and Trauma,” David Spiegel is exposed to Nakata through Forbidden Worlds of Haruki explains, “a person in a his educator, in part explains Murakami, hypothesizes that fugue [state] functions as an the phenomenon of his Nakata “entered the ‘other individual who lacks memory unconsciousness. world’ as a child” perhaps in or his usual personal identity” It is alongside the order “to escape the rampant (127, emphasis added). The violence of World War II and violence that surrounded him psychiatrist’s observation the slap delivered to Nakata in his own world” (Strecher of Nakata’s memory lack that he enters a dissociative 51). The retreat of part of is an obvious display of state as a child. After the Nakata’s self into another the symptoms described by unnamed schoolteacher slaps world to escape violence is Spiegel of a dissociative or him, the entire class falls Freud and Breuer’s definition “fugue” state, but Spiegel’s unconscious. For Nakata, the of dissociation. At the time addition regarding the loss of 17 identity can also be applied is, quite literally, something of violence in the scene. to Nakata’s recovery from missing from Nakata’s life, Johnnie Walker unconsciousness. When Nakata which contributes to his commits violence against the awakes, he refers to himself in being “empty.” According to cats, certainly, but Nakata the third person, a trend which psychiatrists Bessel van der himself must participate in the continues for the rest of his Kolk, Onno van der Hart, violence in order to save his life. He did lose aspects of his and Charles R. Marmar, cat friends. As Nakata gets identity, which he reiterates dissociation can occur in angrier at Johnnie Walker’s into adulthood. moments of trauma and “as actions, he begs, “Please, stop The aspects of Nakata’s a long-term consequence of it. If you don’t, Nakata’s going personality which were lost traumatic exposure” (306). to go crazy. I don’t feel like during this childhood traumatic It is not far-fetched to assert, myself anymore” (Murakami event are apparently never therefore, that Nakata’s 148). Nakata here hints at his recovered, at least according to dissociation has been ongoing use of dissociation in order to Nakata himself. He repeatedly since his teacher slapped cope with violence or anger alludes to feeling “empty” him. In reality, it does not by warning he does not “feel as the book progresses. As necessitate the desaturation of like [himself] anymore.” Nakata recovers some of his Nakata’s shadow, but since Nakata is experiencing a memory, at least enough to the book itself does not claim negotiation between an remember what his life was to be entirely based upon “emotional” personality, like before his fugue state, natural law, the two can, and which surfaces as a result of he confides to truck driver should, be connected. Later traumatic events in patients Hoshino: in the novel, dissociation and with post-traumatic stress violence intersect for Nakata disorder, and an “apparently Nakata’s empty inside...Nakata’s once again. normal” personality (Van der like a library without a single When Nakata meets Hart and Marmar 317). As a book. It wasn’t always like that. a figure who calls himself result of the trauma Nakata I used to have books inside Johnnie Walker, violence and has experienced as a child, me. For a long time I couldn’t remember, but now I can. I used the mind/body separation in his for which the “emotional” to be normal, just like everybody life intersect, meaning that he personality serves as a else. But something happened and yet again shows symptoms of container, he can more easily I ended up like a container with dissociation. Johnnie Walker separate himself from his nothing inside. (Murakami 306) reveals his plan to bait Nakata experience, and does so during into killing him: he will cut the cat-killing scene with The emptiness felt by Nakata out the hearts of live cats and Johnnie Walker. Matthew in the entirety of his adult eat them (in order to extract Strecher agrees, but classifies life, especially in comparison the souls), cut off the heads, Nakata’s two personalities with his sparse memory of and discard the bodies. Johnnie differently. Of Nakata in this childhood, indicates that the Walker uses war-like language scene, Strecher asserts, “His part of him which left while in describing the plan, and darker inner self rises to the he was in the hospital has Nakata’s role in it. He tells surface, forcing his surface never returned. There are Nakata, “This is war. You’re a persona into a subordinate even visible signs of Nakata’s soldier, and you have to make position, and let loose its emptiness. Mr. Otsuka, a name a decision. Either I kill the cats destructive urges” (103). The given to a neighborhood cat or you kill me” (Murakami “darker” self is, in the terms with whom Nakata can speak, 143). The call-back to war is used by psychiatrists, the tells him, “The shadow you significant because it connects “emotional self.” Dissociation cast on the ground is only half Johnnie Walker’s actions to as studied by psychiatrists, as dark as that of ordinary World War II during Nakata’s and the state in which Nakata 18 people” (Murakami 51). There childhood and clarifies the role finds himself upon witnessing violence or experiencing sensation: like his body in blood, he tells Oshima, a anger, are described in the and his spirit have become librarian and ally for Kafka, he same terms. Nakata has separated. In this moment, he does not mean to be violent, employed dissociation since must “pick up the scattered “but it’s like there’s somebody childhood in order to cope pieces of me lying all around” else living inside me. And with the violence of his world, (Murakami 69). His essence when I come to, I find out I’ve and his experiences serve as a has become fragmented due hurt somebody” (Murakami benchmark for understanding to an occurrence during his 266). Kafka’s inability to the events surrounding Kafka unconscious state, which he remember the violence his Tamura, Kafka on the Shore’s cannot remember. The sense body has committed aligns second protagonist. of separation from one’s body with the symptoms Nakata Just as displays after an Nakata’s body act of violence becomes separated is committed from his spirit as a against him. Both child, as a result of a the experience dissociative or fugue and enactment of state, Kafka Tamura, violence qualify as the fifteen-year-old “traumatic.” Kafka runaway seems aware lacks the memory of the potential for of committing the separation of the spirit act, and blames any and the body. The actions on “somebody chapters in which else living inside me.” Kafka serves the Additionally, narrator are rife with Kafka Tamura rapes impersonal references Sakura, who he to the body. At times, and readers believe Kafka’s body and could be his sister, his spirit align with in a dream. During each other. Early Raigen Furness, “Occupied,” graphite the act, he insists, in the book, Kafka feels “Actually I haven’t “safe inside this container made up my mind called me. With a little is referred to by psychologists about anything. Making click, the outlines of this as “depersonalization” up your mind means you being--me--fit right inside and is a symptom of have a choice, and I don’t” and are locked neatly away. dissociation (McNally 172). (Murakami 370). Kafka is Just the way I like it. I’m Kafka’s predisposition for unable to control his actions where I belong” (Murakami understanding his body and in the dream, but is composed 55). Kafka understands his his spirit as separate makes enough to respond to Sakura body to be detachable from it easier for him to dissociate and remember the events the essence of him--his in psychologically traumatic later. His insistence that he personality, his identity-- moments. has no choice except to rape and in this moment, he is Kafka, as becomes Sakura is a deferral of blame content with their position clear throughout Murakami’s from himself onto whoever together. He feels whole. novel, uses dissociation to does have the choice (who is Only pages later, though, separate himself from violent unspecified). Dissociation, after Kafka wakes up in an acts when his body commits according to David Spiegel, is unfamiliar place covered in them. After waking up in an a “model of defense” against blood, he suffers the opposite unfamiliar location, covered the mediation of “incompatible 19 mental contents,” which would of Nakata’s childhood means care of some vital task and include Kafka’s perception that they can connect the two, then returns to reunite with of himself as incapable of and understand the reasons the body” (Murakami 67). violence (126). In order to for Miss Saeki’s dissociated At such an early point in the avoid the task of reevaluating self more than the characters novel, the acknowledgement his assessment of his identity themselves can. Kafka, in of spirits in Japanese culture in the moment, he distances discussing the appearance might be easy to overlook. As himself from unsavory acts of Miss Saeki’s younger the novel proceeds, the same entirely. Compartmentalization apparition, asks Oshima, “Do explanation is given for Miss of the self in Kafka’s character you think it’s possible for Saeki’s younger apparition, requires that “two or more someone to become a ghost again connecting the situations parts of the personality and while they’re still alive?” of Nakata and Miss Saeki for the associated actions” remain (Murakami 224). Oshima the audience. Oshima, after “relatively divided” (Nijenhuis is not so sure, while Kafka Kafka asks if it is possible to and Van der Hart 422). Kafka remains convinced that become a ghost while alive, certainly achieves this in the “while they’re still alive, in reference to Miss Saeki’s moment violent actions are people can become ghosts” apparition, instead connects it taken against others. Readers (Murakami 224). Because of to Japanese literature: question Kafka as his “true the knowledge lent to readers identity grows less and less through Nakata’s character, That’s what’s called a ‘living clear” (Strecher 96). Kafka his assessment at first spirit.’ I don’t know about in associates himself with a seems correct. As the novel foreign countries, but that kind character who helps him progresses, though, it becomes of thing appears a lot in Japanese literature. The Tale of Genji, for understand the separation less convincing. Instead, instance, is filled with living between the spirit and the another interpretation emerges spirits. In the Heian period--or at body, which he has always through other characters. least in its psychological realm-- perceived. Oshima and other on occasion people could become Kafka Tamura enters characters in the novel are living spirits and travel through a sexual relationship with more persuasive in their space to carry out whatever Miss Saeki, a middle-aged hypothesis that characters desires they had. (Murakami 225) librarian whose dissociated like Miss Saeki and Nakata fifteen-year-old self visits are actually participating Oshima’s explanation bears him every night, and who in the tradition of spirits, resemblance to that of the readers and Kafka himself established culturally in Japan psychiatrist at the beginning believe might indeed be his as separate from the body, of the novel. The psychiatrist mother. Miss Saeki, much and a logical connection to makes a comparison between like Nakata, casts only half the process of dissociation. his sense that the real Nakata of a shadow, indicating that Dr. Shigenori Tsukayama, the had gone away, a sign of she too, experiences the same psychiatrist who described dissociation, and the cultural emptiness as Nakata does, Nakata’s symptoms in establishment of spirits in but in her case it manifests alignment with the definition Japan. Oshima, on the other itself differently. Instead of of dissociation, alludes to hand, is not using spirits in losing her ability to read and spirits in his interview. He Japanese literature to compare write, she loses her vitality. reminds his interviewer, with Kafka’s experiences; he Miss Saeki’s dissociation has Lieutenant Robert O’Connor, is instead transferring literary occurred because of the death that Japanese folktales are concepts to real life. In this of her long-time boyfriend, full of “spirit projections,” in book, it is not illogical to who was killed by a group of which “the soul temporarily do so. Some scholars might vigilante student protestors by leaves the body and goes argue that Haruki Murakami 20 mistake. Readers’ knowledge off a great distance to take has never been a “Japanese” writer, and is in fact more point that both Mimi and The (97). These characters enter fascinated with US-American Boy Named Crow are making the forest under the influence and European cultures. in these passages. Violence, of violence, trauma, or However, he did include and war, are simply a part of personal crisis. The impact of these references to Japanese their world. violence on the existence of literature willingly and The forest, a major the other world is highlighted purposefully, and according setting in the final chapters of by Kafka himself. As he to Buruma, this book was the book narrated by Kafka, wanders farther into forest, written as Murakami embraced is the otherworldly escape he begins to contemplate war, his own heritage (Buruma). from violence in the novel’s wondering “Why do people In his novel Kafka on the reality. Kafka’s own reason wage war? Why do hundreds Shore, Japanese literature for retreating into the forest of thousands, even millions of aids in the understanding the is the police’s pursuit of him people group together and try events of the book, especially in the murder of his father. to annihilate each other? Do in combination with the While they cannot prove he people start wars out of anger? psychological concept of committed the crime, and wish Or fear? Or are anger and fear dissociation. to question him on the matter just two aspects of the same In Kafka on the Shore, in hopes of finding the real spirit?” (Murakami 386). The the world is continually killer, he cannot prove that he story Oshima told him about portrayed as having no the World War II soldiers who escape from violence, which got lost in the forest while informs the audience about The Boy Named practicing military drills leads the separate world discovered Crow understands logically to his considerations in the forest. The Boy Named of war in general. However, Crow, Kafka Tamura’s alter Kafka’s world to be it is no coincidence that these ego and companion, enlightens inherently reflections occur as he delves him: “There’s no war that deeper into the forest. Through will end all wars...War breeds dangerous because Kafka’s purpose of escaping war. Lapping up the blood of the pervasive- from a personal crisis and the shed by violence, feeding connection he draws between on wounded flesh. War is a ness of war and the forest and violence, he perfect, self-contained being” violence. It would understands the forest as a (Murakami 387). The Boy refuge from violence. Named Crow understands follow, then, that Kafka’s understanding Kafka’s world to be inherently it is impossible to of the woodland is affirmed dangerous because of the when he meets the World War pervasiveness of war and escape from II soldiers who went missing violence. It would follow, violence. during their military training. then, that it is impossible to The two men, one “brawny escape from violence. Even as one” and another “tall one,” the novel begins, Mimi, a cat did not do it. To escape from meet Kafka on the outskirts who has befriended Nakata, their grasp he is smuggled to of the other world, where philosophizes, “This world a cabin in the forest. Matthew they permit him entrance and is a terribly violent place. Strecher in The Forbidden acquaint him with its rules. He And nobody can escape the Worlds of Haruki Murakami recognizes them as the soldiers violence” (Murakami 83). recognizes that each character from Oshima’s story, and Many of the events in the who ventures into the other when he asks them why they novel are connected in one world (Nakata, Kafka, and escaped, the “brawny soldier” way or another to violence, Miss Saeki) does so in a reasons “neither one of us and this fact only proves the “moment of chaos and fear” wants to kill anybody. And 21 being killed’s even worse” other world to exclude the her spirit projects (Murakami (Murakami 401). His brief possibility of brutality of 229). The apparition which response is later expanded any kind. Clearly, from their appears to be Miss Saeki at upon by the “tall soldier,” who statements to Kafka while they the time of her heartbreak can adds: lead him into the heart of their most accurately be described realm, the forest is the soldiers’ as the spirit she lost through I don’t care who the enemy escape. dissociation as a result of is--Chinese soldiers, Russians, Johnnie Walker, who such “mindless violence.” Americans. I never wanted to baited Nakata into stabbing Her body has separated from rip open their guts. But that’s him earlier in the book, returns her spirit, and while her the kind of world we lived in, in order to offer yet another body continues living in the and that’s why we ran away. interpretation of the forest’s “real” world, her spirit waits Don’t get me wrong, the two of purpose. Johnnie Walker in the forest to meet it again, us weren’t cowards. We were makes an appearance later protected from such cruelty. actually pretty good soldiers. We just couldn’t put up with that rush in the novel when he battles The disconnection between to violence. (Murakami 415) with The Boy Named Crow the fifteen-year-old spirit while Kafka is exploring the who tends to Kafka during Rather than fear, as the brawny other world found in the forest. his stay in the forest and the soldier’s confession might Johnnie Walker asks him, “Do corresponding middle-aged suggest, the tall soldier reveals you know what limbo is?” and body is proven when the young they were actually motivated then explains, “It’s the neutral Miss Saeki herself informs by an opposition to violence. point between life and death. Kafka, “Folks here often go a Although they were, by their A kind of sad, gloomy place” whole day without eating, no own account, not cowards, (Murakami 433). This is how problem. They actually forget they wanted to escape what Johnnie Walker understands to eat, sometimes for days at they saw as pointless violence. the forest. It may at first seem a time” (Murakami 436). The Laura Miller, New York Times in opposition to the earlier only one living in the forest book reviewer, interprets perception of the forest, but in who has a need for food is the soldiers as choosing reality, it can be both a neutral Kafka, because he is the only “suspended animation over point between life and death, being in the forest whose body suffering the depredations of and an escape from violence. is still attached to his spirit. time and loss.” Miller alludes Dissociation helps these The rest of the inhabitants to their choice to participate theories work together to fully of the other world are spirits in the “other world,” where explain the forest’s purpose. without bodies, who therefore they do not age but also do not The qualities of the experience no bodily need, like participate in life, but does not forest as expressed earlier by food or water. During Kafka’s reveal their motivations for the World War II soldiers and stay, Miss Saeki’s spirit does doing so in her short review. later by Miss Saeki’s fifteen- reunite with her body and The other world as they year-old apparition, is a type move past this limbo-like state. describe it is actually devoid of “limbo” in which the spirits A middle-aged Miss of any kind of violence--war, of those in dissociative states Saeki appears to Kafka later certainly, but also natural. The can escape from violence. in the book. She implores him tall soldier, as he leads Kafka Kafka reunites with Miss to remain whole and return to through the forest, explains to Saeki’s younger spirit during the “real” world in order to him,“no other here--poisonous his stay in the other world at avoid the emptiness she has snakes or mushrooms, the center of the forest. The experienced as a result of her venomous spiders or insects-- audience already knows that dissociation (Murakami 438). is going to do you any harm” “mindless violence severed” The moment in which she (Murakami 414). Even nature the love between herself and appears is the moment of her 22 has bent to the rules of this her boyfriend at the same age death at the Komura Memorial Library, when her younger pieces of Miss Saeki’s self- The other world in spirit and her older body -her spirit, her memories, the depths of the forest is a reunify. In The Forbidden and her body--to operate refuge from the violence of Worlds of Haruki Murakami, independently is not rare the real world for the spirits of Matthew Strecher describes for those who suffer from those who have experienced Miss Saeki as sustained by her dissociative tendencies. In trauma. Three major characters memories, which she writes in fact, a version of dissociation in the book--Nakata, Kafka a notebook throughout her life theory called “neodissociation Tamura, and Miss Saeki-- and instructs Nakata to burn theory” suggests “subunits utilize dissociative techniques before her demise (Murakami of the whole can function in order to cope with traumatic 51). It is these memories, semi-autonomously rather events and personal crisis, apparently essential to her than requiring the whole and in some cases even ability to remember anything structure for any one piece to retreat into this other world at all, that she says “went up manifest its meaning” (Spiegel as a result. The knowledge of in smoke and disappeared into 134). For Miss Saeki, this is psychological concepts like the air. So I won’t be able to certainly the case; her body dissociation helps to make remember things for very long. is able to accomplish tasks sense of patterns within a plot All sorts of things--including and perpetuate itself while her that at first appear to resist my time with you” (Murakami spirit is away, and her spirit explanation. Even as Haruki 439). The memories as experiences a certain amount Murakami himself warns they are written is another of autonomy, too, evidenced readers against trying to tie up separation of Miss Saeki’s by the spirit’s care of Kafka the novel’s ending--and indeed self, and the elimination of while he is accommodated in through this lens the novel still that piece of herself means the forest. The forest, then, is does not entirely conclude- her death because, as Strecher a refuge for the dissociated -they can begin to glean a establishes, these memories spirits of characters in the meaning, and perhaps even sustain her and make up her novel who wish to separate a process, from a novel that identity. from the inescapable violence rejects unifying ideologies and The ability for the of their world. techniques.

Works Cited Buruma, Ian. “Becoming Japanese.” The New Yorker, 23 Dec. 1996, pp. 60–71. Goldberg, Joseph. “Mental Health and Dissociative Fugue.” WebMD, 28 May 2016, www.webmd.com/mental-health/ dissociative-fugue#1. Accessed 13 April 2019 Miller, Laura. “Crossing Over.” The New York Times, 6 Feb. 2005, https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/06/books/review/ kafka-on-the-shore-realitys-culdesacs.html. Accessed 13 April 2019. Murakami, Haruki. Kafka on the Shore. Vintage Books, 2004. Nijenhuis, Ellert R. S., and Onno Van Der Hart. “Dissociation in Trauma: A New Definition and Comparison with Previous Formulations.” Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, vol. 12, no. 4, 2011, pp. 416–445. Spiegel, David. “Hypnosis, Dissociation, and Trauma: Hidden and Overt Observers.” Repression and Dissociation: Implications for Personality Theory, Psychopathology, and Health, edited by Jerome L. Singer, University of Chicago Press, 1995, pp. 121–142. Strecher, Matthew. The Forbidden Worlds of Haruki Murakami. University of Minnesota Press, 2014. McNally, Richard J. “Theories of Repression and Dissociation.” Remembering Trauma. Belknap Press of Harvard Uni- versity Press, 2005, pp. 159–185. Van der Hart, Onno, and Charles R. Marmar. “Dissociation and Information Processing in Posttraumatic Stress Disor- der.” Traumatic Stress: the Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society, edited by Bessel A. Van der Kolk et al., Guilford Press, 1996, pp. 303–327.

23 La casa y la identidad en La casa en Mango Street Molly Timmerman

SPAN-487: Senior Seminar in Frequently included in secondary Spanish and English language Hispanic Literature and curricula, Sandra Cisneros’ short novel The House on Mango Culture Street centers on a young Chicana protagonist who narrates the day-to-day happenings of her Chicago neighborhood. Molly’s La Casa en Mango analysis tackles the relationship between home and belonging in Street de Sandra Cisneros es the work, with a particularly sustained focus on the role educa- narrada por una joven chicana tion plays in breaking the cycle of poverty, especially for women. llamada Esperanza. Durante Molly’s critical reading of the work contextualizes it properly in la historia, Esperanza tiene a United States of the 1980s, while attempting to trace its trajec- doce o trece años y vive en tory to the present as well. Her overall organization, development Chicago, en un barrio pobre of supporting paragraphs, seamless use of primary and second- con muchos otros latinos. ary sources and appeal to humanities and social science research Además, Esperanza es una amplifies her argument and helps us see the enduring relevance of estadounidense de primera this work. generación, cuyos padres - Kathy Korcheck vinieron de México (Cisneros pobreza en los Estados Unidos, escuela secundaria como el 28). A lo largo de la historia, especialmente en la comunidad ingreso familiar medio están Esperanza siente una sensación latina. por debajo del promedio de desconexión entre su Aunque La Casa en nacional. Estas cifras no realidad y sus metas en la vida. Mango Street fue escrita en la parecen ser significativas, pero Esta desconexión se simboliza década de los 80, los latinos muestran que los latinos están en La Casa en Mango Street de primera generación se en desventaja en los Estados por la casa de sus sueños y su enfrentan a muchos de los Unidos. Con menos educación, situación real en Mango Street. mismos problemas que tenían los latinos ganan menos dinero Cisneros utiliza el cuando salió la novela. En en promedio y trabajan en contraste entre la realidad la década de los 80, la tasa empleos que tienen menos y la idealización del hogar de graduación de la escuela beneficios. Los latinos también para desarrollar el sentido de secundaria para los latinos se instalan a menudo en pertenencia de Esperanza en el era solo alrededor de 40%, vecindarios de bajos ingresos barrio y formular la identidad mientras que hoy esa tasa ha como el barrio en La Casa en de Esperanza. Además, aumentado a aproximadamente Mango Street. Cisneros usa la identidad 73% en 2013, pero sigue Antes de que comience cambiante de Esperanza para siendo la más baja entre los la novela, la infancia de demostrar la marginación que grupos demográficos. También Esperanza se caracterizó por muchos chicanos de primera el ingreso familiar promedio mudarse de hogares. Esperanza generación enfrentan en los aumentó de $36,751 en 1980 comenta, “No siempre hemos Estados Unidos. Por último, a $44,800 en 2015 (Flores, vivido en Mango Street. la educación es la opción más et. al). Por último, la tasa Antes vivimos en el tercer viable para que Esperanza de pobreza de los latinos se piso de Loomis, y antes de haga realidad sus sueños; redujo del 23.2% en 1980 al allí vivimos en Keeler. Antes Cisneros ofrece la educación 21.9% (Flores et al.). Tanto de Keeler fue en Paulina y de 24 como la solución al ciclo de la la tasa de graduación de la más antes ni me acuerdo” (6). Esperanza explica que la casa en su propio barrio con otros que ella heredó el nombre de en Mango Street “es nuestra y chicanos (Betz 22). Esperanza su abuela y que “En inglés no tenemos que pagarle renta tiene grandes expectativas y mi nombre quiere decir a nadie,” pero la casa está muy necesita salir de Mango Street esperanza. En español tiene lejos de las que Esperanza para lograr esos objetivos. Para muchas letras. Quiere decir había imaginado, incluso Esperanza, lograr la casa de tristeza, decir espera. Como si su familia es dueño de la sus sueños es la máxima señal el número nueve” (Cisneros propiedad. La casa en Mango de independencia. Muestra que 8). Sin embargo, Esperanza Street está en un mal barrio. obtuvo un trabajo estable y está decidida a no “heredar su Esperanza comenta que “los una buena educación (Martin lugar junto a la ventana” (9). que no saben llegan a nuestro 62-3). Además, revela que De esta manera, Esperanza barrio asustados. Creen que no tuvo que depender de es separa inmediatamente del somos peligrosos” (15). un hombre para lograr sus típico ejemplo de modelos Además, la casa “es pequeña y objetivos. femeninos disponibles para roja…y los ladrillos se hacen Al comienzo de la Esperanza. pedazos en algunas partes” historia, Esperanza es una A lo largo de la y se convierte en una fuente chicana joven que acaba historia hay muy pocos de vergüenza para Esperanza de mudarse a un barrio modelos femeninos para cuando una monja le pregunta mayormente latino. Ella Esperanza. Dentro de su dónde vive y la monja lucha por encajar, pero vecindario hay un camino responde “¿Vives allí?” (6-7). finalmente se hace amiga de claramente definido para La combinación de la fealdad otros niños. Sin embrago, las mujeres. Típicamente, de la casa con la reputación a medida que Esperanza las chicas en el barrio de del barrio crea una sensación crece, descubre que no es Esperanza están “atrapadas” de vergüenza en Esperanza. similar a otras personas de su por ser esposas y madres Esperanza se edad. Otros jóvenes latinos como la abuela de Esperanza avergüenza cada vez más de su barrio, especialmente y Minerva, la vecina cuyo de su hogar real y comienza mujeres, parecen renunciar marido la abusa y la abandona a soñar con “una casa que a su destino, sus sueños y (Roszak 63). Además, sea mía. Con mi porche y sus metas cuando no pueden muchas de las chicas a las mi almohada, mis bonitas escaparse de la realidad. Sin que conoce Esperanza pasan petunias” (47). La casa de embargo, lo opuesto es cierto de tener un padre abusivo y los sueños de Esperanza es para Esperanza. En lugar de controlador a tener el mismo modesta para la mayoría de renunciar a sus sueños para tipo de marido o novio como los estadounidenses, pero para sí misma, como una casa Sally. Esperanza se da cuenta ella, es un hogar con “agua bonita y un futuro estable, y desde el principio de que no corriente y tubos que sirvieran, convertirse en esposa, madre, quiere tener que depender de Y escaleras interiores propias, o trabajadora doméstica, un hombre para tener éxito como las casas de la tele” Esperanza se da cuenta de que y comienza a identificarse es una enorme mejora de su debe cambiar su realidad para como una protectora para sus situación actual (6). Tener alcanzar su futuro. amigas. Cuando Esperanza una bonita casa se convierte A pesar de haber encuentra a Sally siendo en un símbolo de éxito en compartido experiencias acosada por los chicos para los Estados Unidos para culturales de su infancia con un beso, Esperanza intenta Esperanza. muchas personas en su barrio, detenerlos hasta que se da A medida que avanza Esperanza se siente como una cuenta de que Sally no quiere la historia, queda claro que extraña. Ella continuamente ser salvada (43-4). Este Esperanza no encaja en su se siente dividida entre las momento es importante para vecindario. Ella comienza a raíces chicanas y americanas el desarrollo de la identidad de sentirse como una extraña (Betz 24). Esperanza menciona Esperanza. Esta es la primera 25 vez que Esperanza realmente asiste a la universidad y vive mientras que las probabilidades siente que no pertenece o no en Mango Street. Siempre le están en contra de Alicia en comprende a las personas que parece cansada a Esperanza la universidad, donde debe la rodean. Esperanza se da porque viaja a clases al otro lidiar con tener poco en común cuenta de que debe mirar más lado de la cuidad y hace con sus compañeros y tener allá de su pequeño mundo para los quehaceres con su tarea quehaceres y responsabilidades la inspiración. regular. Alicia se mantiene familiares además de la tarea Además, muchas sola, lo que hace que las otras regular. Esperanza se da cuenta mujeres del barrio lamentan personas del barrio la vean de que la vida de Alicia es haberse resignado en lugar de como “esnob,” pero Esperanza difícil, pero la inspira en lugar perseguir sus sueños cuando ve la situación como si Alicia de asustar a Esperanza (15). eran jóvenes. A medida que La madre de avanza la historia, Esperanza en está claro que particular parece no hay modelos arrepentirse de no de rol perfectos haber intentado para Esperanza y en la escuela reconoce que debe porque “pued[e] ser la primera. haber sido Esperanza alguien, ¿sabes?” entiende que (41). Mientras tiene que salir que la madre de de Mango Street Esperanza no para alcanzar está tan atrapada sus objetivos. como otras No hay casas mujeres en el bonitas en Mango barrio, reconoce Street, así que que no ha estado debe irse literal a la altura de su y figuradamente potencial. En para obtener muchos sentidos, Jaden Culbertson, paper la casa de sus la madre de sueños (Roszak Esperanza enfrenta los mismos 70-1). desafíos que Esperanza. Su estuviera haciendo el trabajo Otras personas en mamá dejó la escuela porque necesario porque “no quiere el barrio comienzan a darse “no tenía ropa bonita” y pasar su vida en una fábrica o cuenta del potencial de sabe que “la vergüenza es tras un rodillo de amasar” (16). Esperanza también. Mientras mala cosa” (41). De manera Esperanza enfrentará Esperanza lee su propio poema similar, Esperanza tiene el un dilema similar como Alicia. a su tía enferma, Lupe, esta mismo obstáculo porque Ella está dividida entre dos última comienza a llorar al está avergonzada de vivir en mundos: un mundo donde va ver el potencial de Esperanza Mango Street, pero Esperanza a la universidad y tiene éxito y le susurra “deb[e] continuar acepta la vergüenza para y otro en el que ha crecido. escribiendo. Te hará libre” alcanzar sus metas en lugar de Para empeorar las cosas, (30). Además, cuando permitir que la vergüenza la ambos mundos parecen estar Esperanza comienza a ver frene. en desacuerdo. La gente de su propio potencial, otras En la historia, hay otra Mango Street lamenta que personas comienzan a verlo mujer que se escapa de Mango Alicia se avergüence de su también en ella. Alicia y las 26 Street. Alicia es una joven que comunidad y rompa normas, tres hermanas le aseguran a Esperanza que tendrá éxito, Sally no puede ser salvada casa perfecta. Ella quiere un pero también la advierten a por Esperanza, se va, y se hogar modesto, tranquilidad, Esperanza que no olvide su casa, mientras que las Vargas, y un hogar funcional para tiempo en Mango Street o la Lucy, Rachel, y, hasta cierto su familia (Cisneros 4-5). gente que está allí. punto, Nenny se mencionan En el medio de la historia, Durante la historia, cada vez menos hasta que se Esperanza quiere escaparse de Esperanza menciona que desvanezcan de las viñetas. Mango Street a una casa con le gusta escribir historias y Se puede suponer que “nadie a quien amenazar con poemas. Su tía Lupe la insta los personajes que se van de la un palo. Nada que recogerle a seguir escribiendo. Su vida de Esperanza continúan a nadie” (49). A medida que madre le dice que “ve a la el ciclo de la pobreza en la identidad de Esperanza escuela, Esperanza. Estudia Mango Street, sin importar continúa desarrollándose, se macizo” (42). Su padre la sus intenciones originales. De siente más compasiva con hace conseguir un trabajo esta manera, Cisneros utiliza quienes la rodean. Esperanza para ayudar a su familia a la identidad de Esperanza fantasea sueños infantiles pagar una educación privada para sugerir que la mejor y acerca de tener “vagabundos en una escuela católica en posiblemente la única forma en el ático” (41). Después de lugar de asistir a una escuela de terminar el ciclo es a través que Esperanza se da cuenta secundaria pública porque de la educación. En promedio que no puede proteger a todos, “Papá dijo que nadie iba a la en el año 2015, un graduado Alicia le dice a Esperanza escuela el gobierno a menos de la escuela secundaria en los que tiene la responsabilidad que quisiera salir mal” (26). Estados Unidos gana alrededor de regresar por la gente que De esta manera, Cisneros de $10,386 menos que dejó atrás porque “te guste ofrece una solución al ciclo aquellos que no se graduaron o no, tú eres Mango Street” de pobreza que enfrentan las de la escuela secundaria como (49). Aunque a Esperanza no personas en Mango Street y Sally. También, aquellos le gusta la idea de regresar, la pobreza en general en los que abandonan la escuela reconoce que debe regresar por Estados Unidos. secundaria experimentan la el bien de los demás. Aunque hay pocos pobreza a una tasa de 30.8% El sentido de modelos positivos para mientras que aquellos con al responsabilidad por los Esperanza, los modelos menos un diploma escolar demás siempre era parte del más notables son Alicia, la tienen una tasa de pobreza carácter de Esperanza, que tía Lupe, y su madre y su de 13.5% (Flores, et al). comenzó con la protección de padre. El único aspecto que Las estadísticas continúan, su hermana menor, Nenny, estos personajes tienen en mostrando que aquellos con para tratar de salvar a Sally. común es su aprecio para la más educación, de cualquier Naturalmente, la naturaleza educación. A medida que grupo demográfico, tienen protectora de Esperanza se Esperanza comienza a darse mejores porvenires en la aplica a Mango Street una cuenta de que no será feliz de vida. En general, mientras vez que Esperanza madure. establecerse en un lugar como más educación, mayor es el Siente la necesidad de ayudar Mango Street, estos personajes ingreso, mejor seguridad en el a la gente porque “¿Quien lo la animan a continuar su empleo, y más larga es la vida. va a hacer? No el alcalde” educación. Además, cuando Al final de la historia, (49). Finalmente, al final de Esperanza se convierte en su la cuestión no es si Esperanza la historia, la misma pasión propia persona, se vuelve más logrará sus objetivos, sino lo que llevó a Esperanza a poder ambiciosa en su búsqueda de que hará una vez que alcance. partir de Mango Street, la sus objetivos. Los amigos que La respuesta a esta pregunta obliga a regresar y ayudar no tienen ambiciones similares también cambia a lo largo a todos a subir con ella. en la vida desaparecen a de la historia. Al principio, Además, las tres hermanas medida que avanza la historia. Esperanza solo sueña con su instan a Esperanza, “cuando 27 te vayas tienes que acordarte de los estadounidenses de más fuertes y exitosos de La de regresar por los demás. primera generación que crecen Casa en Mango Street le dan Un circulo, ¿comprendes? en barrios pobres como Mango un alto valor a la educación Tú siempre serás Esperanza. Street no tienen éxito en el y las estadísticas muestran Tú siempre serás Mango juego de la vida. Sin embargo, que una mayor educación se Street. No puedes borrar Sandra Cisneros diseñó correlaciona con una mejor lo que sabes. No puedes cuidadosamente a Esperanza calidad de vida. Finalmente, olvidar quién eres” (48). La y Mango Street para la lucha Cisneros utiliza la resolución identidad de Esperanza ha que muchos latinos enfrentan de Esperanza para argumentar cerrado el círculo. Es la forma en los Estados Unidos y dirigió que las personas tienen la de su identidad lo que lleva la novela a lectores no latinos, responsabilidad moral de a Esperanza a irse, pero la así como ofrecer esperanza ayudar a aquellos que no autoconciencia que adquirió a lectores en una situación pueden ayudarse a sí mismos mientras vivía en Mango Street similar a la de Esperanza. tan fácilmente como nosotros. causa que Esperanza regrese. Además, Cisneros utiliza a Para Cisneros, no es suficiente La forma en que Esperanza para revelar que la que una persona escape de Mango Street ayudó a modelar mejor solución para terminar la pobreza. Las personas no la identidad de Esperanza es con el ciclo de la pobreza es deberían estar satisfechas hasta atípica en realidad. La mayoría la educación. Los personajes que todo el ciclo se detenga.

Obras citadas Betz, Regina M. “Chicana ‘Belonging’ in Sandra Cisneros’ The House on Mango Street.” Rocky Mountain Review, vol. 66, 2012, pp. 18–33. Cisneros, Sandra. La Casa en Mango Street. Perio Libros, 2008. Flores, Antonio, et al. “Facts on U.S. Latinos, 2015.” Pew Research Center: Hispanic Trends, Pew Research Center, 17 Sept. 2017. Hernández-Nieto, Rosana, and Marcus C. Gutíerrez. “Mapa Hispano de los Estados Unidos 2017.” Informes del Obser- vatorio, FAS-Harvard University, Nov. 2017. Martin, Karen W. “The House (of Memory) on Mango Street: Sandra Cisneros’s Counter-Poetics of Space.” South At- lantic Review, vol. 73, no. 1, 2008, pp. 50–67. Roszak, Suzanne. “Coming of Age in a Divided City: Cultural Hybridity and Ethnic Injustice in Sandra Cisneros and Veronica Roth.” Children’s Literature, vol. 44, 2016, pp. 61–77.

28 Presidential Case Study: Lyndon B. Johnson and the Vietnam War Amelia Howard POLS-235: U.S. in World Affairs This assignment calls upon students to select a president from What exactly is foreign McKinley-Obama and then decide upon what they consider to policy and why does it matter? be the most significant foreign policy issue or problem of their administration. It lays out a specific agenda of issues they must How has American foreign research and analyze, particularly tracing who were significant policy been conducted in the providers of information and advice from the top advisors in past and what is its historical government, such as Secretary of State. To successfully build and legacy? What policies define write these case studies they must undertake detailed primary American presidents, for and secondary research in order to uncover and incorporate high better or for worse? For the quality documentary evidence into the analysis. Amelia’s paper accomplishes this brilliantly, with a degree of care for organiza- purpose of this case study, tion, detail, and accuracy rarely seen in undergraduate research. foreign policy will be defined All of it is then written in elegant, clear prose, a pure joy to read as “the pursuit of a country’s for novice or specialist. vital national interests beyond -Jim Zaffiro its borders.”1 The case that will be examined will be was limited at best, while political philosophy. It was that of Lyndon B. Johnson McNamara was incredibly also the issue that ended LBJ’s and how his Vietnam War involved in not only advising political career and led him to policies aimed to protect policy but also in executing decide that he would not seek U.S. interests. He was it. He was one of the main reelection in 1968. handcuffed by the numerous coordinators of U.S. troops The U.S. practiced commitments the presidents throughout the war. George policies of containment and that preceded him had made Ball represented the lone global intervention long to contain communism and dissenter within both the JFK before the Johnson presidency tyranny. He inherited the and LBJ administrations and and even longer before the Vietnam quagmire from opposed most, if not all, of the commencement of the Cold his predecessors Dwight decisions that were made by War against the Soviet Union. Eisenhower and John F. those two presidents in regards It began with the Monroe Kennedy. He also inherited to Vietnam. He argued that the Doctrine, a policy President many of JFK’s advisers after U.S. should not have increased James Monroe outlined in JFK’s assassination and its military commitment in his eighth annual address to they played a crucial role in Vietnam and by and large, his Congress on December 2, shaping LBJ’s foreign policy. suggestions were ultimately 1823. He stated in that speech These advisers included ignored. In the end, LBJ’s that “we owe it, therefore, to people such as the Secretary decision to increase U.S. candor and to the amicable of Defense Robert McNamara, involvement in Vietnam was relations existing between Secretary of State Dean Rusk, the defining foreign policy the United States and those and the Under Secretary of issue of his presidency. It was [European] powers to declare State George Ball. Rusk’s the culmination of decades’ that we should consider any role in LBJ’s inner circle worth underlying American attempt on their part to extend

1 Jim Zaffiro, “POLS-235-A: U.S. in World Affairs” (lecture, Roe Center, Pella, IA, August 24, 2018). 29 their system to any portion of enlarged by President Theodore at hand in numerous ways. this hemisphere as dangerous Roosevelt during his fourth One, it expanded the U.S.’s to our peace and safety.”2 annual message to Congress commitment of interventionism By declaring so, Monroe on December 6, 1904. He from the Western Hemisphere made a commitment that the stated in that speech that “in to the entire world. Two, it U.S. would intervene if any the Western Hemisphere established the philosophical outside powers made attempts the adherence of the United precedent of “self- to take over territory in the States to the Monroe Doctrine determination.” While this Western Hemisphere. Thus, may force the United States, seems noble and just in however reluctantly, in flagrant theory, in practice, it was cases of such wrongdoing or not. It was later used as a Monroe made a impotence, to the exercise thinly veiled commitment of an international police to oppose communism on a commitment that power.”3 This assertion added global scale. This was because the U.S. would the explicit threat of military many Americans believed that force towards any nation that communism was a tyrannical intervene if any attempted to interfere in the monolith whose governments outside powers Americas. were taking away people’s Even after Franklin rights and freedoms. made attempts to Delano Roosevelt pledged to That brings us to the take over territory be a “good neighbor” to those U.S.’s Cold War policy of nations in his inaugural address global communist containment. in the Western in 1933, he too succumbed One of the first major step Hemisphere. Thus, to the pressure of expansive taken by the United States to interventionism as WWII lay the philosophical precedent in a seemingly came to a close in 1945. On for this policy was the Truman insignificant August 14, 1941, he issued Doctrine. This was a speech a joint declaration with the given by President Harry speech, Monroe United Kingdom’s Prime Truman on March 12, 1947, initiated a pact of Minister, Winston Churchill. to a joint session of Congress. In which, both countries In the speech, Truman asked U.S. military pledged to “respect the right of Congress to extend economic protectionism. all peoples to choose the form aid to the countries of Greece of government under which and Turkey to secure the they will live; and [sic] wish futures of both Europe and the in a seemingly insignificant to see sovereign rights and Middle East. However, he then speech, Monroe initiated a pact self-government restored to went on to echo sentiments of U.S. military protectionism. those who have been forcibly previously highlighted in the The scope of this pact has deprived of them.”4 Despite Atlantic Charter by saying the been continuously expanded denouncing the use of force following: “[There is a] way of since its declaration. Indeed, later in the document, this life that relies upon terror and the Monroe Doctrine itself was clause is relevant to the topic oppression, a controlled press

2 James Monroe, “Seventh Annual Message to Congress” (address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., December 2, 1823), accessed December 3, 2018, https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=23&page=transcript. 3 Theodore Roosevelt, “Fourth Annual Message to Congress” (address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., December 6, 1904), accessed December 3, 2018, https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=56&page=transcript. 4 United States & United Kingdom, Atlantic Charter, by Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt (Newfoundland, Canada: NATO, 1941), accessed December 3, 2018, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_16912.htm. 5 Harry Truman, “Third Annual Address to Congress” (address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., March 30 12, 1947), accessed December 3, 2018, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/trudoc.asp. and radio; fixed elections, and was well and good, but there that the USSR would not the suppression of personal needed to be concrete domestic hesitate to use military force. freedoms. I believe that it policy and federal funding to Therefore, the U.S. needed must be the policy of the support the broad promises to be prepared to use military United States to support free that the United States had force in return. It is stated in peoples who are resisting made. To address this issue, the document that “one of the attempted subjugation by National Security Council most important ingredients of armed minorities or by outside Paper 68 (more commonly power is military strength. In pressures.”5 This pledge was known as NSC-68) was the concept of ‘containment,’ solidified not only by the published on April 7, 1950. the maintenance of a strong creation of the United Nations It outlined specific budgetary military posture is deemed to in 1945 but also by the requests and also described the be essential for two reasons: creation of the North Atlantic nature of the perceived threats (1) as an ultimate guarantee Treaty Organization on April that the U.S. was facing. The of our national security 4, 1949. In the language of document characterized the and (2) as an indispensable its establishing treaty, NATO USSR as follows: backdrop to the conduct of asserted that: the policy of ‘containment.’”8 The design, therefore, calls for the It was ultimately concluded The Parties agree that an armed complete subversion or forcible that the U.S. must “develop attack against one or more of destruction of the machinery a level of military readiness of government and structure them in Europe or North America which can be maintained shall be considered an attack of society in the countries of the non-Soviet world and their as long as necessary as a against them all and consequently deterrent to Soviet aggression, they agree that, if such an armed replacement by an apparatus and structure subservient to and as indispensable support to attack occurs, each of them […] our political attitude toward will assist the Party or Parties controlled from the Kremlin. To the USSR, as a source of so attacked by taking forthwith, that end Soviet efforts are now individually and in concert with directed toward the domination encouragement to nations the other Parties, such action as of the Eurasian land mass. The resisting Soviet political it deems necessary, including the United States, as the principal aggression, and as an adequate use of armed force, to restore and center of power in the non- basis for immediate military maintain the security of the North Soviet world and the bulwark of commitments and for rapid opposition to Soviet expansion, Atlantic area.6 mobilization should war is the principal enemy whose 9 integrity and vitality must be prove unavoidable.” This Essentially, through the subverted or destroyed by one policy was put into practice signage of this treaty, the means or another if the Kremlin through both the Korean U.S. expanded its pledge of is to achieve its fundamental War and also numerous global military interventionism design.7 covert operations during the even further. It would now Truman, Eisenhower, and intervene not only in the case The U.S. believed JFK administrations. This was of a direct military attack on that it was under direct the philosophical framework the United States but also attack by the USSR, for the that LBJ inherited after in cases of military attacks USSR’s primary mission was JFK’s assassination elevated against other member nations. to destroy the U.S. and take him from Vice President to All of this language over the world. They believed President.

6 NATO, The North Atlantic Treaty, by NATO (Washington D.C.: NATO, 1949), accessed December 3, 2018, https://www.nato.int/ cps/ie/natohq/official_texts_17120.htm. 7 United States, National Security Council, NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security (Washington D.C., 1950), accessed December 3, 2018, https://www.citizensource.com/History/20thCen/NSC68.PDF, 3-4. 8 Ibid., 15 9 Ibid., 44 31 The practical situation Kennedy’s death. All of these than his Republican opponent, that LBJ inherited in Vietnam advisers, save for George Ball, Senator Barry Goldwater was a complex one that was said the same thing: continue of Arizona. Goldwater had haunted by the legacy of to maintain U.S. military made numerous off-the- French colonialism. From presence in Vietnam. At the cuff comments about using the 1860s to the 1950s the time, Vietnam was considered nuclear weapons in Southeast French had held Vietnam a crucial strategic point for Asia, alarming many. LBJ and three other countries communist containment capitalized on these fears as a protectorate known in Asia. American foreign during the race by running as “Indochina.” Under the policy advisers feared that if anti-nuclear television ads, the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnam fell, it would lead to most notable of which being Vietnamese communists were a “domino effect,” causing the his “ice cream” ad and his able to overthrow French rule. other countries of Southeast “daisy” ad. The first portrayed They then declared Vietnam to Asia to become communist a small girl eating an ice be an independent cream cone, with nation in 1954. a woman’s voice They were able to narrating in the do so even though background. She the United States states: had backed the Know what people French during used to do? They the Indochina used to explode War. After the bombs in the air. French lost in You know children 1954, Dwight should have lots Eisenhower of vitamin A and sent U.S. troops calcium. But they to continue shouldn’t have fighting against strontium 90 or cesium 137. These the communists. things come from Continuation and Max Barkalow, acrylic on paper atomic bombs, and escalation of this they’re radioactive. fighting continued throughout They make you die. Do you the JFK administration and nations that would be in the know what people finally did? into the LBJ administration. pockets of the Soviets or the They got together and signed LBJ elected to retain almost Chinese. a nuclear test ban treaty. And all of JFK’s foreign policy Lyndon B. Johnson then the radioactive poison advisers after his assassination wanted to avoid the Vietnam started to go away. But now and relied upon them heavily. War as much as possible and there’s a man who wants to be President of the United States, This was because LBJ had focus on his domestic agenda, and he doesn’t like this treaty. He spent most of his political the Great Society. This is what fought against it. He even voted career focusing on domestic he ran his 1964 presidential against it. He wants to go on policy, not foreign policy campaign on. When Vietnam testing more bombs. His name is and was abruptly thrown was brought up, Johnson Barry Goldwater. If he’s elected, into the role of the military’s attempted to paint himself as a they might start testing all over commander in chief after more peace-oriented candidate again.10

10 Democratic Party, “Girl With Ice Cream Cone,” advertisement, 1964, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ty4T5MuYRZw. 11 Ibid. 32 12 Democratic Party, “Daisy,” advertisement, 1964, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cwqHB6QeUw. A male voice then says “vote Tonkin. Retrospectively, some Vietnam in the years that for President Johnson on have come to believe that the followed. November 3rd, the stakes attack did not occur the way After the Gulf of are too high for you to stay the U.S. government said it Tonkin Resolution was passed, home.”11 In the second ad, did, or may not have even American bombings and troop another small girl is shown, occurred at all. There were deployment into Southeast this time picking a daisy. A no U.S. military casualities or Asia rapidly expanded. loud countdown from ten injuries and minimal damage Operation Rolling Thunder starts and the camera begins was done to the Maddox commenced in February to zoom in on one of the itself. However, this alleged of 1965 and concluded in girl’s eyes. As the countdown incident was interpreted by November of 1968 at the reaches zero and finishes the Americans as an act of end of Johnson’s term. zooming into her pupil, a war. It opened the door for Operation Rolling Thunder nuclear explosion goes off. reinvigorated U.S. escalation was implemented at urging Then Johnson’s voice is heard in Vietnam. On August 4, LBJ of most of LBJ’s foreign saying “these are the stakes: to appeared before Congress and policy advisers, especially the make a world in which all of delivered a speech in which Secretary of Defense, Robert God’s children can live, or go he implored them to pass a McNamara. McNamara was into the dark. We must either resolution in response to the the adviser who Johnson love each other or we must attack. In that speech, he stated looked to the most for foreign die.”12 Then the same male that “the determination of all policy advice. Every one voice from the ice cream ad Americans to carry out our full of LBJ’s advisers except again says “vote for President commitment to the people and George Ball generally agreed Johnson on November 3rd, to the government of South with McNamara’s positions. the stakes are too high for Viet-Nam will be redoubled by People like Dean Rusk took you to stay home.”13 This ad this outrage. Yet our response, a backseat to McNamara, was officially run only once, for the present, will be limited despite their positions being but TV news stations ran it and fitting. We Americans historically more significant over and over again on their know, although others appear in foreign affairs than evening broadcasts so that to forget, the risks of spreading McNamara’s. Between 1964 by the time of the election conflict. We still seek no and 1968, millions of tons of in November, almost every wider war.”14 However, the weapons were rained down American had seen it. resolution passed by Congress upon the North Vietnamese Johnson’s 1964 peace on August 10 gave Johnson at the urging of these platform was oddly juxtaposed the legal authority to “take all advisers. George Ball wrote a against the Gulf of Tonkin necessary measures to repel memorandum to the president incident, which occurred in any armed attack against in July of 1965 in which August of 1964, three months the forces of the United he argued that there was no before the election took States and to prevent further evidence to suggest that there place. Allegedly, the North aggression.”15 This blanket was any way that the U.S. Vietnamese attacked the USS authorization was later used could win the war in Vietnam, Maddox on August 2 while to justify the administration’s especially with the tactics that it was moored in the Gulf of escalation of the war in were currently being utilized.

13 Ibid. 14 Lyndon B. Johnson, “The Gulf of Tonkin Incident” (address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., August 4, 1964), accessed December 3, 2018, https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/speeches/rhetoric/lbjgulf.htm. 15 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 88th Cong., Second Session (1964) (enacted). 16 United States, Department of Defense, The Pentagon, Memorandum for the President from George Ball, “A Compromise Solution in South Vietnam,” 1 July 1965, by George Ball (Washington D.C., 1965), accessed December 3, 2018, https://www.mtholyoke.edu/ acad/intrel/pentagon4/doc260.htm. 33 He also believed that if the stop short of achieving our Nixon, overshadowed by United States continued upon complete objectives. Out of his deep attachments to the its set trajectory that the result the two possibilities, I think Johnson administration. would be “almost certainly a humiliation would be more Nixon, on the other hand, protracted war involving an likely than the achievement of seemed to offer an alternative open-ended commitment of our objectives−even after we to the Democrat’s strategy. U.S. forces, mounting U.S. have paid terrible costs.”17 He believed that the policies casualties, no assurance of a So humiliated and of “peace with honor” and satisfactory solution, and a defeated was Johnson, that “Vietnamization” would allow serious danger of escalation at he famously declared that the United States to withdraw the end of the road.”16 he would not be seeking from the war with minimal As time went on, reelection in 1968. He was casualities. His promises Ball proved to be correct. As only the third president in swayed the American people U.S. commitment increased, U.S. history to decide not to vote for him during the the war’s popularity−and to pursue reelection when election, but in reality, more Johnson’s along with it− constitutionally authorized U.S. soldiers died during the began to decrease. Limited to do so. The toll Vietnam Nixon administrations than progress was being made, took on him personally and during the rest of the wartime despite assertions from U.S. publicly was the main factor administrations combined. officials that the turning point When a peace agreement was of the war was just around finally met and the U.S. fully the corner. The American The political giant withdrew from Vietnam in people were growing weary who had thirsted 1975, South Vietnam quickly of what seemed to be an fell to the communists. The elective, yet unwinnable war. for the presidency country was reunified under The bloody Tet Offensive that his entire political the communist government was launched by the North that has remained in power to Vietnamese in early January of life stepped down this day. 1968 seemed to only reinforce and opened the Even after their the thought that Johnson’s defeat in Vietnam, the United policies were failing. Johnson Democratic States firmly adhered to its found himself in a terrible primary to a host ideological philosophy of predicament. Spending on the containment and universal military had rapidly derailed of other candidates. opposition to communism. his Great Society programs The U.S. continued to and forced his attention to engage in anti-communist foreign policy. The country that led to this decision. The interventions throughout seemed to be descending political giant who had thirsted the rest of the twentieth into chaos as the anti-war for the presidency his entire century until a deep economic movement gained momentum. political life stepped down recession caused the USSR Another ominous prediction and opened the Democratic to collapse in December of that George Ball made came primary to a host of other 1991. It could be argued true: “Once we suffer large candidates. Eventually, the that the previously cited casualties, we will have party settled on Vice President charters, doctrines, and reports started a well-nigh irreversible Hubert Humphrey as their show that the United States process. Our involvement will gubernatorial candidate. would have continued down be so great that we cannot− Humphrey went on to lose the path of containment without national humiliation− the 1968 election to Richard indefinitely until the USSR

34 17 Ibid. was defeated. Even after the States government. The U.S. political affairs since the 19th fall of the USSR, the U.S. continues to actively deploy century; it does not seem to has continued to practice combat troops to the Middle be going anywhere any time military interventionism East. The war in Afghanistan soon. Vietnam was a painful across the globe. There have initiated by George W. Bush manifestation of these policies been numerous military in 2001 continues to this day, that defined–and ultimately conflicts across the world with no real end in sight. ended–Lyndon B. Johnson’s that have been either fought Interventionism has been presidency. by or funded by the United strongly rooted in American

Bibliography Democratic Party. “Daisy.” Advertisement. 1964. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDTBnsqxZ3k Democratic Party. “Girl With Ice Cream Cone.” Advertisement. 1964. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-VzZQGWOqA Ernst, John. The War That Never Ends: New Perspectives on the Vietnam War. Edited by David L. Anderson. Lexington, KY: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2008. United States. Department of Defense. The Pentagon. Memorandum for the President from George Ball, “A Compromise Solution in South Vietnam,” 1 July 1965. By George Ball. Washington D.C., 1965. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://www.mtholyoke.edu/ acad/intrel/pentagon4/doc260.htm. Ball, George W. The Past Has Another Pattern: Memoirs. New York, NY: Norton, 1982. Bill, James A. George Ball: Behind the Scenes in U.S. Foreign Policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997. United States & United Kingdom. Atlantic Charter. By Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Newfoundland, Canada: NATO, 1941. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_16912.htm. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 88th Cong., Second Session (August 10, 1964) (enacted). Gould, Lewis L. 1968: The Election That Changed America. The American Way. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 1993. Herring, George C. LBJ and Vietnam: A Different Kind of War. An Administrative History of the Johnson Presidency. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1994. Hoopes, Townsend. The Limits of Intervention: New Edition, How Vietnam Policy Was Made - and Reversed - During the Johnson Administration. 3rd ed. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 1987. Johnson, Lyndon B. “The Gulf of Tonkin Incident.” Address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., August 4, 1964. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/speeches/rhetoric/lbjgulf.htm. Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: A History. New York, NY: Viking Press, 1983. LaFeber, Walter. The Deadly Bet: LBJ, Vietnam and the 1968 Election. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. McNamara, Robert S. In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam. Edited by Brian VanDeMark. New York, NY: Times Books, 1995. Monroe, James. “Seventh Annual Message to Congress.” Address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., De- cember 2, 1823. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=23&page=transcript. NATO. The North Atlantic Treaty. By NATO. Washington D.C.: NATO, 1949. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://www.nato.int/cps/ ie/natohq/official_texts_17120.htm. Roosevelt, Theodore. “Fourth Annual Message to Congress.” Address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., December 6, 1904. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=56&page=transcript. Schulzinger, Robert D. U.S. Diplomacy Since 1900. 6th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008. Truman, Harry. “Third Annual Address to Congress.” Address, Joint Session of Congress, U.S. Congress, Washington D.C., March 12, 1947. Accessed December 3, 2018. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/trudoc.asp. United States. National Security Council. NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security. Washington D.C., 1950. Accessed December 3, 2018. https://www.citizensource.com/History/20thCen/NSC68.PDF. VanDeMark, Brian. Into the Quagmire: Lyndon Johnson and the Escalation of the Vietnam War. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1991. Vandiver, Frank Everson. Shadows of Vietnam: Lyndon Johnson’s Wars. College Station, TX: Texas A & M Univ. Press, 1997. Zaffiro, Jim. “POLS-235-A: U.S. in World Affairs.” Lecture, Roe Center, Pella, IA, August 24, 2018. 35 The Bohemian Problem: A Sociological and Literary Examination of Willa Cather’s

ENGL-425: Seminar in Fraught Relationship with Literary Studies Czech Culture Willa Cather has K.E. Daft been hailed, for decades, as an advocate for Bohemian Each year I teach the senior seminar, I challenge students to make culture. Many of Cather’s an original contribution to Cather criticism, not merely parroting novels and short stories feature what other scholars have said, but staking out their own territory: immigrants and their struggle remedying inaccurate or partial representations of Cather’s fiction for self-actualization in a in earlier scholarship and offering a substantially new reading of foreign climate, and Bohemian one or two of her novels or stories. K.E. situates themself clearly immigrants are not excluded within existing discourse and reveals surprising gaps in previous from these literary portraits. readings of Cather. K.E. tackles one of the most accepted pillars As news writers of Cather’s of Cather criticism: that Cather was a great champion of Czech time noted, the inclusion culture in her work. I’ll admit that I found K.E.’s hypothesis of Bohemian characters in absurd when they first proposed it, but I think they have Cather’s published work was marshalled some very compelling evidence for their ground- uncommon for her era: “The breaking thesis. Russians or the Norwegians -Joshua Doležal might have selected such a woman and such a struggle Porter 17).1 One particularly to love often fall short of for the subject of a story [My bold newspaper writer even adulation, and into the realm Ántonia], but there are few went so far as to suggest that of blatant stereotyping – Americans who would have Annie Pavelka – the prototype especially with regard to ventured to do so” (Peattie). for Ántonia Shimerda in My the beloved Bohemian Cather herself played no small Ántonia – was someone with characters in My Ántonia, role in perpetuating the image whom Cather was “more who are frequently portrayed of herself as a proponent for than half in love,” indicating as animalistic, infantile, and immigrants, writing in an that Cather may have found rash. In consideration of these anonymously-published 1926 Bohemians and their culture portrayals, a problem arises biography that “Willa Cather more than merely “interesting” regarding how to interpret did not go to school. She had a (Rowse). these flawed characters in pony and spent her time riding Despite Cather’s relation to Cather’s supposed about the country and getting proclaimed interest respect for Czech immigrants acquainted with the neighbors, in Bohemian culture, and their culture. whose foreign speech and though, Cather’s literary In recent years, the customs she found intensely representations of the implicit criticism of Cather interesting” (Cather qtd. in immigrants she claimed inherent in such statements

1 In fact, the suggestion in this autobiographical account that Cather did not go to school is erroneous – likely fabricated to amplify 36 the notion of her ‘humble’ origins, and calling into question what else in the account might be invented or exaggerated (Porter 20). has been warned against story, nor culminate with the “widely recognized, widely by scholars such as Joan publication of My Ántonia. In institutionalized, and Acocella, who writes, “Is this fact, though Cather’s earlier monumentally significant” – the most important question works fall incredibly short distinguished Northwestern we can ask artists of the of demonstrating this social European immigrants (i.e. past: whether their politics consciousness, Cather herself Swedes or Norwegians) agree with ours? The idea proved, in her later work, that from Southeastern European that people from societies she was capable of having this immigrants (i.e. Bohemians) widely different from one’s “total vision of life.” in the 20th century, no own should be regarded discernible racial boundary with respect did not come I. Historical Context existed between Southeastern in until Montaigne and was Before moving European immigrants and probably not shared by more into analysis of Cather’s whites (331, 342). than a few eccentrics and textual representations of This is not to say, intellectuals…until the rise Bohemian culture, it is first though, that biases against of anthropology,” insinuating necessary to contextualize Bohemian immigrants were that any critique of Cather’s her cultural and racial biases nonexistent – during this era, prejudices is irrelevant to within the framework of the it was possible to be both her published work (67). prevailing sociological and ‘white,’ and still ‘racially Critics closer to Cather’s anthropological attitudes inferior,’ due to the competing own time, too, held similar about Bohemians during the statuses of color classification convictions. Theatre critic early 20th century. After Brooks Atkinson, for example, and racial hierarchy (Fox and all, it is only through this Guglielmo 334). As Fox and wrote that some scholars’s contextualization that one contentions with Willa Guglielmo note: can determine the extent to Cather’s work were “based which Cather and her work on the assumption that she There is evidence, to be sure, adhere to or diverge from her should have had a total vision of individuals, and even contemporaries’s attitudes of life—without blind-spots, an occasional institution, prejudices, or crochets. This toward Czech immigrants. challenging SEEs’ [Southeastern European immigrants’] is asking for the impossible; In modern sociological discussion, debate continues categorization as white: if it were possible, it would explicitly calling them or eliminate the tone and color about the appropriate way to categorize Czech immigrant treating them as not white or not of art” (Atkinson). Where my fully white; describing them as status in the mid-1900s, argument differs from those “swarthy,” “dark,” and “dark criticized by Acocella and with factions arguing that complected”; and comparing Atkinson is that what I am Bohemians were considered them to blacks and Asians… asking for is not impossible. anything from white to [But] most striking is how rarely I am not attempting to ‘take nonwhite to an inferior white any Americans–individually Cather to task’ for holding race to something “murky” in or institutionally–ever placed prejudices common among between these categorizations SEEs beyond the boundaries of whiteness. (343, emphasis added) her contemporaries; I am (Fox and Guglielmo 328). merely intending to resolve a Regardless of the divergence discrepancy in her accepted in scholarly opinion regarding Thus, Bohemian immigrants biography, and to circulate the color status of Bohemians, – considered white by all the awareness that Cather’s though, it is generally agreed mainstream American ‘revolutionary’ attitudes upon by sociological scholars academics of the 20th regarding Bohemians did that even though a “bright century – experienced racial not instantaneously appear social boundary” – defined discrimination due to their by Fox and Guglielmo as status as a “lesser” white race, with her first published 37 but rarely were placed beyond so much as mold it into a more supposedly passive, illiterate the boundaries of whiteness favorable form,” suggesting farmers standing in stark during the era in which Cather not only that Cather was not contrast to those bright and lived. subject to these “cultural capable Scandinavians and What does this mean limitations” Fischer claims, but other groups who tamed the for Cather’s work, then? beyond them entirely (4). In his plains” (Prchal 6). Further, As it was not common article, Prchal attempts to make he interprets the publication practice to make color- this point through the inclusion of My Ántonia as an indirect based distinctions between of a racially charged article by response to the content of Northwestern European Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant Sergeant’s article; written immigrants and Southeastern published in a 1910 issue of not to reinforce negative European immigrants, McClure’s, during the time in associations with Bohemian Cather’s insistence upon which Cather was an editor identity, but to reshape establishing a bright boundary for the magazine. The column them (Prchal). In his limited between Bohemians and reads: argument, however, Prchal whites through her repeated During the last thirty years neglects to consider how Jim references to Bohemians’s seventeen millions of foreigners Burden’s characterization of “dark” or “brown” skin have poured into our midst from Ántonia and the Shimerdas so (especially in texts like My central and southern Europe and often reinforces this pattern of Ántonia and O Pioneers!) Asia Minor: Italians, Hebrews, simplifying and stereotyping Poles, Russians, Bohemians, was, in fact, uncommon for Bohemian identity, and thus Rumanians, Greeks, Syrians, and her time; not reflective of the many other races – most of them, the ways this text falls short of actions and attitudes of her except in the case of the Hebrews, subverting, or even positively contemporaries. Therefore, passive, inarticulate, and illiterate, altering such attitudes. it is not possible to attribute agriculturists by inheritance. Prchal’s position, this short-sidedness, as These people differ fundamentally however, is understandable, Mike Fischer suggests, to from the more intelligent and and hardly unique: Cather has the “cultural limitations” of efficient Northern races that been considered an advocate Cather’s era (qtd. in Laegreid preceded them hither before for Czech immigrants for 102). 1880 – the English, Scotch, Irish, years, and it is true – as In spite of this, Germans, and Scandinavians, Peattie notes – that other who, as we know, not only made many literary scholars are writers during Cather’s time their fortunes in our cities, but quick to defend Cather dared to become also the hardy period neglected to include when accusations of her and successful settlers of our Bohemians in their work, cultural insensitivity toward distant Western plains. (Sergeant, with virtually none making Bohemians arise. Tim Prchal, qtd. in Prchal 6) Bohemians the main subject in fact, takes a more positive of a novel, as Cather did with view of Cather’s work than Prchal does not use this My Ántonia. What scholars Fischer in his article, “The excerpt, though, as evidence like Prchal (and writers like Bohemian Paradox: My that Cather may also have Peattie) fail to take into Ántonia and Popular Images of held prejudiced attitudes consideration, though, in Czech Immigrants,” going so toward these racial groups. their reflections on Cather’s far as to say that “positioning In fact, he writes against work, are the ways in which Cather with other writers who this notion, arguing, “It is Cather was not only providing contributed to the popular tempting to speculate about visibility for Bohemian image of Czech immigrants how [Cather] might have immigrants, but negatively reveals that she did not reacted to Sergeant’s inclusion reshaping the discourse about outright contradict this image of Czechs with the races of their identity. This negative

2 After all, the article appeared in the magazine during Cather’s stint as an editor, suggesting that the content of Shepley’s article 38 might not be completely antithetical to Cather’s own views of immigrant life. reformation takes, in Cather’s immigrant mistreatment is reveals that Bouchalka was work, the form of reinforcing undoubtedly Cather’s 1916 caught in sexual congress with or creating stereotypes about story, “The Diamond Mine,” Cressida’s maid, Ruzenka Bohemians such as the wherein the stereotype of (112).3 Bouchalka, then, categorization of Bohemians Bohemians as fickle lovers embodies two of the most as reckless drunkards, hot- initially surfaces. The only prominent stereotypes of headed lovers, and even as Bohemian character in this Bohemian immigrants: he is infantile and animalistic story, Blasius Bouchalka, is an alcoholic, and an impulsive individuals. described as being “a tall, lover incapable of fidelity.4 The best that can gaunt young man, big-boned To add injury upon insult, be said of Cather’s early and rugged, in skin-tight Bouchalka is additionally depictions, then, is that clothes. His high forehead described as having “the they aligned with her had a kind of luminous pallor desperation which the tamest contemporaries’ negative animals exhibit when they ideology of difference, as The best that can are tortured or terrorized” and demonstrated in Sergeant’s calls himself a “mongrel man” article. Despite Cather’s be said of Cather’s – moments of animalization presumed intentions to elevate early depictions, which, in conjunction with Bohemians and their culture, discussion of Bohemian the reality of her literary then, is that they dehumanization in My Ántonia, constructions is still negative. aligned with her take on additional significance (110, 114). Taken alone, these II. The Hot-Headed, contemporaries’ instances hardly constitute Unfaithful, and Alcoholic: negative ideology a case against Cather’s Bohemian Typecasting in reputation for celebrating “The Diamond Mine” and O of difference... Bohemian culture; however, Pioneers! when one views the depictions My Ántonia, as of characters like Bouchalka Cather’s perhaps best- and his hair was jet black within the context of Cather’s loved Bohemian-centered and somewhat stringy” with entire series of fiction, it novel, would seem a logical a “deeply lined forehead” becomes one of the “two or place to begin a critique and “red under-lip” (91, 95, three human stories…repeating of her Czech portrayals; 96). In this description, the themselves”; one instance in however, to gain a complete most exaggerated portrait any a larger pattern of Bohemian understanding of Cather’s character in the story is given, misrepresentation (Cather O complicated relationship with Bouchalka takes on caricatured Pioneers! 110). the Bohemian characters attributes which indicate to the In Cather’s longer she depicts, it is essential reader that Bouchalka is not to works, negative Bohemian to analyze the development be taken seriously: either as a stereotypes surface in the of these portrayals not character or as a prospective second of her “first novels,” only across the length of match for Cressida Garnet. O Pioneers!, with the My Ántonia, but within This idea is further character of Marie. Much like the complex framework of exemplified by descriptions Bouchalka, Marie struggles Cather’s other published of Bouchalka as “flighty to be faithful to her husband, novels and short fiction. and perverse,” and reaches Frank, telling Alexandra: The first thread within consummation later on in “The trouble is you almost this framework of Czech the story, when the narrator have to marry a man before

3 Though it is suggested with the line, “Ruzenka was sent away in the morning, and the other two maids as well,” that these other maids may have also been involved (112). 4 After all, Bouchalka’s excuse for his sexual digression is that “he had been drinking too much” (112). 39 you can find out the sort of becomes aware of (235). her own part, “blamed Marie wife he needs, and usually it’s This section from O bitterly. And why, with her exactly the sort you are not. Pioneers! does more than happy, affectionate nature, Then what are you going to affirm Frank’s hot-headedness, should [Marie] have brought do about it?,” and suggesting though; it also establishes destruction and sorrow to that her marriage was doomed what will be made explicitly all who had loved her…?” by its temerarious nature known to the reader later on: reinforcing the suggestion (178). To compensate for her Marie has ‘corrupted’ Emil. that Emil, as a wholesome, lack of satisfaction with her In a scene near the conclusion Northeastern European hurried match, Marie pursues of the novel, Alexandra immigrant must have been an ill-fated relationship with visits Frank Shabata in the less at fault than Marie, a Alexandra’s brother Emil. In penitentiary, and the notion of tempestuous, Southeastern the novel’s climactic fourth Marie’s corrupting influence European immigrant (263). section, Marie’s husband is established when Frank Laegreid argues this same Frank – always point in her article the type to jump “The Good, The rashly into action, Bad, and the be it marriage Ignored: Immigrants or murder – in Willa Cather’s O finds the two Pioneers!,” insisting lovers entangled that this skewing beneath the white of blame is due to mulberry tree Bohemian settlers’ and, in a burst of classification in the rage, kills both, “bad immigrant” “[knowing] that category: “Emil… he had murdered had been exposed somebody…but to Bohemians, Sarahi Ledesma, acrylic on paper [not realizing] before that a less civilized group of it was his wife” (236). The immigrants. He had let their problematic nature of this remarks, “You know, I most exotic ways blind him… passage is two-fold: Frank forgit dat woman’s name. predictably, tragedy ensued” is presented as jealous and She ain’t got no name for (110). Though socially- brutish, yet also as lacking me no more. I never hate my conscious modern readers the foresight to determine wife, but dat woman what may recognize that Marie who he was killing before make me do dat – Honest to was not wholly at fault for the deed was done. As Frank God, but I hate her!...I not the events which transpired, himself notes in the moments care how many men she take Cather’s indictment of Marie prior to killing Marie and under dat tree. I not care for through the perspective of the Emil, “The woman lying in not’ing but dat fine boy I kill, most rational character in her the shadow might so easily Alexandra Bergson,” placing novel reveals her implicit bias be one of the Bergson’s farm- the whole of the blame on against Bohemians, suggesting girls”; yet, in order to fulfill Marie for her tryst with Emil, that Cather may not have been the Czech stereotype laid and exonerating Alexandra’s as forward-looking as some out for him by Cather, Frank brother for his transgression scholars would purport. acts incongruously with his (262). Though Emil was thoughts in this sequence, equally responsible for the III. My Ántonia and the killing a woman whose affair, neither character in this Culmination of Cather’s identity he cannot ascertain, scene demonstrates awareness Prejudiced Portrayals 40 for a reason he only later of this fact. Alexandra, for This pattern of Czech stereotyping, contrary to the peasant women in the old other working girls were popular belief, was not countries,” using Ántonia’s “almost a race apart,” and rectified with the publication ‘lessening’ femininity as this notion reaches fruition of My Ántonia; rather, an excuse to perpetuate her in his animalistic metaphors: this novel demonstrates dehumanization (117). through Jim’s depictions of the culmination of these These animalistic her, Ántonia becomes not a prejudices. Throughout descriptions are not exclusive race apart from Jim and the My Ántonia, Cather – by to Ántonia, however: in other “white” immigrants, but means of her narrator Jim – fact, this same draft horse a species apart (192). characterizes Ántonia and comparison surfaces again in The notion of Ántonia her family in increasingly the final chapter of the novel as a prey animal is additionally demeaning ways, most in reference to Ántonia’s reinforced by Jim’s commonly through husband, Cujak, who Jim paternalistic attitude toward dehumanizing depictions of claims, “always looked at Ántonia at other points in the Ántonia as a prey animal. people sidewise, as a work- novel. As Jim is discussing The first instance of this horse does at its yoke-mate” Ántonia’s relationship with dehumanization arrives in (347). Ántonia’s family is not Larry Donovan during Lena Jim’s first encounter with exempt from these depictions, Lindgard’s visit, he remarks, Ántonia, where he remarks either: her younger brother “I think I had better go home that she “sprang up like a Marek has “fingers…webbed and look after Ántonia,” hare”; however, this is a thread to the first knuckle, like a placing himself in the role which is traceable throughout duck’s foot” and crows “like of protector and showing his the novel (Cather 26). The a rooster”; Yulka curls up desire to become a sort of most scathing comparison “like a baby rabbit”; Ántonia’s surrogate father to the naïve Jim undertakes comes during son Leo is described as Ántonia (260). Taken together, his recollection of Ántonia’s “faun-like” and as having a these instances reinforce Jim’s tenure with the Harling “jealous, animal little love” notion of Ántonia as ingenuous family. Jealous of Ántonia’s (23, 25, 337, 341). Though and needing his protection – a affection for Charley Harling, other characters in the novel notion Jim believes is justified Jim characterizes Ántonia as take on animal characteristics when he learns of Ántonia’s “padding about after Charley, – Peter and Pavel, for illegitimate pregnancy: proof, fairly panting with eagerness example, become nearly like he thinks, of her rash nature to please him” (151). As this the wolves they sacrificed and inherent irresponsibility. description comes directly a bride to circumvent – the Even Jim’s adulation after Jim’s mention of the Bohemian characters in My of Mr. Shimerda falls apart Harling’s setter dog, it is Ántonia are the only ones upon scrutiny. Though Jim impossible to mistake Jim’s who are consistently given seems to respect the late Mr. meaning: he perceives Ántonia such descriptions, and thus Shimerda, memorializing him as pandering; impotent and the ones most affected by this in his graduation address, doglike. At other points in the dehumanization. and though some scholars novel, too, Ántonia is given The effect of these argue that Mr. Shimerda animalistic descriptions. When animalistic comparisons contradicts this pattern of Ántonia, at her brother’s – often to prey animals or drunk, rash Bohemianism in behest, takes up ‘masculine’ domesticated beasts – is to Cather’s novels, the greatest fieldwork, Jim compares her infantilize the Bohemian piece of advice Jim inherits to a draft horse: “Her neck characters within the novel, from Mr. Shimerda is “not came up strongly out of her subordinating them to Jim’s to marry below his station”: shoulders, like the bole of a attention and protection. Jim suggesting that Mr. Shimerda’s tree out of the turf…One sees writes in the “Hired Girls” only value is as yet another that draft-horse neck among section that Ántonia and the cautionary example against 41 making a hasty marital match For all the ways in however, there is not another (Selzer 52). Mr. Shimerda, which My Ántonia neglects perspective included within My then, cannot even be read to provide meaningful, Ántonia to keep Jim’s distorted redemptively as an example positive representations of viewpoint in check. Through of a non-stereotypical Czech culture, “Neighbour the inclusion of an omniscient, Bohemian, since his inability Rosicky” succeeds. This short third-person narrator in to avoid “marrying below story, originally published in “Neighbour Rosicky,” Cather his station” left him in poor 1932, is a stellar example of is able to introduce competing social standing and in poverty: the development in Cather’s viewpoints of Bohemian unsatisfactory conditions Bohemian portrayals in the culture while ultimately which ultimately lead him to 34 years that followed My reinforcing the positive facets take his own life. Ántonia’s publication. of Czech identity in a way she The problem in Though it is true that neglects to in My Ántonia. analyzing My Ántonia as one character in the story Another change present an extension of Cather’s refers to the titular Neighbour in “Neighbour Rosicky” is the tendency to negatively Rosicky as “Mr. Bohunk,” narrator’s awareness of the stereotype Bohemians is the character in question does cultural and political forces that the novel is ‘written’ by so in a nearly affectionate that impacted immigrants’ Jim Burden – at least within way, entirely unlike the way ability to integrate into the conceit established by Jim uses the word to attack American society. While Jim the introduction. Thus, Jim Ántonia (“What did you seems to blame the Shimerdas Burden and Willa Cather jabber Bohunk for? You for their poverty (when must be considered two might have told me there was Ántonia mentions her father’s separate entities who – a snake behind me!” [44]). desolation at his economic despite the similarities in Additionally, the character status, Jim scorns: “People their actions and attitudes that issues this insult is who don’t like this country – cannot be interpreted as hardly granted authorial ought to stay at home… directly comparable.5 While support as Jim is; instead, the We don’t make them come it is true that Jim Burden’s character herself becomes here” [86]), the narrator in prejudices cannot be taken a caricature with “India-ink “Neighbour Rosicky” takes as a quintessential example strokes” for eyebrows (17). notice of the socioeconomic of Cather’s own, though, Indeed, though the portrayals circumstances affecting Cather’s choice not to include of Bohemians in this story immigrants which result in a character or narrator in are still lacking at points, the Rosicky family’s poverty. My Ántonia to contradict what Cather so significantly The young Rosicky’s drinking Jim’s viewpoint speaks introduces into this story is problems do not become volumes. As in the case of the narrator’s recognition of indicative of a larger pattern Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant’s the characters’ subjectivity. In among Bohemians, but instead article, Cather’s silence does My Ántonia, Jim’s perspective an attempt “to get a temporary not distance her from the is recognized by the modern illusion of freedom and wide opinions expressed by Jim in reader as flawed due to his horizons,” and the doctor’s this fictional recollection; it bias as nostalgic, unhappily generalization that “I’ve instead involves her in these married man, who claims never been able to separate views. that he’d “have liked to have a Bohemian from his coffee [Ántonia] for a sweetheart, or his pipe” is humorous, not IV. The Redemption of or a wife, or my mother, or degrading (28, 8). In the story, Bohemian Identity in my sister – anything that a Rosicky’s visit to the doctor “Neighbour Rosicky” woman can be to a man”; and the news of his bad heart

5 Though scholars such as Gelfant have debated for decades about the extent to which Jim contains echoes of Cather’s own psyche 42 (76-78). is followed by the sentimental so without the flaw of of the shortcomings of her reflection of the doctor that possessiveness. earlier work. As Cather aged “He wished [his stethoscope] While it may be and embraced the forward had been telling tales about argued that stereotypes in progression of American some other man’s heart, Cather’s earlier Bohemian society, her writing became some old man who didn’t representations were more socially conscious, and look the Doctor in the eye so undertaken as Cather’s attempt her portrayals – especially of knowingly, or hold out such to preserve “old world” culture marginalized ethnic groups – a warm brown hand when in the face of modernity, the improved.6 Though the flaws he said good-bye. Doctor depictions in “Neighbour in her earlier work do not Burleigh had been a poor boy Rosicky,” with representations lessen the progressiveness in the country before he went of Bohemian warmth and of texts such as “Neighbour away to medical school; he openness seem much closer Rosicky,” neither do these had known Rosicky almost to the memories Cather later texts diminish the ever since he could remember, expresses in her biographies harmful portrayals of Czech and he had a deep affection than do Jim’s recollections, immigrants in Cather’s earlier for Mrs. Rosicky” (10-11). and represent Czech immigrant works, especially My Ántonia. While the possessive title of culture in a way that its If any of Cather’s works is to My Ántonia connotes Jim’s constituents would more be recognized for its atypical heavy-handed influence on the likely have desired for it to be portrayal of the oft-overlooked narrative; the title “Neighbour remembered. Bohemians, then, it should Rosicky” (emphasis added) Therefore, if one is be this later story, with all connotes fondness and to assert that Cather is an of its demonstrations of her closeness – much like that advocate for Bohemians progressing attitudes, and none which the Doctor demonstrates in her later publications, it of the dehumanizing content in this passage – and does should be with the recognition of that which came before.

6 Take, for example, the Archbishop’s recollection of overlooking Native issues at the end of Death Comes for the Archbishop (294- 295).

Works Cited Acocella, Joan. Willa Cather and the Politics of Criticism. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. Atkinson, Brooks. “Critic at Large.” The New York Times, n.d. University of Nebraska – Lincoln, RG 12-10-16 Bernice Slote, Papers, B10, F13. Cather, Willa. Death Comes for the Archbishop. Random House, Inc., 1990. Cather, Willa. “The Diamond Mine.” Youth and the Bright Medusa. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1920, pp. 67-120. Cather, Willa. My Ántonia. Eds. Charles Mignon and Kari A. Ronning. University of Nebraska Press, 1994. Cather, Willa. “Neighbour Rosicky.” Obscure Destinies. University of Nebraska Press, 1998, pp. 7-61. Cather, Willa. O Pioneers! Eds. Rosowski, Susan J. and Charles W. Mignon. University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Fox, Cybelle, and Thomas Guglielmo. “Defining America’s Racial Boundaries: Blacks, Mexicans, and European Im- migrants, 1890-1945.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 118, no. 2, 2012, pp. 327-379. Gelfant, Blanche. “The Forgotten Reaping Hook: Sex in My Ántonia.” American Literature, vol. 43, no. 1, 1971, pp. 60-82. Peattie, Elia W. “Miss Cather Writes Exceptional Novel in My Ántonia.” The Commercial Advertiser, n.d., n.p. Univer- sity of Nebraska – Lincoln, MS 350 Charles E. Cather Collection, B14, F7. Rowse, A.L. “Tracing Willa Cather’s Nebraska: Red Cloud Preserves her Memory.” The New York Times, 21 April 1985, n.p. University of Nebraska – Lincoln, MS8 Willa Cather Collected Materials, B1, F22. Porter, David. On the Divide: The Many Lives of Willa Cather. University of Nebraska Press, 2008. Prchal, Tim. “The Bohemian Paradox: My Ántonia and Popular Images of Czech Immigrants.” MELUS, vol. 29, no.2, 2004, pp. 3-25. Selzer, John. “Jim Burden and the Structure of My Ántonia.” Western American Literature, vol. 24, no. 1, 1989, pp 45- 61.

43 Bioluminescence in Lanternsharks and its Impact on Communication BIOL-320: Evolution

via Identification Bioluminescence Braden Furness is a key part to many organisms and their This assignment asks students to think like research evolutionary lifestyle, both on land and biologists. It consists of finding a gap in knowledge and in the ocean. From fungi to developing a research proposal that would help fill in that gap. fireflies and microbes to deep Students can choose their topic. They need to do extensive water fish, this advantageous bibliographical research, develop a hypothesis, and a way to test it chemical process seems to through experiments or observations. Braden merges his interest touch every living thing in sharks, bioluminescence, and sexual selection to explore how in one way or another. Its evolution has resulted in incredible forms of life. evolutionary history is very -Paulina Mena much still a mystery though, procurement, protection from organism as documented in with the sheer number of taxa reactive oxygen species, and Figure 1 which arises from the that display this phenomenon. DNA repair via activation of large amount of independent It is estimated that at least 40 repair enzymes (Bjorn, 2008). evolutionary events. However, to 50 independent evolutionary Therefore, there is no one much is still unknown about events have occurred way to produce light, with the bioluminescent process among taxa to produce many chemical mechanisms that occurs in deep sea fish, bioluminescence (Haddock, documented in the animal especially sharks. 2009). This comprises of kingdom. Some similarities At about 200 meters representatives from most among these bioluminescent below the surface, light from phyla including Bacteria, mechanisms include the use the sun quickly drops off Pyrrophyta, Protozoa, Porifera, of an enzyme called luciferase with visibility minimal. At Cnidaria, Ctenophora, which catalyzes some sort this depth, and deeper, fish Rhyncocoela, Nematoda, of peroxide and Mollusca, Annelida, uses oxygen in Arthropoda, Bryozoa, the process. This Echinodermata, and Chordata. reaction then However, true plants and produces a pigment higher vertebrates such as which, depending amphibians, reptiles, birds and on the organism, mammals are an exception can directly produce to this trend (Bjorn, 2008). light, or transfer it This leads to a wide variety of to another emitter functions for bioluminescence (Hastings, 2014). which has been dissected A large difference into five main roles for is seen in the Figure 1: Displayed are 4 different luciferases, the top organisms: reproduction, kinds of luciferase two from coelenterate, bottom right from a firefly and the defense and camouflage, food 44 present in each bottom left from a bacterium (Hastings). and other marine organisms stun, or illumination. Another species display slight begin to show traits of separate behavior that has differences in patterns bioluminescence such as been documented is mating and organization of these anglerfish, sea stars, and identification between photophores. Some species like plankton. Figure 2 gives individuals (Haddock, 2009). the cylindrical lanternshark, E. several more examples and Sharks are not an cateri, lack any concentrated displays the colors that are exception to bioluminescent photophores while other sharks also produced by some of use in deep water. Of the such as the velvet belly, E. these deep-sea dwellers. 440 plus known species, two spinax, feature photophores This makes bioluminescence shark families, Etmopteridae, on both their belly and a key evolutionary advantage and Dalatiidae, exhibit flanks (Compagno, 2005). in this habitat. Deep-water bioluminescence. In A similarity between all organisms utilize light Etmopteridae, there are five lanternshark species consists genera: Etmopterus, Aculeola, of photophore concentration Centroscyllium, Miroscyllium, on their bellies. This indicates and Trigonognathus counterillumination as one of while Dalatiidae features their main functions. Even 200 seven genera: Dalatias, meters below the surface, some Euprotomicroides, Euproto- light is able to seep down, micrus, Heteroscymnoides, giving just enough illumination Isistius, Mollisquama, and to cast a shadow on predators Squaliolus (Compagno, or prey below. Utilizing the 2005). Combined, these group glow from photophores, of sharks feature over 50 lanternsharks can mask their individual species making it shadow and match the sunlight one of the largest and most filtering above. A similar diverse groups of sharks. In process occurs for predators Figure 2 (Haddock, 2009). lanternsharks, Etmopterus, and prey looking down into light is produced through the depths. Lanternsharks’s producing organs called photophores located on its lack of photophores on their photophores to generate and belly and flanks, similar to dorsal side and dark colored produce their own light. that of bioluminescent fish. bodies, then help them Generally, emitting light is However, hormones control blend into the black water measured through nervous their photophores, unlike that stretches below them. control, but fish also contain other fish systems. Prolactin However, lanternsharks do secondary means such as and melatonin are found to feature lateral photophores physiologically changing be the main contributors to which sets them apart from parameters of the bacteria, this process, acting as triggers other bioluminescent sharks. or utilizing dark shutters while alpha-MHS inhibits These lateral patterns do known as chromatophores (Claes, 2010). This process is not offer any assistance in (Claes, 2010). This conducted through photocytes, counterillumination which heightened control over their located in the photophores, leads to the fact that they must bioluminescence allows for it which are lens like structures have a different purpose. to be used in a wide variety that specialize in producing The similar belly and of behaviors. This includes light (Claes, Mallefet, 2015). lateral photophore patterns defensive measures such as This allows for lanternsharks have proven difficult to counterillumination, startling to possess great control over scientists to identify and predators, misdirection or their bioluminescence for classify lanternsharks without warning coloration. Offensive extended periods of time. in-depth analysis of each and uses include luring prey, All 37 lanternshark every morphological mark 45 (Coelho, 2008). Speciation, they are completely useless for Materials and Methods: thus, is very predominant in counter-illumination, which Thirty slendertail this genus, which is unusual as may indicate an evolutionary lanternsharks, ten giant most other shark genera who event in the past that made this lanternsharks, and ten also feature lateral markings trait beneficial for a different blackbelly lanternsharks were have very little diversity reason. It has been recently caught via deep water hook (Nilsson, 2015). Lanternsharks suggested that these lateral and lines off the east coast of are also comparatively a photophores may promote New Zealand near Portland younger clade which would sympatric speciation through Island, along the Hikurangi indicate less diversity as reproductive isolation (Nilsson, Trench at depths about 400 well. In Figure 3, looking at 2015). The proposed question meters. 14 slendertail males a 95% confidence interval now is: does this suggest measured in length from of expected species richness and draw the conclusion that 39-42cm, 16 slendertail of bioluminescent sharks, lanternsharks are using their females measured in length lanternsharks fall well outside bioluminescence to identify from 40-46cm, seven giant the interval. This means the and communicate with females were measured null hypothesis that speciation individuals to find a mate? between 66-69cm, three is occurring at a normal rate In this investigation, giant males were measured is rejected. Rather, some bioluminescence in lateral between 54-57cm, five event, or process is speeding photophores on lanternsharks, blackbelly females were is tested to measured between 32-37cm demonstrate the and five blackbelly males were impact it has measured between 27-29cm. on mating via They were then transported communication via cold, oxygenated seawater with other bags to the Okinawa Churaumi individuals. This Aquarium where individuals includes locating were then placed in separate and attracting a tanks in a dark room with mate, as well as seawater averaging 5-10 distinguishing degrees Celsius. Pictures were between then taken of each individual’s different species ventral and lateral sides in in the darkness normal light and in darkness

Figure 3: The numbers in parentheses indicate the ratio of of its habitat. to identify photophore species with flank markings versus total number of species The slendertail locations and patterns. These (Nilsson, 2015). lanternshark, E. patterns were then measured molleri, is tested and compared between each up this development. This on to generalize Etmopterus individual of the separate amount of speciation is unique in this study due to its use in species, giving means of and gives insight as to what prior studies as a comparative individual photophore zones difference lanternsharks have, measure and known for the slendertail, giant, as compared to the rest of their morphological differences and blackbelly lanternshark. family Etmopteridae and the between male and female. The Figure 4 displays a sample other bioluminescent family giant lanternshark, E. baxteri, photograph of a slendertail Dalatiidae. In this case their and blackbelly lanternshark, E. that was used as a guide for lateral photophores have come lucifer, are used as interactive acquired pictures. under scrutiny as the factor species with the slendertail Utilizing the that changes this process. due to their similar habitat and photographs and mean 46 From a predator, prey aspect, similar lateral photophores. measurements of the three trials on the live of interactions between individual, showing the live slendertail and the different behaviors each slendertail model while time. The first model limited interactions occurred would show no interest between the live slendertail in the live slendertail and models of the giant individual, the second and blackbelly. This would model would show indicate that lanternsharks Figure 4: A is the lateral and ventral profile of a behavior of curiosity have developed the ability to slendertail done in normal light, displaying the with the live slendertail identify and distinguish their lateral photophore in the red box that is similar to shape and size seen on giants and blackbellies. while the third model particular species from other B shows ventral side with luminescence (Claes, would display behavior lanternsharks in low visibility. Mallefet, 2015). related to being in With the lateral photophores heat/wanting to mate. isolated as the only known photophore zones, male and This was done with form of communication the female models of each species the slendertail, giant, and sharks could exhibit in this was made with anatomically blackbelly models for a total experiment; a correlation correct body part ratios. of nine trials for each live would be safely assumed The models were made with slendertail for both males in this case. Therefore, a neutrally buoyant foam with and females. The interactions conclusion could be drawn a weight in the middle while witnessed between the model due to variations in lateral the photophores were made of and live individual were then photophore patterns seen faint OLED lights imbedded recorded using time in seconds in the giant and blackbelly beneath the foam, allowing as a form of measurement and lanternsharks compared to control over turning them off comparison, with a large focus the slendertail lanternshark. and on, as well as brightness on physical observations such Consequently, these expected via electrical currents. as use of photophores. results might be able to help One at a time, models explain the high amount of of the opposite sex of the Expected Results: speciation occurring within the live slendertail lanternshark The expected genus and how mates are able were suspended in its dark results of the experiment to locate one another in the tank. Each model conducted include extended amounts dark depths of the ocean.

References Haddock, Steven H.D., Moline, Mark A., Case, James F. (October 2009). Bioluminescence in the Sea. Annual Reviews Marine Science, 443-493. Bjorn, Lars Olof. (2008). Photobiology. Spring Street, New York: Springer. Hastings, J. Woodland (August 2014). Dinoflagellate Bioluminescence and its Circadian Regulation. http://photobiology.info/Hast- ings.html Claes, J. M. (2010). The lantern shark’s light switch: turning shallow water crypsis into midwater camouflage.Biol. Lett., 685-687. Compagno, L., Dando, M., & Fowler, S. (2005). Sharks of the World. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Claes, J. M., & Mallefet, J. (June 2015). Comparative control of luminescence in sharks: New insights from the slendertail lantern- shark. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology,87-94. Retrieved September 26, 2018, from www.elsevier.com/locate/ jembe. Coelho, Rui, Erzini, Karim. (2008). Identification of deep water lantern sharks (Chondrichthyes: Etmopteridae) using morphometric data and multivariate analysis. Journal of the Marine Biological Assoc. of the United Kingdom, 199-204. Claes, J. M., Nilsson, D-E, Mallefet, J., Straube, N., (2015). The presence of lateral photophores correlates with increased speciation in deep-sea bioluminescent sharks. R. Soc. Open sci. 2:150219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150219

47 Face Value Marin Harrington

The personal essay is the quintessential liberal arts expression of the self connecting to the world. I admire Marin’s ability in this ENGL-240: Personal Essay essay to place her own life in a cultural context. And it’s beautifully and smartly written to boot. I knew it was -Keith Ratzlaff Katharine’s birthday the next day. two separate sets of windows bathroom stall. This happened I had been celebrating overlooking tree branches and sometimes. it for years, as she was of the brick theater building in That evening, I thought my closest friends, and one the distance, attempting to about forgetting Katharine’s of the few left from high concentrate on my schoolwork. birthday again, and unraveled school I still communicated In a moment of distraction, I even further than I had in with now that we were checked my phone messages, the afternoon. The crying dispersed across the United and witnessed my other was so unlike any I had ever States at different colleges. I high school friends sending experienced. It wasn’t the had even already bought the her birthday wishes in our amount of tears that felt alien, gift I would give her when group chat. I neglected to say or even the force of them; I’m I finally saw her again in a anything about her birthday, no stranger to the habit of ugly few weeks over spring break: but had foolishly sent some crying, as it comes with the a handcrafted orange and other text earlier to her in the territory of sensitivity. There yellow box featuring two day, making my forgetfulness was something primal about elephants−animals she adored entirely transparent. this, like I had always been because of how emotionally I texted her multiple this way without realizing it, attached they are to each frantic apologies, and she destined to spend my nights other−touching foreheads. I assured me it was okay, that sobbing out of pernicious self- admired how gracefully curved we were all busy in our semi- loathing, like I was crying their ears were. This was why adult college lives, that my about everything at once--the I immediately thought of her friendship was not lost. I knew harshness of winter, looming when I first saw it months somewhere in my convoluted midterms, my anxiety that earlier, although the paper brain that it really was the most I was not a good friend, my made from elephant dung trivial of slip-ups, but to the inability to visualize a future inside the box was certainly me who could feel peace only where I was all right--and it an added bonus. With that in when I knew I put complete took this one mishap to set mind, I expected to remember effort into something, it was it off. I considered calling to tell her a happy birthday a shameful failure. I could no Katharine on the phone, come the morning of February longer pride myself on being thinking that the sound of her 22, 2018. the thoughtful person so many voice and a chance for her I awoke early for an parents and teachers had told to hear the despair in mine 8:00 a.m. class, then I went to my mom and dad I was. My as I apologized again would work for two hours. After that throat clenched, forewarning make me feel better. But doing was lunch with my friends, me that I had approximately that would have made the followed by my daily trip 60 to 90 seconds before my conversation about me, and not to the library where I would eyelids would flood with water, her, like it should have been. I spend the afternoon. I sat in and I was forced to abandon took my medicine, something 48 a red armchair with a view of my armchair and go cry in a which had been a part of my routine for the past month, and massacres, neither the victim out of a baby’s mouth. More went to bed. nor assailant goes entirely than once I had to run out of unharmed. Accutane does class mid-lecture because I Accutane is a last ugly things to a person’s body, didn’t have tissues to halt the resort medication. It’s the but these are supposed to be bleeding. Summer, with its one doctors suggest only rewarding because wiping rabid mosquitoes, was hell; a after years of less invasive out zits deemed universally few minutes of scratching bug acne treatments and topicals− unattractive is for the greater bites on my legs would turn Minocycline, Cephalexin, good of one’s appearance. them raw with missing flesh. Differin gel, Clindamycin The medicine turns the body I hated the impact on lotion−have lost their my lips most impact. It’s the one of all. Like parents are afraid of everything else, their child consuming they dried out. because it’s known to While I could aggravate depressive manage my episodes and crying canvas-like face spells, and requires with a twice-daily monthly blood work to moisturizing check for liver damage regimen, and and pregnancy tests my arms’ rashed for those of the female glory could be sex. (My own boxes of hidden with long the prescription always sleeves, I could featured grotesque not fix my lips’ sketches of fetus’ brain hideousness. Each deformities to remind day, as the hours me what I would be progressed, they guilty of were I to cracked open get pregnant.) It’s the and blood seeped one patients choose, out of the fresh despite the onslaught openings. When of suffering to follow, they weren’t because they hope Erica Bruening, paper bleeding, they the result will make them would shed dead skin like beautiful, then happy. For into a drought zone: eyes, the garter snakes I sometimes the approximate six months nose, face, arms, legs. No found in my dad’s garden as a people take Accutane, they matter how much I would child. are pawns to a medicine more moisturize them, my arms “Putting coconut oil powerful than it has any right grew rife with spots of peeled on your lips would help,” to be. Draining the face of skin, red and irritated. They a coworker said to me one all comfort in order to kill were almost scaly, and I day, her voice friendly. (This all natural oil-producing skin eventually grew numb to how was how she started the cells, Accutane essentially abhorrent the phenomenon conversation.) I had finished eradicates the possibility of was, finding it impossible not my first year of college and acne. When the war is over, to subconsciously touch them. was working for my fourth patients are supposed to never My nose bled without warning, consecutive summer at my have another breakout in their dripping scarlet muck down hometown’s zoo. Fed up lifetime. my face in the middle of class with the dysfunction of the As it is with all or meals, the way spit falls place, I preferred to keep to 49 myself while doing my job. made me feel sad for her, even that it was almost time for She was probably 16, three as she backhandedly insulted me to come home. I loved years younger than myself, my face. I wanted to show sitting out there for hours which most likely explained gratitude for her seemingly on end, but my Accutane her inclination to socialize innocuous concern, but my prescription disrupted the so brazenly. She had braces appearance was so visibly hobby because it made my and split hair ends. The ragged that I didn’t need already-pale complexion lanyard holding her name tag, someone else to remind me. I monstrously sensitive to also knew that my emotional sunlight. My cheeks would get These sorts of volatility was sharp and she did rosy pink during the 20-minute not need to test it. drive to work if they were behaviors are My lame response unprotected. It definitely often underlain simply was, “My medication would have been easier to stay dries them out,” which was inside to read, but I refused by insecurity, and my nice way of saying, “You to be dictated by the cruel I do not know don’t know my life, you nosy territory I was responsible child.” Usually any mention for entering when I chose to if people ever of a nameless medication is take Accutane. Instead, I took truly overcome bound to shut someone who’s fierce precautions: lathering crossing personal boundaries my entire body, including my them, but simply up. It’s an indicator that a eyelids, with 50 SPF sunblock trade them for person is defunct in some at least every 90 minutes if I way, and that makes others didn’t want to fry. It smelled more complicated uncomfortable. She clearly did pungent. Since my legs vulnerabilities. not comprehend this, as she were so dry, I could only sit shot back, “That’s why you with them crossed for a few need the coconut oil.” I said minutes before they would which violated uniform code, nothing in reply, tersely ending stick together and be horribly indicated her Hogwarts house the discussion. I never bought painful to separate, like slowly placement of Gryffindor. any coconut oil, either, since ripping wax off an eyebrow−a I had worked with I knew that I had less than a sensation I became familiar her only once before, but month left on the Accutane with when I was only 12 years had seen her around and anyways. My incompetent tube old. I could only hope that my overheard her conversations of vaseline could surely see me book was absorbing enough in the breakroom. Based on through. to distract me from how these limited interactions, I My hair stopped getting uncomfortable I felt in my own understood that she functioned oily as well, which was the one body. the way so many teenage side effect I appreciated. But My stubbornness often girls trapped in the holocaust even that felt unhuman. felt too risky to be worthwhile, of “finding themselves” did: but I always looked for ways by being a flippant smart ass I spent my Sundays to (often unsuccessfully) or saying whatever comes during that summer reading convince myself that to mind as a way to prove outside for most of the day. My Accutane had not uprooted how different they are. These parents have a chaise lounge my life completely. When the sorts of behaviors are often that sits on our concrete porch dermatologist asked me at underlain by insecurity, and above the garage, overlooking every monthly check-up how I I do not know if people ever the street. When my mom felt, I lied and said fine, truly overcome them, but pulled it out of winter storage didn’t mention the crying simply trade them for more during the spring, she sent meltdowns and violent mood 50 complicated vulnerabilities. It me a photo of it to remind me swings, because if I did, she would take me off the speaking about how confident disgusted with, not empathetic medicine, which meant a they felt now that their pimples towards, the girl I was. Instead return to zits and objective were gone. Then, as a guise of feeling confident about my ugliness. I believed that when to collect desperate people’s clear face, there is only apathy, this was over, things would money, the ads would show maybe guilt. How could I have be good again. Better, even. I pre-treatment photos of the permission to take pride in took comfort in certain facial patients. Their breakouts something I am not responsible imperfections that Accutane terrified me; their faces were for? would never erase, using When I remember how them as proof that I didn’t sell I used to flood with jealousy out entirely to the desire for Very rarely do every time I met a person physical approval. The small the things which my age with perfect skin, I scar on the upper half of my wonder if those feeling the right cheek that becomes more matter most to me same acne-induced suffering I prominent when I smile. Red matter equally or once did envy my current face. acne marks littering my face, Not because it is necessarily relics from previous breakouts; more so to anyone pretty or interesting to look at, I was never invincible, never else. but because the first thing a will be. They’re miniscule person notices about it is my details, and maybe only I wide eyes or spare upper lip, notice them because I live so discolored, so bumpy, not patches of zits. How do with them. Very rarely do the like creatures from a science I tell them? That I often feel things which matter most to fiction story. My own skin like I am still on Accutane− me matter equally or more so never reached a point similar exasperated, closed off, to anyone else. to those I saw on TV, so I overly sensitive−that some I remember seeing know I am lucky, but I still felt incapacitations are never television ads when I was constantly preoccupied by my destroyed, just change shape, young about acne treatments. face. Afraid of it. Now that my that silently bracing misery is They always featured acne is gone, I am forgetting believing you deserve it. If I testimonials from attractive what it is like to panic about told them that I do not know if people whose faces were now zits, but when I see old photos it was worth it, would they try smooth and lively-looking, or videos of myself, I am to answer for me?

51 Teaching Elementary Mathematics to Students

MATH-116: Mathematical with Disabilities: Concepts 2 Strategies for Instruction Introduction Marina Paul When asked to think about learning challenges Marina Paul did this work for her Honors Enrichment in my in elementary school, it would “Mathematics for Elementary Education Majors” course, as she be safe to assume that many wanted to push herself beyond the typical content of the course. people would reflect on the Marina spent significant time researching common strategies and difficulties of mathematics. issues connected to teaching mathematics to students with disabil- Mathematics is a complex ities. Her paper offers the information coming from her research, language of numbers, symbols, including strategies for effective teaching of mathematics to and formulae that is unlike students with disabilities. Marina’s work was also informed by a any other subject learned in couple of oral interviews she did with students with disabilities. an elementary classroom, -Russ Goodman so it is understandable that many students struggle in this with college students Addison Statistics, 2018). As research content area. In fact, according VanDePol, who has been and technology progress, to Furner and Burman (2003), diagnosed with dyslexia, more students are diagnosed two-thirds of adults in the dyscalculia, and memory with learning disorders, United States have a disliking disorder, and Beth Rouse, who and more students with and fear of mathematics (para. is legally blind. physical disabilities are able 4). Mathematics is especially Continuing with to receive special education challenging to students with introductory comments, services. These statistics can disabilities, whether cognitive according to the National be quite overwhelming to or physical. With the rise of Center for Education a teacher as they are faced research on disabilities, it is Statistics (2018), “in 2015- with an increasing number more important than ever for 16, the number of students of Individualized Education educators and administrators ages 3-21 receiving special Plans (IEPs) and 504 plans; to be aware of how different education services was 6.7 differentiating instruction has disabilities affect students’s million, or 13 percent of become a frontrunner in lesson understanding of mathematics all public-school students. planning. It can be relieving and the best teaching practices Among students receiving for parents and students to for elementary math. This special education services, 34 know that teachers have a project will focus on ways percent had specific learning detailed plan for their child’s to improve mathematics disabilities.” In just four years, learning needs. However, the instruction to accommodate between 2012 and 2016, reality of carrying out that for dyscalculia, dyslexia, the number of students plan varies by teacher. One mathematics anxiety, and receiving special education of my interviewees, Addison, visual impairments. Some services in the United States remembers a frustrating of the information presented increased by 300,000 students discussion with a teacher 52 was informed by interviews (National Center for Education regarding her 504 plan. Addison shared with me, “[the and difficulties within the concepts, rules, formulae teacher] told me, ‘I don’t diagnosis of dyscalculia; and sequences; mistakes actually read those; I just sign dyscalculia affects each person when reading, writing and them,’ so they had no idea that differently. Studies estimate recalling numbers, inability these are the struggles I have that approximately 6% of the to understand the concepts of and here are ways to help me.” school-aged population has fractions and measurements, Many other students are facing dyscalculia, which is more to organize objects in a this same issue of teachers not common than one might think logical way, or to comprehend being knowledgeable on their when compared to dyslexia, financial planning or disability and not budgeting; and accommodating for difficulty identifying their similar signs and learning needs. numerals, geometric Meyen, Vergason, shapes, drawing and Whelan (1998) geometrical figures, state in their research conceptualizing time, that “many authorities or following directions believe that poor or (Kumar & Raja, 2009, traditional instruction p. 9). In their research is a primary cause on mathematical of the mathematics disabilities, Garnett problems of many and Fleischner (1987) students with found that early signs learning problems” of dyscalculia can be (p. 178). Teachers found in students’s who lack knowledge drawings of people of their students’s (p. 168). Those who disabilities and misrepresented the ways to differentiate number of body parts instruction for those Maggie Langenfeld, “Agitation,” graphite on drawings, especially students not only damage an incorrect number of a student’s learning but which affects about 5% of fingers and an omission of also their self-worth. It is a the school-aged population the nose, were more likely to teacher’s duty to do their best (Kumar & Raja, 2009, p. 9). have significant mathematics to provide students with the However, within her collection achievement deficits six years tools they need to succeed. of statistics, Morin (2018) later than students who do quotes a 2012 online survey not (Garnett & Fleischner, Dyscalculia done by the National Center 1987, p. 168). According to Definition and Symptoms for Learning Disabilities that the research of Wadlington In their article found 91% of responders had and Wadlington (2008), “Treating Dyslexic and heard of dyslexia and 66% dyscalculia is a neurologically- Dyscalculic Students,” had not heard of dysgraphia, based disorder, and it can be Kumar and Raja (2009) dyscalculia or dyspraxia genetic (p. 2). They describe define dyscalculia as “a (Morin, 2018, para. 13). the disorder as a discrepancy learning disability that Some common symptoms of between an individual’s affects the ability to do dyscalculia include difficulty general cognitive level arithmetic calculations” in performing basic arithmetic and mathematical abilities (p. 8). The vagueness of skills; confusing mathematics (Wadlington & Wadlington, this definition is due to the signs and symbols; difficulty 2008, p. 2). Students with wide variety of symptoms remembering mathematics dyscalculia may be at or above 53 grade level in other subjects; left? The student could then Allowing students to have however, dyscalculia often solve the problem by drawing time to think about the process coincides with other learning a picture, using manipulatives, and demonstrate that they disorders. or visualizing taking two away understand how to perform a from five using their fingers. computational skill is much Strategies for Instruction and Any of these strategies would more valuable than testing Assessment provide them with the correct how fast they can read and As described by answer without exclusively write an answer. In addition King-Sears (1994) in his writing out the problem in to giving ample test taking book on special education mathematical notation: 5-2=3. time, measuring correct digits assessment, one of the This strategy of teaching the is a more sensitive measure largest debates between problem solving first can help of student growth than only elementary mathematics students understand better giving credit if an entire instructors regarding students when they have to switch answer is correct (King-Sears, with dyscalculia is whether to mathematical notation. 1994, p. 99). It is important to students with disabilities must Providing them with this provide students with specific master computational skills to instruction first helps students feedback as to what step they progress in the mathematics eventually become proficient made the mistake. Another curricula, or if it is a in mathematical notation. strategy for administering tests possibility to shift the focus Supporters of calculator use to students with dyscalculia from rote memorization to for students with dyscalculia is to break the test into applying those computations would agree that students need two sessions or have read- with the use of a calculator (p. to learn and be assessed on aloud sections, as well as 98). As exemplified in the these computational skills, but administering assessments symptoms listed above, when they are being tested regularly to monitor progress dyscalculia covers a broad on the application, the use of (King-Sears, 1994, p. 100). spectrum of mathematical a calculator may be in order In general, whether it difficulties; however, most depending on the difficulty be assessing or instructing, students with dyscalculia of the computation and the it is always crucial to know would benefit from the use of needs of the specific student. what is being measured. a calculator when attempting In addition to calculator Meyen et al. (1998) give us to apply a computation skill use, there are many other four components of learning to a word problem because strategies that teachers should mathematics: problem-solving, the computations are more keep in mind when assessing communicating mathematics difficult for them than the students with dyscalculia. A ideas, applying mathematics actual application (King-Sears, current controversial topic to everyday situations, and 1994, p. 98). King-Sears’s in elementary education is focusing on computational theory is that problem- the administering of timed skills (Meyen et al., 1998, p. solving could be taught tests. Addison mentioned in 179). When teaching students preceding the introduction of a her interview that one of the a new concept, teachers should computational skill because the accommodations listed on her focus their attention on what ultimate goal is to be able to 504 plan is being allowed extra component(s) are being apply those skills to real-world time for exams (VanDePol, taught. For example, if the problems (King-Sears, 1994, p. 2018). Having the extra time content involves applying 101). For example, one could allows her to think clearly and mathematics to everyday start by prompting a student show what she is capable of situations, then it may be with the following problem: If without the pressure of a strict appropriate for a student to Jackson has 5 apples but gives timer. Timed tests encourage use a calculator since the focus 2 apples to Noah, how many rote memorization instead of is not on the computational 54 apples does Jackson have fully understanding a concept. skills. In their article focusing on suggestions text, word recognition and knowledge of mathematics for interventions for reading fluency (Kumar & (Kumar & Raja, 2009, p. 9). students facing mathematics Raja, 2009, p. 8). There is a difficulties, Das and Janzen distinction between dyslexia Strategies for Instruction and (2004) provide the next key and dysgraphia, as dysgraphia Assessment detail in the lesson is difficulty physically One of the largest planning process, which is to writing, often resulting in obstacles that students with break the material into smaller poor handwriting and some dyslexia face when doing chunks (p. 194). Because coherency issues; whereas, mathematics is the written many people with dyslexia face aspect, such as reading word students with dyscalculia can writing issues with spelling problems and writing out long be weak in working memory, words or forming letters sequences of numbers. As it is important to instruct step- correctly. Dyslexia can be mentioned in the dyscalculia by-step and take notes of the inherited or can be caused by section, it is important to calculations of the student damage to a certain part of keep in mind what the goal (Das & Janzen, 2004, p. 194). the brain (Kumar & Raja, is for a lesson, or what By breaking down skills 2009, p. 8). Bender (2005) is being measured. If the into the smallest parts and describes how the various student is being assessed on presenting them step-by-step, regions of the brain take part mathematical content, teachers teachers can allow students to in decoding language (p. 3). can give oral exams and read fully process the information The visual cortex takes in the problems aloud to the (Wadlington & Wadlington, information; the angular gyrus students because they are not 2008, p. 5). A specific decodes sounds and processes being tested on their ability to strategy that teachers can written language; Werncike’s read. Addison told the story demonstrate to students can be area comprehends language; of the first time a teacher summarized by the acronym Broca’s area finds meaning administered her exam orally, DRAW.DRAW stands for of the context of a word or saying, “He knew that I knew Discovering the sign; Reading number and relation to other the material. I just couldn’t the problem; Answering or words or numbers (Bender, put it into words on paper. drawing and 2005, p. 3-4). Though dyslexia Saying it out loud showed him checking; and Writing the affects reading, writing and what I was really capable of” answer (King-Sears, 1994, speaking, 40% of children (VanDePol, 2018). Allowing p. 102-103). Using concrete with dyslexia also have trouble students to talk out loud can objects, pictures and diagrams learning mathematics (Kumar also help them demonstrate can all help a student visualize & Raja, 2009, p. 9). whether or not they have the concept (Wadlington & Garnett and Fleischner the correct thought process Wadlington, 2008, p. 5). (1987) describe mathematics for solving a mathematics as “a language; a mean of problem. In addition to oral Dyslexia representing reality through exams, teachers can also Definition and Symptoms a symbol system composed read problems aloud during According to Kumar of ideographs (numbers and instruction for students who and Raja (2009), dyslexia is signs) which convey concepts have poor reading abilities a language-based learning and ideas” (p. 168). Language (Wadlington & Wadlington, disability that includes processing disabilities, such 2008, p. 6). Many online difficulties with specific as dyslexia, can make it textbooks have read-aloud language skills, particularly difficult to grasp this special options now, so a student reading, spelling, writing vocabulary of mathematics, can listen to the problem and and pronouncing words (p. and without an understanding then solve it. This reduces 8). Dyslexia also includes of this mathematical language, the possibility of a student difficulty in comprehending it is difficult to build up a getting a wrong answer due 55 to misreading the problem. 9). Mathematics anxiety is not find mathematical success. Similar to testing students officially categorized as a with dyscalculia, it may be learning disability, but it Strategies for Instruction and necessary to break down a test greatly interferes with the Assessment into two sessions or to allow ability to learn mathematics Many students develop extra time for a student to and perform on tests mathematics anxiety from take the exam (Wadlington & (Wadlington & Wadlington, watching parents or teachers Wadlington, 2008, p. 6). 2008, p. 3). who are not confident in Addison also Mathematics anxiety mathematics or who dislike of mentioned in her interview can be caused by a variety of the subject. It is crucial that in that she could not use Scantron factors including parents who both mathematics instruction sheets to take exams because, have negative attitudes toward and assessment, teachers with her dyslexia, it was easy mathematics, teachers who are are confident and positive. to accidentally skip a line or not confident in mathematics, When initially assessing a mark an answer in a wrong poor instruction, as well as student with mathematics spot (VanDePol). Allowing strategies such as assigning anxiety, teachers should a student to have extra work the same work for all students, be aware of the following space is a simple thing to do covering a textbook problem dispositions: confidence in that can make a big difference by problem, giving written using math; flexibility in to a student with dyslexia work every day, teaching exploring mathematical ideas; or dysgraphia. Wadlington only one way to complete willingness to persevere in and Wadlington (2008) a problem, and assigning mathematical tasks; interests, also suggest that students mathematics problems as a curiosity and inventiveness with dyslexia try writing punishment for misbehavior in doing math; ability to mathematics problems on (Furner & Burman, 2003, para. reflect on and monitor graph paper in order to align 7). Many students struggle their own thinking when it numbers more easily and to with a fixed mindset about comes to math; and focus organize one’s work (p. 6). who is good at mathematics on value of and appreciation and who is not. If students for mathematics (Furner & Mathematics Anxiety perceive themselves as not Burman, 2003, para. 2-3). In Definition and Symptoms good in mathematics, they can order to improve students in According to develop a fearful avoidance these areas of mathematical Furner and Burman (2003), of mathematics (Wadlington learning, teachers must mathematics anxiety is defined & Wadlington, 2008, p. 3). demonstrate an appreciation as an “irrational dread of Up to around age 12, male of math. It is always important mathematics that interferes students tend to have more to explain to students the with manipulating numbers mathematics anxiety, but as relevance of the mathematics and solving mathematical females enter the late junior content and how it applies problems within a variety of high and early high school to real life. Students also everyday life and academic phase, many begin to have need to see that it is not only situations” (para. 2). It is higher levels of mathematics acceptable but encouraged to comparable to test anxiety as anxiety than males (Furner make and learn from mistakes it involves cognitive concerns & Burman, 2003, para. 7). in order to develop a growth about performance and Mathematics anxiety heavily mindset, in which they heightened emotional reactions impacts a students’s perception believe that their learning can to stress; however, it is not of their mathematical abilities, expand from where they are strictly confined to testing and and if it develops in a student, at currently. This is all part only affects the learning of it is crucial that teachers are of creating a safe classroom mathematics, not other subjects aware of the best teaching environment for learning 56 (Furner & Burman, 2003, para. practices to help the student mathematics (Wadlington & Wadlington, 2008, p. 5). content and playing When most people Teachers should never punish mathematical games are both hear “blindness,” they a student for an incorrect ways to help foster good typically think of complete answer, and students should attitudes about mathematics blindness, or a complete loss never receive ridicule from (Wadlington & Wadlington, of vision. However, according either the teacher or other 2008, p. 4). Teachers can also to the Healthery website students for an incorrect make lessons engaging by (2017), “blindness simply answer (Wadlington & emphasizing class discussion means any condition where Wadlington, 2008, p. 4). so that students can hear insufficient light is reaching A classroom needs to be and learn from their peers the retina, or the electrical perceived by students synapses either aren’t as a safe firing correctly, or the environment in information isn’t being which to grow. delivered correctly to Addison discussed the brain” (para. 2). in her interview the There are multiple ugly reality of her types of visual elementary schooling impairment, including experience; she felt legal blindness as though many of (complete and near- her teachers did not complete blindness), care for her success achromatopsia (or (VanDePol, 2018). color blindness), and Her teachers never night blindness. tracked her progress Being from the standpoint considered legally of a student with blind requires a person a disability, and to have vision equal to she could not Ruth Hruska-Kelley, paper or less than 20/200 in remember any time when a his or her better eye, meaning teacher accommodated for as well (Furner & Burman, they can see object no greater her learning needs during 2003, para. 16). Another great than 20 feet away. Being elementary school (VanDePol, idea that Furner and Burman completely blind means have 2018). It makes the world of (2003) share is hosting family a complete loss of vision; a difference when a teacher mathematics nights at school. however, “many people who acknowledges that a student is Having parental involvement are legally blind can still see struggling and advocates for can change a student’s attitude light, shapes and even some accommodations for that toward mathematics, and objects from a close distance” student. It is also important “mathematics night” can help (Healthery, 2017, para. 5). that students hear praise parents learn about the content Some cases of complete or frequently for both small and their students are learning near-complete blindness are large successes (Wadlington and how teachers are teaching caused by a congenital birth & Wadlington, 2008, p. 4). it (Furner & Burman, 2003, defect (Healthery, 2017, para. Teachers need to para. 28-29). 6). I had the opportunity to recognize students who may interview Beth, who is legally have mathematics anxiety Visual Impairments blind but not completely and find ways to make (Blindness) blind. Beth explained to me mathematics lessons engaging Definition, Types of Blindness that her “eyesight is a genetic for them. Sharing personal and Effects on Mathematics disease, which basically stories related to mathematics Education means that [she] inherited a 57 recessive gene from both of Because females would need important. Beth shared that the [her] parents” (Rouse, 2018). both X chromosomes to carry following quote: Beth is not completely blind, the gene, it occurs less likely meaning she can still see some than in males who only need I just got used to the fact that shapes when close to her eyes. the one X chromosome to math took me two to three times For students like Beth, their carry the gene (Healthery, longer than everyone else, and it was never a question blindness is often diagnosed 2017, para. 10). Students of ‘do you understand what’s as infants. Babies typically with color blindness may going on?’ I clicked onto track their parents with their experience minor difficulties the concepts just as fast as other eyes based on what they hear distinguishing between figures people. It’s just a matter of and what they see. Beth was or graphs if color is the reading what was on the diagnosed at five months when characteristic factor. board or getting my thoughts out a daycare provider noticed that Night blindness refers of my head and onto paper. she was not tracking people to a “visual impairment with her eyes if they did not present in dim light (at night- Strategies for Instruction say anything. Other causes time or in a dark room)” Hearing Beth’s story, of complete or near-complete (Healthery, 2017, para. 12). many teachers would not blindness include trauma, This can be caused by a defect know how to best teach her. injury, progressive disorders, in the natural way the eye Instructing students affected cataracts, and one of the adjusts to levels of brightness, by visual impairments requires leading causes is diabetes a Vitamin A deficiency, birth a unique approach. The (Healthery, 2017, para. 6,7). defect, trauma, glaucoma, etc. following strategies are just Color blindness, or (Healthery, 2017, para. 13). a few of the many ways to achromatopsia, “relates to Night blindness would most best teach students with visual a person not being able to likely not affect a students’ impairments. distinguish between colors learning of mathematics. Springboard (1997) effectively” (Healthery, Because learning discusses the importance 2017, para. 8). Rarely are mathematics is a highly visual of advocating for students people fully color blind; process, it is clearly a difficult with a visual impairment. they more often have trouble subject to teach students with Instead of a tutor, it is more distinguishing between certain visual impairments. Herzberg beneficial for a student to colors (Healthery, 2017, and Rosenblum (2011) say have a facilitator, who helps para. 8). For example, one that “students with visual support the instruction of the of the most common types impairments (that is, those classroom teacher by adapting of color blindness is red- who are blind or have low the way the information is green blindness, meaning vision) face challenges as they presented during class or soon these people have trouble work toward mathematical after (p. 79). This facilitator’s distinguishing between red competence, because the job includes consulting and green and shades of eye can more quickly and with the teacher to create a both colors. Color blindness efficiently take in pieces of more inclusive classroom is caused by the lack of a information simultaneously environment for the student third cone within the eye, than can the fingers” with a visual impairment, either red, green or blue, or (Herzberg & Rosenblum, serving as a liaison between the malfunction of the cones 2011, para. 3). Unlike the the school and parents, and (Healthery, 2017, para. 9). other disabilities described promoting the acceptance of Color blindness is a genetic thus far, visual impairment and providing advocacy for disorder, and occurs more does not affect a student’s the students (Springboard, commonly in males than ability to understand a concept, 1997, p. 79). Beth recalled females because it is carried but differentiated instruction memories with her araeducator 58 within the X chromosome. becomes increasingly Bonnie, whom she had from kindergarten through Herzberg and Rosenblum is explained either orally her senior year of high say that “accurate and well- or through writing. One school. Students with visual prepared tactile materials example of technology impairments will also often are essential in a student’s that made an impact on receive services from an success in math” (2011, the education of students orientation mobility specialist para. 4). It is necessary with visual impairments is or a teacher for the visually for teachers of students the APH peg slate, which impaired (TVI) to learn with visual impairments to allows students to read, skills, such as using a cane become proficient in tactile solve, and record answers or practicing Braille, to instruction; they can attend to mathematics problems in help them become more training sessions through Braille (Springboard, 1997, independent people and university teacher prep p. 78). Beth informed me of learners (Rouse, 2018). It program courses, workshops three forms of technology is imperative that general and conference sessions she uses (Rouse, 2018). One education teachers collaborate (Herzberg & Rosenblum, is her Braille Note, which with all of these specialists, 2011, para. 5). Using a is essentially a computer especially the paraeducator Braille reader, students using Braille because it has who can help during can decipher mathematics access to the internet, and it mathematics instruction. For problems using what has a calculator. Another is example, Beth told me about is called Nemeth code a Perkins Brailler, which she how Bonnie would help (Springboard, 1997, p. 78). compared to a typewriter, explain what was written on Using “finger math” or as it physically punches the the board as well as translate other tactile manipulatives Braille into paper, rather than worksheets into Braille in instruction can also an electronic copy like the (Rouse, 2018). increase computation Braille Note. The last is a peg Because mathematical accuracy (Ferrell, 2006, slate, which is a non-electronic images can be complex, para. 13). Other important device she uses occasionally especially for students accommodations for students to write in a Braille on paper. with visual impairments, with visual impairments The peg slate requires one to it is necessary to break include giving extra time write in Braille backwards. down diagrams into parts on assessments, distributing Overall, successfully so that students can form a textbooks ahead of time to teaching students with visual mental image (Herzberg and be translated into Braille, and impairments is made possible Rosenblum, 2011, para. 4). providing ample materials by communicating with For students like Beth who for successful learning in the the students, parents, and have some vision, having a general education classroom specialists. small white board specifically (Rouse, 2018). for her can be incredibly Teaching mathematics Conclusion helpful so that she can hold it to students with visual According to the up close to visualize shapes impairments often requires National Council of Teachers (Rouse, 2018). Students who the use of technology that of Mathematics, “all students have visual impairments are allows the students to read can learn mathematics if tactile learners, meaning they and solve mathematics given high-quality instruction, learn using what they can feel problems. With many of the challenging content, and versus what they can see. Beth cognitive learning disabilities appropriate accommodations, shared with me that learning above, using pictures and and well-prepared, mathematics was made visuals can aid in instruction, knowledgeable teachers must possible for her by making but for students with visual have adequate resources and content as three-dimensional impairments, instruction support to deliver high-quality as possible (Rouse, 2018). relies on how well content instruction” (Herzberg & 59 Rosenblum, 2011, para. 2). such as dyscalculia, dyslexia, responsibility to change this If given the best instruction mathematics anxiety, and statistic by making changes that fits their needs, every visual impairments, can in their instruction style and child can succeed in achieve mathematical by seeking out the resources mathematics. When teachers success in the general necessary to help every child are confident in mathematics, education classroom. The succeed. Mathematics is a use visual learning tools, mean mathematics scores difficult subject, especially break down concepts, of students with learning for students with disabilities, provide accommodations disabilities in the 12th grade but well-prepared and and implement effective is a high 5th grade level knowledgeable teachers can mathematics interventions, (Meyen et al., 1998, p. 178). make learning mathematics students with disabilities, Teachers have the ability and possible.

References Bender, W. N. (2005). Differentiating math instruction: Strategies that work for k-8 classrooms! Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Das, J. P., & Janzen, C. (2004). Learning math: Basic concepts, math difficulties, and suggestions for intervention.De - velopmental Disabilities Bulletin, 32(2), 191-205. Retrieved from https://ddb.educ.ualberta.ca/ Ferrell, K. (2006). Evidence-based practices for students with visual disabilities. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 28(1), 42-48. Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/home/cdq Furner, J. M., & Berman, B. T. (2003). Math anxiety: Overcoming a major obstacle to the improvement of student math performance. Childhood Education, 79(3), 170-174. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/uced20/current Garnett, K., & Fleischner, J. E. (1987). Mathematical disabilities. Pediatric Annals, 16(2), 159-168, 170-174, 176. Re- trieved from https://www.healio.com/pediatrics/journals/pedann Healthery (2018). Types of blindness. Retrieved from https://healthery. com/types-of-blindness/ Herzberg, T. & Rosenblum, L. P. (2011). Accuracy and techniques in the preparation of mathematics worksheets for tac- tile learners. Journal of Visual Impairments & Blindness, 105(7), 402-413. Retrieved from http://www.afb.org/afbpress/ jvib.aspx King-Sears, M. E. (1994). Curriculum-based assessment in special education. San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group, Inc. Kumar, S. P., & Raja, B. W. (2009). Treating dyslexic and dyscalculic students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3(1), 7-13. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cedp20/current Meyen, E. L., Vergason, G. A., & Whelan, R. J. (Eds.) (1998). Educating students with mild disabilities: Strategies and methods (2nd ed.). Denver, CO: Love Publishing Company. Morin, A. (2018). Learning disabilities facts, trends and stats. Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/learning- attention-issues/getting-started/what-you-need-to-know/learning-disabilities-facts-trends-and-stats Rouse, B. (2018, October 24). Personal interview. Springboard. (1997). RE:View, 29(2), 76. Retrieved from http://proxy.central.edu:2048 /login?url=https://search.pro- quest.com/docview/222956023?accountid=26739 Wadlington, E., & Wadlington, P. L. (2008). Helping students with mathematical disabilities to succeed. Preventing School Failure, 53(1), 2-7. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline .com/toc/vpsf20/current U.S. Department of Education. (2018, April). Children and youth with disabilities. Retrieved from National Center for Education Statistics website: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/ coe/indicator_cgg.asp VanDePol, A. (2018, October 17). Personal interview.

60 Machiavelli’s Politics and A Game of Thrones: The Board

HONR-191: Board in Class: Game An Academic Survey of Modern Board Games Matthew Wells

This capstone assignment requires the students to write a The television series research paper that follows the guidelines of submissions to the Game of Thrones is well- Board Game Studies Journal. The transdisciplinary focus of this known for its vivid depictions journal—and assignment—allows the students to leverage their of political scheming and personal expertise and interests towards writing this paper on backstabbing as encapsulated board games. In this piece Matt utilized his proficiency in both in its oft-quoted tagline: “You political science and philosophy to develop an effective strategy win or you die.” A Game of for a board game. While this particular board game (A Game Thrones: The Board Game of Thrones, second edition) may be unfamiliar to many, it was (GOT) is a laudable effort designed as a streamlined version of Diplomacy, which is one to put in players’ hands the of the few board games with an annual world championship and chance to exercise their inner purportedly a favorite of JFK and Henry Kissinger. Machiavellian in a (hopefully) - Jay Wackerly nonviolent fashion. It provides plenty of opportunities for to gameplay in GOT are In order to win, a player players to make friends and necessary for winning the must control seven areas enemies. All friendships game; that is, the game that contain either a castle made within the game are, all but forces players to or stronghold with his or however, quite tenuous. Only play amorally. In order to her military, i.e., at least one one player may win; you win demonstrate this thesis, I footman, knight, or siege or you lose. Thus, the game will discuss advice from engine must be placed in more than encourages players Machiavelli’s The Prince on seven of these territories. to break alliances, and all using a military, avoiding Machiavelli provides his must be on their guard against hatred, and conquering fortune reader with suggestions one another. Each player who and apply them to gameplay concerning “What a Prince wants to win must strive to in GOT. Second, I will discuss Should Do Regarding the adhere to a Machiavellian what players can learn about Military” in the fourteenth strategy of appearing friendly a Machiavellian conception of chapter of The Prince. At the to other players for as long as politics from their experience very beginning of the chapter, possible, or else be defeated playing GOT. Machiavelli maintains “a early. prince should have no other This paper consists I. Applying Machiavelli to object, nor any other thought, of two parts. First, I will GOT nor take anything else as his describe how the application A. Military art but that of war and its of relevant precepts from Military plays an orders and discipline” (58).1 Machiavelli’s The Prince indispensable role in GOT. Machiavelli’s high

1 Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, second edition, translated by Harvey C. Mansfield, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998). All in-text citations are to this text. 61 estimation of a ruler’s only expect another player to easier for players to make military applies exceptionally offer support if, and only if, (and to keep) than friends. well to GOT. According to that other player will clearly Concerning the possibility Machiavelli, when princes garner some tangible benefit of making and maintaining have failed to place their from doing so. In other words, friends, Machiavelli asserts, militaries as their first priority, players will only support you “if one has good arms, “they have lost their states” if they believe that it will help one will always have good (58). Similarly, in GOT, a them get the better of you later friends” (72). This realization failure to muster a sufficient on. lessens the tension between number of troops could result these two precepts when in early losses that render B. Avoiding Hatred victory impossible. Mustering The necessity for a troops must be a high priority prince to avoid being hated is In other words, from the very beginning of the perhaps Machiavelli’s most game as troops are the only pertinent precept that one having a military way to possess territories. The could apply to GOT. This can be more same rings true for advancing piece of advice is, however, one’s placement on the supply somewhat in tension with important than track which increases players’ the previous one. If players using a military... potential number of armies. begin their military exploits Despite the fact that battles too early, they could very only rarely occur in the first well end up “hated” by all the used in GOT. In other words, rounds of GOT, players have other players. In other words, having a military can be to adhere to Machiavelli’s players who appear to others more important than using advice that a ruler “should as warmongers early on are a military, at least in some never lift his thoughts from likely to face retaliation. For instances of gameplay. For the exercise of war, and in instance, if I am playing as the example, if I have acquired peace he should exercise it Greyjoys, and I immediately a vast array of fearsome more than in war” (59). start attacking the Starks, Lannister meeples, then the Machiavelli also then the Baratheons, Tyrells, Greyjoys might be inclined advises his readers against Martells, and even Lannisters to form an alliance with me. relying solely on the troops have a perfect opportunity to Even if this alliance may be of others. What Machiavelli verbally denounce me, thereby tenuous and no guarantee refers to as “mercenary” making themselves appear less of future military success, it and “auxiliary” arms are aggressive than me. Moreover, makes my own power appear problematic. The individuals other players are very likely even greater than it already is. that comprise these groups to form an alliance and wage A player cannot ignore “have no love nor cause to war against me, rendering my the necessity of attacking in keep in the field other than own military inert, unable to GOT, because winning the a small stipend, which is conquer territories with castles game without initiating a not sufficient to make them or strongholds. single battle against another want to die for you” (48-49). The fact remains that player is next to impossible. Similarly, trusting on the a military is indispensable for The compulsion to attack support of others is a surefire victory. How, then, does one other players in GOT relates way to lose a battle in GOT. In wage war without garnering to Machiavelli’s claim that “a fact, the reasons for others to the hatred of all the other prince who wants to maintain support you in battle are even players? It would certainly his state is often forced not less sufficient for ensuring be advantageous if a player to be good” (77). How, then, their support than the stipend made friends before making are players of GOT supposed 62 given to mercenaries. One can enemies. Enemies are far to reconcile the necessity of war with the necessity of violently by a ruler. Through is drawn again. Assuming avoiding hatred? Machiavelli brute force, one must ensure that the player sacrificed a possesses a powerful answer: one’s preparation for the significant number of power “injuries must be done all unforeseeable forces outside tokens in order to win that together, so that, being tasted of one’s control that threaten high place on the influence less, they offend less” (38). to thwart one’s intentions. track, he or she will not be Since players can obtain In GOT, the three Westeros very likely to outbid all the some territories with castles cards flipped at the beginning other players a second time. or strongholds without of each turn serve as an Only by keeping in mind the attacking other players, they imitation of fortune. Players possible consequences of the are encouraged to try to seize must take into account the Westeros cards can players as many of these territories hope to conquer fortune’s without direct conflict as irascible tendencies. is possible. Concurrently, ...the unpredictable players are forced to avoid powers of chance II. The Essence of appearing as though one Machiavelli’s Politics might win soon. If a player must be conquered From playing GOT, as the looks like he or she could violently by a game demands itself to be win in the next turn, all other played in order to win, players players will work together to ruler. Through can grasp some essential ensure that the player cannot brute force, one attributes of Machiavelli’s win. The ideal number for conception of politics. players to avoid this situation must ensure one’s Knowing Machiavelli’s is to possess four territories preparation for political teaching is an with castles or strongholds invaluable insight if we wish (possessing five alerts others the unforeseeable to improve our understanding that one could win soon). forces outside of of modern politics. According After having obtained these to political scientist Harvey territories as peacefully as one’s control that Mansfield, Machiavelli is possible, a player can then threaten to thwart the founder of the modern attempt to place his or her executive power. On this troops in seemingly innocuous one’s intentions. point, Mansfield notes the places where he or she can similarities and differences obtain multiple territories with between Machiavelli and his castles or strongholds in a debilitating forces that can intellectual successors: single turn. potentially be unleashed by these cards. For example, if Machiavelli may have founded C. Fortune Wildlings attack in the same the modern doctrine of executive In the penultimate turn that all three players bid power, but in his extremism chapter of The Prince, on the influence tracks, then he stopped short of developing Machiavelli makes one of players who bid the most doctrines of power and of his most shocking statements power tokens for a position separation of powers. The when he discusses how to of influence increase their doctrine of power, in Hobbes’s conception, was to make deal with fortune: “fortune is chances of suffering from the virtuous princes unnecessary by a woman; and it is necessary, subsequent attack. Similarly, giving any sovereign, virtuous if one wants to hold her down, a player who has just won or not, all the power he could to beat her and strike her the first position on the iron want; the separation of powers down” (101). In other words, throne track could very well was developed by Locke and the unpredictable powers of lose that position in the next Montesquieu to check the chance must be conquered turn if the same Westeros card prince by law and by formal 63 institutions…But it is not clear to form a lasting alliance to Thus, Machiavelli can be that the development of the their concern with material said to encourage an amoral doctrine improves it.2 gain. Only if two players are attitude towards nature and Despite the obvious unable to attack one another human nature that renders differences between because of an unbridgeable impossible human friendship Machiavelli and his more geographical gap can they based upon eros or love. moderate successors, hope to form an enduring Indeed, as Newell Mansfield invites us to agreement. This could hardly mentions, Machiavelli’s consider whether something be called friendship. rejection of the classical essentially Machiavellian Why is friendship understanding of political life remains in the political impossible for a Machiavellian as articulated by Plato and philosophies of Hobbes, ruler? Waller Newell provides Aristotle was continued by all Locke, and Montesquieu.3 us with the beginning of an of his successors. For instance, If so, then one would answer in his analysis of Hobbes refers to the placing of not be surprised to see Machiavelli’s exhortation to the “doctrine of Aristotle into something Machiavellian in conquer fortune. He refers to Religion” by his predecessors contemporary politics. We will Machiavelli’s “use of rape as as resulting in “so many keep in mind these questions a metaphor” as an attempt to contradictions, and absurdities, as we proceed in this brief “forestall any sentiment on the as brought the Clergy into a look at Machiavelli. prince’s part that there is a link reputation both of Ignorance, GOT reveals a startling between the world and his own and of Fraudulent intention.”6 consequence of Machiavelli’s better qualities of self-restraint As a result of Aristotle’s politics: it necessitates a and admiration for nobility supposed failure to understand rather perverse “rugged and beauty.”4 Machiavelli politics, Hobbes constructs his individualism” in which implores his readers to forget teaching on the state of nature, friendship properly understood morality and common decency presenting fear of violent is rendered impossible. in the name of necessity. Or as death as the motive for all of Players are unable to place Newell puts it: political life. Since the state of their genuine trust in another nature is a war of all against Mastering Fortuna includes the player. Any alliances or all, of radical individualism, prince’s mastering that part of “friendships” are not formed we can reasonably conclude his own nature−eros specifically for their own sake, but for that Hobbes presents −vulnerable to believing in the sake of something else. human beings as by nature the Platonic cosmology with Machiavellian. Hobbes seems In other words, players are (what Machiavelli takes to to overlook that Aristotle encouraged to be mercenary in be) its unwarranted, delusory their relationships with other hopefulness about the success of himself recognizes that “man players; they must subdue morality, nobility, and reason in is the best of animals when any desire they might have the world.5 completed,” but “the worst of

2 Harvey Mansfield,Machiavelli’s Virtue, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 314. 3 Thomas Pangle and Timothy Burns argue that Machiavelli “lays down the basic moral and philosophic foundations of what came to be called ‘modernity.’ Subsequent ‘modern’ philosophers profoundly modify, and often attack, his teachings. But they do so on grounds that he establishes.” The Key Texts of Political Philosophy: An Introduction, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 173. 4 Waller Newell, Tyranny: A New Interpretation, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 338. 5 Ibid., 7. 6 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), 93. A similar rejection of classical thought can be found in Descartes’s Discourse on Method. In the final chapter, he reveals why he wrote the text in French and not in Latin: “I hope that those who use only their natural reason in its purity will judge better of my opinions than those who believe in ancient books.” Translated by Richard Kennington, (Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, 2007), 57. Also, an echo of Machiavelli’s teaching on fortune can be found earlier in the text when he refers to theuse of his new practical philosophy resulting in making “ourselves like masters and pos- 64 sessors of nature,” 49. all” when “separated from law make of Machiavelli’s politics done something similar with and adjudication.”7 Contrary in light of GOT? After this contemporary politics? In to Hobbes, Aristotle, noticing brief overview of Machiavelli ther words, could doctrines that human beings are the only and his successors, we might such as Hobbes’s state of animals capable of speech, hope that players learn from nature encourage citizens to suggests that “the city belongs GOT that, although deceiving hold themselves to low moral among the things that exist friends in board games may standards, thereby endangering by nature, and that man is by be fun, the pleasure of glory higher aspects of human life nature a political animal.”8 is not worth sacrificing the such as love and friendship? Moreover, in Aristotle’s joys of friendship. Moreover, This question is not an easy Politics, human beings are players will likely observe one to answer. At any rate, distinguished by the other that the rules of GOT are thoughtful players of GOT animals on account of their set up in such a way that are invited to consider how inherent ability to distinguish encourages Machiavellian their experiences with the good from bad and just from strategy. Is it possible that, game correspond with their unjust.9 by borrowing from his works, interactions with others in their What, then, are we to Machiavelli’s successors have lives.

7 Aristotle, Politics, translated by Carnes Lord, 2nd ed., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 5. 8 Ibid., 4. 9 Consider Francis Fukuyama on Aristotle’s and Hobbes’s different understandings of humans and politics. He refers to the “Hobbesean fallacy”: “the idea that human beings were primordially individualistic and that they entered into society at a later stage in their development only as a result of a rational calculation that social cooperation was the best way for them to achieve their individual ends. This premise of primordial individualism underpins the understanding of rights contained in the American Declara- tion of lndependence and thus of the democratic political community that springs from it. This premise also underlies contemporary neoclassical economics, which builds its models on the assumption that human beings are rational beings who want to maximize their individual utility or incomes. But it is in fact individualism and not sociability that developed over the course of human history. That individualism seems today like a solid core of our economic and political behavior is only because we have developed institutions that override our more naturally communal instincts. Aristotle was more correct than these early modern liberal theorists when he said that human beings were political by nature. So while an individualistic understanding of human motivation may help to explain the activities of commodity traders and libertarian activists in present-day America, it is not the most helpful way to understand the early evolution of human politics. Everything that modern biology and anthropology tell us about the state of nature suggests the opposite: there was never a period in human evolution when human beings existed as isolated individuals,” The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution, (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2011), 29-30.

Bibliography Aristotle. Politics, translated by Carnes Lord, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013. Descartes, René. Discourse on Method, translated by Richard Kennington. Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, 2007. Fukuyama, Francis. The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2011. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. London: Oxford University Press, 1958. Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince, second edition, translated by Harvey C. Mansfield. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Mansfield, Harvey. Machiavelli’s Virtue. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Newell, Waller. Tyranny: A New Interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Pangle, Thomas and Timothy W. Burns. The Key Texts of Political Philosophy: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

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Art Credits:

Front Cover: Sheridan LaCoste Cover Design: Mat Kelly Icon Art: Ryan Berg

Brandon Rosas...... 11

Tim Brunnert...... 13

Ryan Berg...... 15

Raigen Furness...... 19

Jaden Culbertson...... 26

Max Barkalow...... 32

Sarahi Ledesma...... 40

Erica Bruening...... 49

Maggie Langenfeld...... 53

Ruth Hruska-Kelley...... 57