Aquaculture Asia, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.1-52, April - June 2004

Item Type monograph

Publisher Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific

Download date 06/10/2021 15:36:57

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/18165 ISSN 0859-600X Volume IX No. 2 April-June 2004

New Marine Finfish Aquaculture Magazine! All-male Macrobrachium culture in India

Opportunities in Myanmar aquaculture

Koi herpes virus and transboundary diseases Carp culture in Iran

Now available on CD-ROM! HACCP in shrimp culture

Volume IX No. 2 ISSN 0859-600X Aquaculture Asia is an autonomous publication April-June 2004 that gives people in developing countries a voice. The views and opinions expressed herein are From the Editor’s desk those of the contributors and do not represent the policies or position of NACA Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Magazine

As of this issue the marine finfish section has been revised and expanded into a small Editor magazine in its own right, the Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Magazine, Simon Wilkinson produced quarterly. The hard-copy version will be printed as part of Aquaculture [email protected] Asia, and a stand-alone electronic version is available for download from the NACA website. This is a natural progression of the highly successful MFAN electronic newsletter, coordinated by NACA in cooperation with ACIAR, APEC, the Queensland DPI&F, and SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. It builds on and supplements the Editorial Advisory Board C. Kwei Lin regular Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network e-news service, which is now also Donald J. MacIntosh circulated with greater frequency (fortnightly). Michael B. New, OBE Contributions to the magazine are most welcome. If you are involved in marine Patrick Sorgeloos finfish aquaculture and have some research findings or perhaps some hot hands-on farming tips then please write them down! Regular visitors to the website may have noticed the ‘Marine finfish photos’ link in the Databases & services section, which leads to an online collection of high-quality Editorial Consultant photographs. We are always on the lookout for more, particularly for clear “specimen” Pedro Bueno shots of different species that can be used for identification purposes, and culture systems. Please help us put a good collection together - if you have any photographs you would like to share with the network please send them in. All contributions to the Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network should be sent to [email protected]. NACA With regards to Aquaculture Asia Magazine itself, we have recently added a An intergovernmental ‘Magazine’ section to the website as a further alternative means of access (this organization that promotes rural development through magazine is now circulated in print, on CD, and online in html and PDF formats). The sustainable aquaculture. NACA Magazine section contains all of the feature articles in html format, so you can simply seeks to improve rural income, click and view them in your browser. Down at the bottom of each story you will also increase food production and find two useful buttons: ‘Printer friendly page’, so you can generate your own hard foreign exchange earnings and copy if you wish, and ‘Email to friend’, which speaks for itself. The website is to diversify farm production. The updated in real time with new articles added as soon as they are edited, so check it ultimate beneficiaries of NACA out from time to time for the latest stories. activities are farmers and rural Lastly, we are expanding both our magazine and website coverage to include communities. ornamental fish and genetics. In order to kick off these new sections we need high- quality articles and regular contributions of news stories, market prices and industry gossip ! Contact If you would like to contribute to either of these sections please contact me at The Editor, Aquaculture Asia PO Box 1040 [email protected]. We that request prospective authors please refer to our Kasetsart Post Office Guidelines for Contributors before making a submission. You can email me to request Bangkok 10903, Thailand a copy, or download them directly from the website at: Tel +66-2 561 1728 Fax +66-2 561 1727 http://www.enaca.org/modules/mydownloads/viewcat.php?cid=83 Email [email protected] Website http://www.enaca.org

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1 In this issue

Sustainable Aquaculture

Genetic impacts of translocations on biodiversity of aquatic species with particular 4 reference to Asian countries Thuy T. T. Nguyen and Uthairat Na-Nakorn Page 8

Carp culture in Iran 8 Hassan Salehi

Opportunities and challenges in Myanmar aquaculture 12 U Hla Win

Research and Farming Techniques Page 12 Impacts of mono-sex Macrobrachium culture on the future of seed availability in India 15 Paramaraj Balamurugan, Pitchaimuthu Mariappan and Chellam Balasundaram

Use of new technology and skill enhancement to obtain eco-friendly production of 17 Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) ? Asbjorn Drengstig, Asbjorn Bergheim & Bjorn Braaten

Larval rearing and spat production of the windowpane shell Placuna placenta 20 S. Dharmaraj, K. Shanmugasundaram and C.P. Suja Page 15 Aquatic Animal Health

Trans-boundary aquatic animal diseases: Focus on Koi herpes virus (KHV) 24 Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso

Business

HACCP in shrimp farming 29 Page 27 Siri Tookwinas and Suwimon Keerativiriyaporn

Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network 33

Aquaculture calendar 46 What’s new on the web: NACA website 48

Page 37

2 Aquaculture Asia NotesNotes fromfrom thethe PublisherPublisher

Pedro Bueno is the I.R. Iran and NACA Director-General of NACA. He is the former Editor of We would like to announce the SHILAT (Iranian Fisheries Company). Aquaculture Asia membership of and warmly welcome the NACA also arranged visits of experts Islamic Republic of Iran to the NACA on shrimp and freshwater prawn to Organization. The Governing Council Iran. There have also been instances unanimously accepted I.R. Iran’s when NACA identified for the private application – made through the Office aquaculture sector of Iran suitable that Oman will study the possibility of of the FAO Director General in consultants for their projects. their participating in NACA. accordance with the provisions of the It had taken time to complete the NACA Agreement - during its 15th accession but the Government, Way to go for Sri Lankan Meeting, held in Colombo and Kandy, following the initial contacts, aquaculture Sri Lanka in on 21-25 April 2004. continued to actively and responsibly Iran first had official contacts with take part in a number of regional Preceding the 15th Governing Council NACA in 1992: Attendance in the First projects under NACA as well as Meeting was the Third AquaBusiness Technical Advisory Committee Meeting participate in all but one Governing Seminar with the theme “Aquaculture in Hat Yai, Thailand and the 4th Council Meeting since 1992 and all for Rural Development: Way to Go for Governing Council Meeting held in seven the Technical Advisory Sri Lanka”. It was organized by Hong Kong. The delegation was led by Committee Meetings so far. NAQDA and the Fisheries Ministry then Vice Minister for Jehad-e- with the cooperation of the private Sezandegui, the Hon. Lahijanian, who Indonesia confirms sector, and the assistance of NACA. told the Council of the desire of Iran to More than 150 people participated join NACA as a member. An immediate At the same meeting, the Government including the Council Meeting offshoot of this was the visit, on the of Indonesia through its Foreign delegates. The two-day seminar invitation and hosting of Iran, of a Ministry, confirmed the Government’s discussed technical, environmental and NACA Team consisting of then NACA decision to accede to the NACA social issues related to aquaculture and Coordinator Dr Banchong Agreement. The announcement was aquatic resources management. The Tiensongrusmee, India’s Governing made at the Governing Council resource persons were from NAQDA, Council Member Dr P.V. Dehadrai, and Meeting by an official of the Embassy NARA, Fisheries Ministry, the the NACA Information Specialist to of the S.R. of Sri Lanka in Jakarta. Since universities, and were complemented identify areas for cooperation. the NACA project years from 1980 to by experts from the Governing Council, Following these initial official contacts, 1989, Indonesia had been an active the NACA Secretariat, STREAM Iran requested NACA to organize participant in all the core activities and Initiative, the NACA Regional Lead several training and study tour projects. It hosted the 7th Technical Centres, and others who have been programmes for their professional and Advisory Committee Meeting, held in “sourced” out by NACA, particularly technical personnel in a number of Bali in July 2003. A regular course on the expert on ornamental fish from areas including shrimp hatchery and grouper culture, as a component of the Prague (Dr.Petr Pozel), who stayed on pond culture management (in Thailand Asia-Pacific Marine Fish R and D to provide advice to farmers and to and the Philippines) and Indian major Program - has been instituted at the NAQDA. A presentation on the carp breeding and culture (in India), as Gondol Research Institute for principles and prospects for well as continuing participation in the Mariculture in Bali. During the period certification of harvested as well as integrated farming course in Wuxi, when NACA was funded by UNDP and bred marine ornamental animals was China. (I was at the opening ceremony operated by FAO, Indonesia also contributed by Paul Holthuis of with other NACA and FAO and IDRC voluntarily contributed a yearly sum to the Hawaii-based Marine Aquarium representatives, and represented the NACA; after autonomy, it continued Council. NACA Coordinator as the closing with this yearly contribution. speaker for the 1988 IFF course in Also taking part for the first time as which 18 Iranians were among 39 observer at GC 15 was the Sultanate of graduates). A number of the Oman represented by its Fisheries participants have gone on to pursue Director General Dr. Younis Khalfan Al- graduate studies, and many have Akhzami. Dr Younis mentioned subsequently taken up managerial possible areas of cooperation and said posts in various field offices of

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 3 Sustainable aquaculture

Genetic impacts of translocations on biodiversity of aquatic species with particular reference to Asian countries

Thuy T. T. Nguyen1 and Uthairat Na-Nakorn2

1. Network of Aquaculture in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand 2. Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Thailand

Long term damage could result to translocations occurred and continue Thuy Nguyen graduated from Nhatrang aquaculture and to fisheries when to be so even today. A major problem Fisheries University, Vietnam, in 1995 in translocations (or transfers or facing most maritime countries is aquaculture and proceeded to complete introductions) of aquatic species are translocations or accidental her Diploma and Masters in Aquaculture haphazard. This article by Dr Nguyen introductions associated with the (1999) at Deakin University, Australia. T. T. Thuy and Professor Uthairat Na- discharge of ballast water, which is a Thuy obtained her PhD from Deakin in Nakorn, explores some past and subject on its own right (Crossman and molecular genetics in 2003. Her particular potential influences on the genetic Cudmore 2000) interest is using molecular genetics diversity of aquatic fauna from Translocation is defined as the markers to addressing questions relating translocations, focusing on genetic transfer of an organism, by human to phylogenetics, phylogeography and interactions that could be brought agency, from one place to another population genetics. Currently she holds about. Some 30 years ago, Dr T.V.R. (Hodder and Bullock 1997). A number the position of Research Associate in Pillay suggested that the era of of synonyms are also commonly used, NACA and is responsible for developing haphazard translocations was over these being “introduction” or programs on application of genetics in and that any future translocations will “transfer”. Translocation therefore biodiversity issues related to inland be better planned and evaluated. This includes the introduction of species fisheries management and aquaculture in has not yet happened; many nations into areas where they did not the region. and countries, signatories to previously exist, and the movement of international conventions included, individuals or populations from one development in the world and the continue to indulge in translocation of locality to another within the natural commercial pet trade. In 1977, Pillay aquatic species for aquaculture and distributional range of the species suggested that the era of haphazard the pet trade, often based on the (Doupé and Lymbery, 2000). The translocations was over and that any narrow objective of increasing introduced species/populations are future translocations will be better production. then referred to as exotic or alien planned and evaluated. This is still a species/populations. The use of the long way from being realised; many Fish species translocations, term “alien” came into prominence nations, even though they are inadvertently or otherwise, have been since its adoption by the Convention signatories to international taking place ever since humans started on Biological Diversity (CBD) conventions, continue to indulge in large-scale migrations. Most major (Convention on Biological Diversity, translocation of aquatic species for human migrations were associated with 1994), and is the preferred term of some aquaculture and the pet trade often movement of plants and animals that international and national agencies. based on the narrow objective of were familiar to the migrating The bulk of translocations of increasing production. communities. In the modern era, aquatic species have been primarily In general, analyses and evaluations translocations of fish and other aquatic associated with fish food production. of translocation have been confined to animals (as well as plants) has become The overall success of such direct, visible affects on the diversity more deliberate, carried out mainly for translocations as well as the impacts of of native flora and fauna. These purposes of food production, as pets translocations on native fauna have include specific influences on the or for ornamental value, and even for been reviewed by Welcomme (1988) status of individual native species control of noxious weeds and the like and De Silva (1989). In general, most of such as whether an alien species/ (Welcomme 1988). In addition to these translocations have been a post populations has affected the apparently purposeful translocations, World War I phenomenon and have vulnerability of a species or a flock of unintentional and accidental been associated with aquaculture species, such as for example the effects

4 aquaculture Asia Sustainable aquaculture of the introduction of Nile perch (Lates changes brought about as a result of native population is completely niloticus) on the Haplochrominid the translocation. composed of rainbow trout. cichlid species in Lake Victoria, Africa Introduction of exotic species/ Comparable molecular studies are also (Leveque, 1995). In addition, disease populations into a new environment available from Northern Italy with and parasite transmission associated can alter the genetic composition of the regard to domestic forms of brown with translocations also have been well native fauna in many different ways. trout (Salmo trutta), as well as from documented (Dobson and May, 1986) Direct effects include reduced genetic Poland with regard to Coregonus pele and indeed in the recent times this diversity and outbreeding depression that have affected the native C. aspect has been given much by hybridisation/introgression, and lavaretus in about 70% of lakes. prominence particularly in respect of indirect effects are those related to Although Asia has experienced a disease transmission associated with reduced population size and changes large number of translocations of the shrimp aquaculture industry of selective pressure due to ecological aquatic species since the World War I (Bondad-Reantaso, 2004). On the other interactions such as competition, (Welcomme, 1988; De Silva, 1989; hand, relatively unnoticed and paid predation and disease transmission Welcomme and Vidthayanon, 2003), scant attention to are the effects of (Waples, 1995). Domestication for and it is the leading continent in translocations on the genetic make up aquaculture can alter allele frequencies aquaculture production in the world, of indigenous species/populations. and reduce genetic variation and there is very little information available This article explores and documents therefore also contribute significantly on Asian fish species with regard to some past and potential influences on to the modification of genetic genetic effects arising from the genetic diversity of the aquatic composition of the native fauna if hybridisation and introgression. To fauna, with particular reference to these stocks are released for stock date, there is only limited numbers of Asian countries, as wherever enhancement and/or escape from genetic studies in this regard. Based on appropriate, resulting from aquaculture operations. diagnostic alleles at six allozyme loci translocations. It makes no attempt to and one microsatellite locus, the study evaluate ecological impacts of Hybridisation and introgression by Senanan et al. (2004) demonstrated introductions apart from indirect that introgression of African catfish genetic impacts on the native gene Hybridisation is interbreeding of (Clarias gariepinus) genes into native pools. Although generally not individuals from genetically distinct C. macrocephalus has occurred in four evaluated, in some areas these aspects populations, regardless of the wild and two broodstock populations have been dealt with (eg. Beverton, taxonomic status of such populations in central part of Thailand. Later, Na- 1992; De Silva et al., 2004; Guerrero, (Harrison, 1993). Introgression is gene Nakorn et al. (2004) reported such 1999; Kudhongania et al., 1992; flow between populations whose introgression in 12 natural populations Welcomme and Vidthayanon, 2003, individuals hybridise, and occurs when of C. macrocephalus; nine from amongst others). The major focus here hybrids backcross with one or both Chaophraya river system, one from will be on genetic interactions that parental populations. Hybridisation, Mekong river system, two from the could be brought about through however, need not necessarily be south; and a hatchery population. translocations. accompanied by introgression. For These observations indicate that the example, offspring of hybrids might all native gene pools of C. macrocephalus Potential genetic effects of be sterile. Introgression can also be have been diluted and are threatened if translocations unidirectional, with backcrossing with no appropriate management strategies one parental population only, but are undertaken. Similar problems may Genetically, translocations can be hybridisation can pose a threat to small arise in Bangladesh through the use of considered in two ways: (1) the populations even if gene pools do not hybrid C. batrachus x C. gariepinus for introduction of an entirely new species mix. Hybridisation and introgression aquaculture (Rahman et al., 1995). into a new location/habitat, and (2) the can be especially problematic for rare Hybridisation can also have a introduction of new populations/ species when they are forced to variety of effects on fitness of the strains of species already present in interact with more abundant and resulting mixture of gene pools. that locality. The former is relatively dominant ones. Although hybridisation is known to easy to detect and the effects are An example of loss of diversity of produce heterosis this is more likely in generally more obvious (Beverton, native species due to massive the case of the two parental stocks that 1992; Kudhongania et al., 1992; introgression has been reported for a are not too different genetically. If Welcomme and Vidthayanon, 2003). In number of trout species in Western US genetic distance between the two contrast, the latter event is often watersheds (Allendorf and Leary, 1998; parental stocks increases, genetic difficult to recognise due to the lack of Dowling and Childs, 1992; Leary et al., incompatibilities become more likely morphological differentiation between 1993). For example, rainbow trout and fitness (usually in either fertility or populations/strains within species. (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hybridise viability) of hybrids declines (Waples, Also, more often than not, genetic data easily and extensively with threatened 1991). The assumption is that local regarding population structure prior to Apache trout (O. apache) and adaptation leads to the possession by translocations are not available and endangered Gila trout (O. gilae). Now it members of a population of a particular this makes it difficult, if not impossible, is known that 65% of Apache trout arrangement of alleles at different loci, to conduct comparative studies on the have rainbow trout alleles and one called co-adapted gene complexes.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 5 Sustainable aquaculture

Hybridisation between two populations the current status of tilapia The technical developments in artificial may lead to the breakdown of these introductions into the Asia-Pacific propagation led to the establishment of complexes, resulting in reduced fitness. region and concluded that that there is a specialised hatchery sector in the This effect has been demonstrated in no scientific evidence to confirm that leading aquaculture production pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha tilapias have negatively influenced fish nations, include the establishment of by Gharret and Smoker (1991) and little biodiversity in the region. backyard hatcheries that use simple is known in the Asian context. The presence of exotic species may technology but have been very also alter the genetic composition of successful. However, most of these Indirect genetic effects native ones via the change in selective hatcheries did not practise or rarely pressures, for example predation on practised a turn over of the Any factors such as predation, certain phenotypes or competition on a broodstock(s) from the wild. Poor competition and disease transmission certain kind of food. These changes are management of breeding practices from exotic species/populations can difficult to demonstrate. However, the potentially lead to the reduction of reduce population size of native potential for deleterious effects on genetic diversity of cultured stocks. species and would eventually lead to native stocks is real and needs to be The limited number of studies inbreeding and as a consequence result considered in the planning stages of available seems to indicate that in loss of genetic diversity. Although any translocation events. extensive inbreeding has been inbreeding can only happen when the occurring in hatchery-produced seed of bottleneck is severe and lasts for many Effects of cultured stocks on wild major cultured species in Asia. generations it has important long-term populations Frequently, broodstock are derived effects. In the short-term a significant from a small founding number and the reduction in population size can Genetic effects of translocations number of broodstock kept is relatively disrupt various demographic features involving the movements of genetically small. In the Philippines, the commonly of a population and may lead to distinct conspecific individuals, cultured “Israel” strain of Nile tilapia extinction from severe perturbation in including the release/escape of (Oreochromis niloticus), which is a environmental conditions (Waples, cultured fish into wild populations major contributor to the annual 1991). One of the classic examples in have been well documented in the last production of over 90,000 tonnes, is this regards probably the introduction decade, particularly in respect of derived from a single introduction of of the Nile perch, Lates niloticus into salmonids in North America (Hindar et 100-200 fry, possibly from a single Lake Victoria in the 1950s. This al., 1991). It is noted that the genetic family, and this situation is similar in introduction may have contributed to make up of most cultured populations many countries in Asia (Pullin, 1988). the extinction of up to 260 endemic fish has often been altered through Eknath and Doyle (1990) based on a species (Leveque, 1995). inbreeding, selective breeding, study of 18 hatcheries in India In Asia, one of the worst domestication and more recently demonstrated that there had been rapid documented negative effects on fish through genetic modification such as inbreeding of stocks of six carp species biodiversity has resulted from within transgenic (Beaumont and Hoare, 2003; (catla, rohu, mrigal, common carp, silver country translocations, for example in Gjedrem et al., 1988) and all of these carp and grass carp). They estimated Donghu Lake, Wuhan, China when the may affect gene pools of the that the annual rate of inbreeding was introduction of grass carp resulted in corresponding wild populations. from 2 to 17% per year. In a recent the decimation of submerged When fish are removed from the study by Deepak et al. (2004) the above macrophytes and the consequent natural environment and placed in a observations were reinforced by a ecological changes brought about an cultured environment, random genetic detailed analysis of hatchery stocks of upsurge of bighead (Aristichthys drift and domestication effects (new three Indian major carp species. In nobilis) and silver carps and greatly different selective forces Vietnam there is also evidence of (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) but act upon fish in the domestic inbreeding of grass carp. In a recent also the disappearance of most of the environment compared to the natural allozyme study on grass carp in 60 fish species native to the lake (Chen, environment) alter the gene frequencies Vietnam, collected from four major 1989). The introduction of the Nile and reduce genetic variation. hatcheries, only one variable allozyme tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was Domestication reduces genetic locus was observed out of 25 loci also blamed to be the cause of the variability in fish through both screened, thereby indicating low levels disappearance of the endemic species selective processes and random of genetic variability of the hatchery sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis) genetic drift. stocks (pers. obs.). from Lake Buhi, Philippines One of the primary reasons for the Increasing release of hatchery-bred (Gindelberger, 1981), although a recent large increases in Asian aquaculture individuals into the natural analysis of the available evidence does production over the past two decades environment could bring about dilution not suggest so (De Silva et al., 2004). was the ready availability of artificially of the native gene pools. In this regard, Also, there are anecdotal and propagated seed stocks of major there appears to be emerging evidence unconfirmed evidence that tilapia (O. cultured species, such as of Chinese in respect of Barbodes gonionotus in mossambicus) is a nuisance species in and Indian major carps, thereby Thailand. A study of 12 natural many countries. However, more enabling culture of these species to be populations and 29 hatchery stocks of recently, De Silva et al. (2004) evaluated independent of the wild seed supplies. B. gonionotus indicated that the

6 aquaculture Asia Sustainable aquaculture natural variability was high (Kamonrat, References Fish and Fisheries of lakes and Reservoirs in Southeast Asia and Africa. Westbury Publishing, 1996). Although there was high genetic Otley, UK, pp. 151- 157. variability within populations and Allendorf, F.W., Leary, R.F., 1998. Conservation an Harrison, R.G., 1993. Hybrid Zones and the Evolutionary distribution of genetic variation in a polytypic Process. Oxford University Press, New York. significant genetic differentiation species, the cutthroat trout. Conservation Biology Hindar, K., Ryman, N., Utter, F., 1991. Genetic effects of between populations of both wild and 2, 170-184. cultured fish on natural fish populations. 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Eknath, A.E., Doyle, R.W., 1990. Effective population that environmental integrity and size and rate of inbreeding in aquaculture of Indian biodiversity are sustained in the long major carps. Aquaculture 85, 293-305. Gharret, A.J., Smoker, W.W., 1991. Two generations of term. hybrids between even- and odd-year pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha): a test for outbreeding Acknowledgements depression. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 48, 1744-1749. Gindelberger, B., 1981. Why sinarapan almost TTTN would like to thank Pedro disappeared from Lake Buhi. ICLARM Newsletter 4: 3-5. Bueno and Professor Sena De Silva for Gjedrem, T., Gjerde, B., Refstie, T., 1988. A review of their corrections on an early draft of quatitative genetc research in salmonids at AKVAFORSK. In: Weir, B.S., Goodman, M.M., Elsen, this manuscript. Special thanks to Dr. E.J., Namkoong, G. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Devin Bartley for his advice on indirect International Conference on Quantitative Genetics. genetic effects. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp. 527-535. Guerrero, R.D., 1999. Impacts of tilapia introductions on the endemic fishes in some Philippine lakes and reservoirs. In: van Densen, W.L.T., Morris, M.J. (Eds.),

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 7 Sustainable aquaculture

Carp culture in Iran

Hassan Salehi

Assistant Prof. of Iranian Fisheries Research Institute and the Vice President of Fisheries, Iran, No.250, West Fatemi, Tehran, Iran. Email [email protected]

Carp culture is the most important fisheries subsector. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the industry, its structure, operations and economics

The culture of carp is an ancient activity, using a mixture of four species with different feeding habits: Plankton- consuming, herbivorous, malacivorous, and benthivorous. Carp is widely sold fresh, whole and in a range of value added forms. In Iran, warm-water fish farming is based on Chinese carps, namely common, silver, grass, and bighead carp. These carps are easy to Kiosk for wholesale of fishery products and other agricultural produce, near breed in hatcheries in large numbers at Shilat, Tehran. little cost, and are distributed to farmers to grow out in ponds or open in 1988, Iran has undergone a process factors have also improved more waters. The common carp and the three of economic transition, changing from a recently in rural areas. Chinese ones are often reared in government controlled military The characteristics of the carp polyculture. Since the 1970s carp economy towards a more liberal and farming industry in the four main fish farming has spread along the Caspian market oriented economic structure. farming provinces, Gilan, Mazandran, coast, with total carp production Key factors contributing to the Golestan and Khuzestan are different. peaking at almost 54,000 tonnes in government’s decision making have For almost 20 years, carp has been 2001. The structure of fish been the large population growth, considered a subsistence food, consumption has also changed unemployment rate, as well as the particularly in Gilan, but also in resulting in expanded markets and attempt to optimise management of the Mazandran and Golestan, and is a growth in fish demand. economy by privatisation. Other key preferred food item by a majority of Iran is large and rapidly developing social developments have been rapid people in these provinces. Carp culture and its pattern of supply and demand urbanisation leading to more job initially developed in the Caspian area, may be expected to change markedly opportunities, better living standards, with more than 95 % of farms, in Gilan over coming years. The carp culture higher literacy levels, growth of 67% of farms are less than 1 ha and industry is currently the most student numbers in universities, 95% are less than 5 ha, while in important sub-sector of fisheries in Iran growth in the role of women in society Mazandran and Golestan 59% of farms and its rapid development has attracted (eg. the female literacy rate, 35% in are less than 1 ha and 86% of farms considerable attention in recent years. 1979, has risen to 75% in 1995, and the less than 5 ha, and only 1% of farms in Iran covers an area of about 1.6 million number of female students in the Caspian Sea littoral are larger than square kilometres1 and had a universities had increased to more than 20 ha. In Khuzestan, more than 90% of population of more than 66 million in 55% by 2002) and better facilities in farms are larger than 5 ha and 33% 20032. Since the end of the Iran-Iraq war urban areas However, all of these key larger than 20 ha

Table1: Percentage share of number of farms in provinces and categories. Province <1 ha 1 to 5 ha 5 to 20 ha 20< ha Total % p % c % p % c % p % c % p % c Gilan 80 67 77 28 41 4 24 1 75 Mazandran and 20 59 22 27 32 11 26 3 22 Golestan Khuzestan 0 0 1 9 27 58 50 33 more than 3 Total 63 27 7 almost 3 100 % p: as % in province, % c: as % in categories, Sources: Salehi3,8.

8 aquaculture Asia Sustainable aquaculture

Table 2: Carp farming production in Iran, 1991-2000 (tonnes) by Shilat, but Government policy encouraged the role of the private Year 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2000 % growth sector and in 2001, some 20 private 1990-2000 hatcheries produced more than 85% of the carp seed. It is expected that CC 5502 4206 6561 5435 4600 7000 27 eventually all hatchery production of BhC 983 1052 1269 1360 1150 1500 53 carp fingerling will come from co- operatives and private farms. SC 10019 12619 15228 16310 13800 17000 70 GC 3143 3155 3942 4078 3450 2000 -36 Production systems and practices Total 19647 21032 27000 27183 23000 27500 40 CC: Common carp, BhC: Bighead carp, SC: Silver carp, GC: Grass carp Traditional fish farming in Iran was based on the European system and this Source: FAO9. was expanded in 1970 with the introduction of the Chinese carps, According to stocking density, carp recently directed considerable effort to namely the grass, silver and bighead systems can be distinguished, as: developing freshwater aquaculture and carp. The common carp and the • Extensive fish farming, where enhancing fish stocks in inland water- Chinese carps are often reared in stocking density is generally low; bodies5. In 2001, there were some 3,065 polyculture, although some farmers with no supplementary feeding, registered carp culture farms, with a prefer to keep common carp in • Semi-intensive fish farming, where total pond area of almost 9,493 ha. monoculture. After hatching, larvae are stocking density is higher, with Warm-water fish production now transferred to tanks and fed with diets better management and supplements includes several cyprinid species, of powdered yolk and powdered milk. of daily feed. raised either in monoculture or When the larvae are about 8 days of polyculture in earthen ponds or in open age they are transferred from the Carp culture water bodies. Annual production hatchery to nursery ponds where they figures for carp show large changes feed on natural food. Fry of 10 g size In 1970, Shilat (the fisheries from year to year, although the trend are usually transported for release into organization of Iran) established a carp over the last decade has been positive. water-bodies, or grown to market size culture research station in Gilan on fish farms. Recently, both public province, while the first commercial Hatchery production and private hatchery operators have facility for carp culture was established been testing the traditional Chinese in 1969, supported by Romanian Hatchery production is the main source technique. This avoids all handling of experts3. Since 1985 aquaculture has of seed for both carp farming and the spawning adults until the eggs are been developed mostly by private culture-based fisheries. Production of ready for transfer to the hatchery or, in entrepreneurs and co-operatives. Small- carp fingerlings increased to 90 million some cases, the eggs hatch and the scale trials are also being conducted by pieces by 2001, of which only 15% is larvae remain in the tanks until transfer Shilat in cages and pens in the Anzali produced by Shilat. Hatchery to nursery ponds3. lagoon4 and Dez reservoir. Iran has production of carp species was started

Table 3: Production in open water-bodies (culture-based fisheries) in key provinces, 1991-2001 (tonnes)

Year 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 % share in % share in 1995 2001 Khuzestan 9119 6019 2830 12000 4309 200 11 0.8 Gilan 6689 2164 1445 1360 1029 1270 6 4.8 Mazandran 1958 3813 8975 10060 9518 15700 36 60.9 and Golestan Sistan-B. 4353 3000 4600 4200 11307 0 19 0 Fars 216 2657 1320 1450 743 400 5 1.5 W.Azarbiajan 875 1065 1633 1800 1905 2350 7 9 Others 1693 3539 4036 3915 5007 5865 16 23 Total 24903 22257 24836 34785 33818 25785 100 100 Sources: Salehi3 and Aquaculture Department10.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 9 Sustainable aquaculture

FAO 4 and Salehi3 concluded that carp Figure 1: Carp marketing outlets in main provinces. farming in Iran was economically M&G Producers attractive. In Khuzestan, carp farming G producers K producers was profitable but farmers claimed that 15% 10% 50% 10% 15% 20% 80% 10% 10% 20% 60% the cost of construction of ponds had Locally drastically increased, possibly making Locally Farm gate L cities WP WP carp farming a risky investment. In Gilan, Langarod Anzali Rasht Mazandran and Golestan, where carp

farming is mainly an artisanal activity Tehran carried out by small farmers as a sole or a WP: Within province, L cities WP: Large cities within province, G: Gilan province, M&G: part-time activity, carp farming is another Mazandran and Golestan provinces, and K: Khuzestan province, Sources: Completed

income-generating venture. There are from FAO, 1992, op.cit and Salehi, 1999 & 2003b op.cit. about 15,800 non-governmental persons active in carp farming6. The majority of farming as a part-time activity. In the and most farmers, except a few with these people will also have another first year, the units are stocked with large farms and high capital employment, either seasonal or non- fingerlings while certain operational investments, are unable to do so. seasonal activity. needs are provided by Shilat free of Harvesting is by draining water from charge, after which the co-operative the pond or by using a net, and usually Production systems and has to provide fingerlings and other carried out by the farmers. Buyers are practices in the culture- required facilities. Typically, fingerlings usually responsible for transporting based fisheries are 30 g in weight, and are stocked at a the fish to the market. The majority of density of 2,500 ha-1. With growth farmers harvest a pond only once a There are about 1,900 natural, semi- possible only during the warm months year, or even once per farm, but very natural and artificial water-bodies and of the year, this type of extensive large ponds or farms may require more 150 earth dams, 235 barrage dams and production differs by region. With than one harvest. 1,500 irrigation reservoirs3 in Iran. The suitable farming practices but without A variety of market outlet ranges total water surface is estimated at mechanical aeration and possibly from local fish markets, wholesalers 558,000 ha. These are distributed without additional water, the yields within each province, and the co- through all the provinces and can be range from 300-500 kg ha-1, though operatives or wholesalers at Tehran. used for fresh fish culture. The yields have improved over recent Wholesalers in Gilan, Mazandran and composition of carp species used to years. In Mazandran province it had Golestan, often provide credit to the stock these water-bodies depends on reached 1,300 kg ha-1 by 1997 and 1,540 farmers3. As Figure 1 shows, in Gilan the availability of fingerlings from the kg ha-1 by 2001 with some 13,400 t total province, 50% of carp production is Shilat or other hatcheries, but is production3,7. sold to wholesalers in Rasht city, the usually (28-32%) common carp, (40- centre of Gilan province, 15% to the 50%) silver carp, and (5-10%) bighead Carp harvesting and Langarod fish market, 10% to the Anzali carp, the rest being grass carp. Carp marketing fish market and the balance is sold to production in open water-bodies in the local market, co-operatives or shipped key provinces is shown in Table 3. Carp farmers use different marketing to Tehran. The wholesalers at Rasht Harvests of carp and other warm- channels depending on the quantity of transport and sell some 50% of their water species from the water-bodies, fish they have for sale, the distance to carp to wholesalers in Tehran. whether natural, semi-natural or their intended market, the availability of In Mazandran and Golestan, more artificial, are difficult to measure. transport and the credit they may than 60% of cultured carp is sold to Incomplete production data prepared receive for production. In general, small wholesalers in the large cities of the by the aquaculture department indicate carp producers sell to local markets, province, though small farmers may sell average yields of 43 kg ha-1 in 1993, dealers or wholesalers within the same their fish in the local market, and 20% and 40 kg ha-1 in 1994, increasing to 49 province, whereas large producers of cultured carp is auctioned at the kg ha-1 in 1995. would ship directly to the capital or farm gate. A small amount of the fish The agriculture sector contributes other large provincial fish markets, or sold by auction to wholesalers or at the 21% to the GDP so that there is auction at the farm gate. farm gate is transported to Tehran. In considerable emphasis on water The marketing channels for carp Khuzestan province more than 80% of conservation and management. As part differ between provinces. In Gilan, carp production is sold to wholesalers of this national effort, there are Mazandran and Golestan harvest starts from Tehran, less than 20% sold at thousands of small artificial reservoirs, in September, but in Khuzestan it may Ahvaz city, the centre of the province, earthen ponds, and tanks constructed be two or three months later. The and the balance is sold in local markets. as integral parts of irrigation schemes standard market size for carp is about 1 for valuable agriculture land. These kg. Some farmers may delay their Carp prices small units, many of which are harvesting up to November, or even seasonal, are used as focal points for December to obtain larger fish and In Iran, the prices of carp are low village fish farms, in which villagers, potentially better prices. However, this relative to prices of red meat and working as a co-operative, take up fish delay is constrained by additional cost, chicken, and these have fallen in real

10 aquaculture Asia Sustainable aquaculture

Figure 2: Contribution of costs per ha of carp farms production in four and fertilizer. The break-even categories3. production point averaged 2.3 t ha-1, 100% ranging from 1.5 t ha-1 in Mazandran and Golestan to 3.2 t ha-1 in Khuzestan. On average, the benefit-cost ratio and 80% the rate of farm income were closely related to location. This suggests that 60% Gilan farmers practice more efficiently and have better conditions, resulting in 40% higher farm income per ha followed by Mazandran. 20% Future development 0% .1<<1 1<<5 5<<20 20<<50 Applied research, market-oriented Four groups(ha.) strategy, extension services and the training of core personnel for F&F S L&S W&E H&Ph D M development may need to be given F&F: Feed and fertiliser, S: Seed, H&Ph: Harvesting and post harvest, W&E: Water and particular attention, considering energy, L&S: Labour and Salaries, D: Depreciation, and M: Miscellaneous. existing technology, the transfer, adaptation and development of new terms. Grass carp usually has the In the Caspian littoral the history of technology for hatching, farming, highest price followed by silver carp, cultured carp is longer and farms of less harvesting, handling, processing and while common carp is the cheapest. than 1 ha water surface are only found marketing. Considering the lack of The price of bighead is between silver in this area. Smallholder carp culture, in information services for producers, and common carp. In 2003, wholesale some cases integrated with agricultural distributors and marketing agencies, as prices of grass, silver and common activity, is seen as a simple and low cost well as development institutions, the carps were US$ 1.60, 1.15 and 1.12 source of income in this area. Carp establishment of an information respectively in Tehran. farming does not appear to be a network needs to be given attention. particularly attractive investment in This would draw support from Cost structure and West-Azarbiajan, but in Kerman it may organisations like NACA and profitability of carp farming be. Factors such as feed and fertilizer, INFOFISH. The absence of a legal seed, water and energy, labor and salary basis for the sector as a whole and The various producer locations, costs all influence yield and profitability, affiliated sub-sector is also a critical categories and cultured systems have but farm management, location, need to be addressed. The Shilat law different cost structures and production system and size of farms provides a framework for this sector, consequently different profitability, also influence this. In the Caspian but additional and specific legislation depending on availability and quality region, a wide range of plant materials, for aquaculture is required. of inputs, farm management, climate, and other organic by-products are used area of farms, location of production, to improve pond productivity and carp References selling price and other factors. On growth, either directly as feed or average, farmers in all locations and indirectly as fertilizer. This practice 1. SCI (1998) Iran Statistical yearbook 1998 (in Persian), Statistical centre of Iran, Tehran, Iran, 958 p. categories made a profit (gross revenue reduces total operating costs and 2. Salehi H. (2003b) Market perspective on cultured minus total costs). However, this consequently increases profitability. carp products in Iran, presented in Asia-Pacific aquaculture 2003, Bangkok, unpublished, 13p. aggregate picture includes notable Some farmers in Gilan, based on the 3. Salehi H. (1999) A strategic analysis of carp culture variations as profits of farms of less price of fish and the price of rice have development in Iran, PhD Theses, University of Stirling, Stirling, 328p. than 5 ha, and farms in Gilan, reported shifting from aquaculture to 4. FAO (1992) Aquaculture sector fact-finding mission, Mazandran and Golestan. Special case rice farming. However, in the present Technical co-operation programme, FI: TCP/IRA/ farms such as those obtaining situation, carp farming would bring 2251 (F), FAO Rome, Italy 65p. 5. Shehadeh Z. H. (1996) Major trends in global additional income from seed sales were considerably higher operating returns aquaculture production and summary overview of more profitable than other systems. than the principal crop (rice). the Gulfs (Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman) area TOFC Committee, Cairo, Egypt, 1-3 Oct. 8p. Considering only farms in In many cases, especially in Gilan, 6. Abzigostar (1996) Iran Fisheries sector study, Khuzestan, on the basis of costs per kg Mazandran and Golestan, family labor Shilat, Tehran, Iran, 190p.

7. Salehi H. (2003a) Carp culture sector in Iran: An of production, total cost declined as may be used during the off-agricultural economic analysis of farmed production, presented in farm size increased, though economies season, in which case there would be World Aquaculture 2003, Brazil, unpublished, 17p. of scale for this province may be minimal costs for pond preparation. It 8. Salehi H. (1997) Analysis of the key factors on producing and improving of carp farming in Iran (in relevant. In the Caspian region it may appears that farmers in Gilan and Persian), unpublished, Tehran, Iran, 92 p. also be relevant to conduct especially small farmers were more 9. FAO (2002) The World Fisheries and Aquaculture production, FAO, Italy, Rome, p. comparisons between farms of 1-5 ha profitable because they can take 10. Aquaculture Department (2003) Annual report of with farms of 5-20 ha as economies of advantage of management with aquaculture production in Iran, (in Persian), Shilat, scale may also be relevant. reduced cost of inputs especially feed Tehran, Iran, 40p.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 11 Sustainable aquaculture

Opportunities and challenges in Myanmar aquaculture

U Hla Win

The coastline of Myanmar faces the Indian Ocean in Rakhine State, the Bay of Bengal in Ayeyarwady Division, and the Andaman Sea in Tanintharyi Division. These long stretches of coast provide 213,720 km2 of continental shelf with water rich in nutrients and marine life. Myanmar is also endowed with large rivers and huge networks of their tributaries that are rich in freshwater fisheries resources. Myanmar’s inland water bodies consist of 8.2 million hectares of lakes, rivers and reservoirs, producing more than 53 million tons of fish and prawns in 2002-3 including catch from 3,742 lease fisheries. During the monsoon season from May to September, inundated flooded plain are breeding Sub-leased lake-based fishing, such as the unique ‘saung’ trap (opposite) used by Intha and nursery grounds for freshwater fishers on Inle Lake in Shan State provides a livelihood for canoe owners for an annual fishes. At this time of year, DOF is fee of K1000. Fishers can fish every day and sell their catch at K600. stocking fish seed and broodstock in natural and man-made water bodies to 1988 there were only 6,300 acres (2,550 Status and targets enhance and sustain commercially hectares) of fishponds. As fish is the important species. staple diet for the people and one of Freshwater fish culture has been Fisheries have a major role in social the potential growth industries in the practiced since the early 1950s and and economic development; the people national economy of Myanmar, the currently almost 50,000 hectares of of Myanmar are largely rice and fish State Peace and Development Council freshwater fishponds are under eaters. Annual per capita fish promulgated Aquaculture Law No. 24/ operation. However, marine finfish consumption was 26.18 kg in 2002, and 89, which lead to a substantial increase culture has only recently begun to take fisheries are the country’s third largest in the number of fishponds in the hold as a commercial venture by private sector in export earnings, after country. companies and is only present in a few agriculture and forestry. The Department of Fisheries plays a places at present. Local communities Aquaculture has been the fastest vital role in National Aquaculture have not previously been interested in growing sector for over a decade, development. There are 14 fisheries farming seabass (Lates calcarifer) and registering a growth rate of over 40 stations for fish seed production, groupers (Epinephelus spp.) as they percent per year since 1988, compared located in Mandalay Division in the are abundant and easy to catch. with 5 percent for capture fisheries. By upper Myanmar region, Bago Division, Recently, due to high foreign market Ayeyarwady Division, and Yangon demand, groupers and seabass have Division in the lower part of the become more popular for fisheries country. In line with the three-year fish trade, which has encouraged farmers to culture development special project, 19 begin trials on their aquaculture. new stations are being established A three-year fish culture expanded throughout the country. These stations plan (2000-2003) has been prepared to will: accelerate the development of the • produce quality seeds; aquaculture sector. The plan’s targets • provide fish seed to fish farmers and include: Development of 26,315 stock replenishing activities and hectares of fishpond and establishment culture-based fisheries; of 19 new fishery stations, including Large-scale fisheries of 10s to 100s of • impart technical knowledge on three stations for mariculture. The DOF acres are leased, via auction, to those aquaculture and expertise to fish mariculture fishery station is under with means to operate and sustain them. farmers through extension services; construction at Chaungtha in Lease holders are required to manage • conduct aquaculture research and Ayeyarwady Division. Two others are these as culture-based fisheries. training. to be constructed at Taungok

12 aquaculture Asia Sustainable aquaculture

Freshwater culture

Freshwater pond fish culture is a major source of aquaculture production. The dominant species is Rohu (Labeo rohita). Most farmers practice polyculture, using major carps, and common carps. Farmers in upper Myanmar prefer to stock fingerling 2 to 5 cm but those in lower Myanmar especially in Yangon and Ayeyarwady Division, prefer stocking yearling of 12 This canoe owner to 15 cm so that the fish can reach at Inle Lake claims marketable size in a short time. hook and line gear A common practice is to put 3,000 provides a better yearlings into an acre of pond. Culture return for the same period is 10-12 months and the average K1,000 annual fee. yield 5 tons per acre (or 12 tons per This man will leave hectare). his 200 m line (with The most successful culture hooks at meter industry is found in Twantee intervals baited Township, near Yangon where 50% of with shrimp) the total fishpond area is situated. The overnight every day sizes of the ponds vary from four to of the year. Best eight hectares with an average water catches are in depth of 1.5 meters. April. Tilapia cage culture has been demonstrated successfully by DOF in Township in Rakhine State and Kyun fed with small trash fishes for some the Ayeyarwady River in Magwe Su Township (Myeik area) in period until they attain size and Division, situated in the dry zone Taninthayi Division respectively. strength for transport to grow-out farm where there is not only poor soil The area of aquaculture in 2002-2003 and restaurants, as well as for export. condition but also scarce water was 127,204 hectares including 80,000 The most common species in that area resources for fish culture. Altogether hectares of freshwater prawn (M. is E. coioides but commercial-scale over 300 cages of 5 x 5 x 3 metre size are rosenbergii) and marine shrimp (P. culture is not yet practiced in that area. stocked with 2,000 fish seed per cage. monodon) ponds. Regarding sea bass farming, One company, the Yuzana Company hatchery management techniques are has cage culture operations in Mariculture urgently needed for its development Ayeyarwady River in the delta region. into commercial culture. Inadequate Pangasius species are grown in cages Commercial scale net cage culture of seed supply due to lack of skills in of 2 x 8 x 8m at a rate of 110,000 fish 10 groupers is found in Kyun Su hatchery technology is now the major cm size per cage. Township (Myeik area) in Taninthayi constraint for the development of Division. It is a pioneering farm run by marine finfish aquaculture. Culture species private sector, which has some 300-350 net cages of 3 x 3 x 3 meters in size. It Twelve freshwater fish species are on-grows Epinephelus coioides and E. being cultivated, Rohu (Labeo rohita), tauvina. Grouper juveniles are Catla (Catla catla), Mrigal (Cirrhinus collected from the wild during May through November. Different sizes of juveniles of 10 cm to 25 cm are stocked. According to initial stocking size, culture period varies from three to twelve months to reach marketable size. Generally stocking rate is 800-2,500 fishes per cages depending on the fish size and the survival rate is about 30% at harvest. Similarly grouper juveniles are collected at Thandwe and Gwa Township, in Rakhine State for holding Grouper cage in net cages before marketing. Fish are culture near Myeik

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 13 Sustainable aquaculture

mrigala), Common Carp (Cyprinus pellet from are also supporting the fast Fish seeds carpio), Grass carp growing industry. (Ctenopharyngodon idella), Big head • A consistent supply of high quality carp (Aristichthys nobilis), Silver carp Challenges and healthy seeds. (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Red • Deterioration of quality seed due to tilapia (Tilapia mossambica, T. The aquaculture sector faces a number inbreeding, limited number of nilotica), Hybrid catfish (Clarias of constraints despite its seemingly captive and wild breeders, lack of gariepinus x Clarias macrocephalus), bright prospects and high potential for techniques in broodstock Rohtee (Rohtee cortio), Striped catfish expansion and continued growth. manipulation and poor hatchery (Pangasius hypopthalmus). DOF has There is also an urgent need to technologies. recently succeeded in breeding three consider the practical foundation on new species, freshwater pomfret which to establish a sustainable Feeds (Pitratus brachypomum), feather back aquaculture sector to ensure (Notopterus chitala), and silver barb sustainable development. Awareness of • Improving the efficiency of food (Puntius gonionotus). environmental responsibilities in the through good aquaculture feed The stations under the Department aquaculture industry is growing and manufacturing practice and feeding are producing quality fish seeds by farmers and investors are increasingly techniques. applying various breeding techniques. practicing improved management • Cost effective feed. Fish seed production in 2000-2001 was practices. • Research on the dietary nutrient over 300 million out of which 85 million The following issues face requirement and feeding habits of fish seed were stocked into natural Myanmar’s fast growing aquaculture cultured species. water such as lakes reservoirs and big sector: • Culture of species that can utilize rivers. To expand the industry a good • Technologies and farming systems good farm made feed rather than number of seeds are distributed freely • Environmentally friendly require high quality protein rich to potential fish farms and institutions technologies, which have benign feed. as an incentive. impact on the community. Due Experiences and culture techniques consideration should be given in Conclusion of some species such as eel (Anguilla selection of farming system applied, spp; Synbramchus spp.), Soft shell i.e. traditional, extensive, semi- There are considerable opportunities turtle (Tryonix spp and Lyssemes spp.) intensive, intensive, super intensive. for further development in aquaculture, are also to be introduced. Therefore • Improved management practices and especially mariculture in Myanmar. training course on culture and codes of good practice for Joint efforts of the government and the propagation techniques of aquaculture sector. private sector would realize for the commercially importance species is • Minimize the harmful effects of farm- nation and people the huge needed. bred species to the ecosystem. aquaculture potential. To do so without • Improved culture-based fisheries. the adverse side effects and impacts on Feeds the environment and social harmony, Species the government is taking measures to Most of the aquaculture feeds are made encourage, with appropriate incentives up of locally available agricultural by- Selection and improvement of species and assistance, the investors, farmers products such as rice bran, boiled feeding low on the food chain. and other stakeholders to practice broken rice, and oil cakes of • Appropriate use of genetic responsible production practices. It groundnut, sesame, and coconut and resources and biotechnology. has, for instance, tasked the cotton seed. Rice bran and groundnut • Careful introduction of exotic Department of Fisheries with the cake are a major source of fish fed and species. responsibility of promoting the pellet feed are commonly used in • Diversification of animal and plant conservation of biodiversity and catfish farms. To attain one kilogram of species for aquaculture. habitats and providing assistance to all fish about 4-5 kilograms of bran are forms of aquaculture. feed. So food conversion ratio is 4-5, Socio-economics U Hla Win is the Deputy Director depending on quality and type of rice General for Fisheries. He had been bran FCR is significantly improved Better awareness of responsible national coordinator for the Regional when it is mixed with other ingredients, aquaculture concepts and practices. Seafarming Development Project of vitamin and minerals. • Mitigating the impact of industrial UNDP/FAO managed from NACA, Several feed factories have been aquaculture in rural areas. coordinator for NACA in Myanmar, established recently. They are • Improving the contribution of small- and chairman of the Governing producing thirty to fifty tons of scale aquaculture to rural Council. formulated fish or shrimp feed per day livelihoods. in pellet form. Apart from these bigger • Defining property rights and access ones, medium size feed mills with daily to resources. production capacity of five to ten tons • Mitigate conflicts among common of aqua-feed either in mixed powder or resource users.

14 aquaculture Asia Research and farming techniques

Impacts of mono-sex Macrobrachium culture on the future of seed availability in India

Paramaraj Balamurugan*, Pitchaimuthu Mariappan and Chellam Balasundaram

Crustacean Aquaculture and Behaviour Unit, Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli 620024, India. *e-mail: [email protected]

India has about 2.36 million hectares of In India freshwater prawn farming are in operation with a production ponds and tanks of which hill states has been practiced by adopting capacity of nearly 1.3 billion seeds. cover 0.4 million ha. Out of the 1.9 traditional methods, where the young The present commercial requirement million hectares remaining at least ones collected from the wild are reared for quality seeds cannot be fully met 300,000 could be utilized for in semi intensive farms8. The first by collection from the wild, which has monoculture and polyculture of artificial seed production technique resulted in over exploitation of wild freshwater prawn1. was attempted during the year 1963-65 brooders, which sell for Rs 100/ each Macrobrachium culture is gaining at the Central Inland Fisheries (US$ 2). Due to the shortage of brooder momentum since it is less likely to have Research Institute, Barrackpore; availability in the wild, hatcheries have a detrimental impact because these afterwards systematic research on resorted to procuring brooders from prawns cannot be reared at densities as freshwater prawn culture began in the commercial farms. Such pond-reared high as the marine shrimp. Indeed while pond culture division of the Central brooders have advantages such as its productivity is generally lower, Inland Fisheries Research Institute at year round availability for seed management is less labour intensive Cuttack9. The successful rearing of production coupled with the possibility and the potential pollution of water larval stages of M. rosenbergii was of genetic improvement. However there sources is minimal. Among the 200 achieved in 1975 at prawn breeding are some demerits like inbreeding species reported under the genus centre, Kakinada10. depression, insufficient feeding and Macrobrachium, M. rosenbergii is by Freshwater prawn culture has increased density in grow out ponds far the most commercially important attracted more attention in the recent that affect the brooder quality. species, with its life cycle closed over years due to its export potential and Moreover the pond-reared populations three decades ago in Malaysia4. Other increasing demand as luxury protein. are characterized by lower reproductive species such as M. malcolmsonii, M. India is the second largest contributor performance and precocious maturation nipponense, M. carcinus, M. of freshwater prawn to the world even at a 7-10g weight, which yield amazonicum, M. vollenhovenii and M. market with production of 30,450 MT in poor quality eggs when compared to acanthurus are under trial as new 2002-2003 (Table 1). The farmed area that of wild brooders12. The main candidate species and have the utilized for scampi production reason may be that these animals potential to enter the commercial increased from 12,022 ha to 34,630 ha cannot grow large enough and cannot aquaculture6. Almost all the river marking a four-fold spurt and a three- compete for resources in their systems and even some of the fold increase in cultivation11. The main environment and hence tend to mature independently flowing small streams of constraint in the culture potential is precociously. peninsular India are richly endowed currently a lack of quality seeds. At The natural stocks have the superior with giant freshwater prawn7. present 56 freshwater prawn hatcheries quality over pond populations. In the

Table1. Showing State-wise details of farmed freshwater prawn (Scampi) production in India in 2002-2003 (Source: MPEDA, 2003).

States Area (ha) % total area Production % total Production/ha (Tonnes) production (kg) West Bengal 4,100 11.8 2,140 7.0 521 Orissa 2,995 8.6 410 1.4 137 Andhrapradesh 21,580 62.3 27,020 88.6 1,252 Tamilnadu 180 0.5 130 0.4 722 Kerala 830 2.5 200 0.7 241 Karnataka 165 0.5 180 0.6 1,090 Goa 0 0 0 0 0 Maharashtra 4,420 12.7 290 1.0 204 Gujarat 360 1.1 80 0.3 22 Total 34,630 100.0 30,450 100.0 879

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 15 Research and farming techniques

wild the females attain first maturity at females even at 5g size. This has led to satisfy the need for brooders. The only 30 ±10g; eggs produced by these the wide spread practice of all male solution for this impasse is for females are of good quality with a culture. hatcheries to begin maintaining their higher larval survival13. More Currently the hatchery operators own broodstock. importantly the brooders collected from neither maintain specific broodstock wild populations have more chances to nor maintain the brooders over a long References cross with individuals of different time. They collect brooders (the 5% parentage with the unique advantage females that get mixed during Gopakumar, K., S. Ayyappan, J.K. Jena, S.K. Sahoo, S.K. Sarkar, B.B. Satapathy and P.K. Nayak. 1999. of natural selection. The feeding segregation in all male culture) as and National Freshwater Aquaculture Development habitat and spatial distribution are when they need them from local Plan. Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, India. 75 Pp. more favorable for the quality brooders commercial farms. The brooders MPEDA/NACA (2003). Shrimp health management from wild population. The major collected from these populations will Extension Manual. Prepared by the Network of Aquaculture Centres in the Asia-Pacific, in problem is over exploitation of wild be of poor quality, characterized by cooperation with the Aquatic Animal Health brooders, which is a limiting factor to poor fecundity, larval survival and Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand, Siam meet the ever-increasing needs of the growth. Due to dearth of wild females National Resources, Bangkok, Thailand and AusVet Animal Health Services, Australia. Published by the 13 aquaculture industry . the hatcheries have to depend on farms Marine Products Development Authority, Kochi, for brooder supply, despite the fact India. 31p. Chanrachakool, P. 2003. Farm level management options Monosex culture (all male) that in the long run larval quality and for minimizing shrimp disease risk. MPEDA/NACA survival ranges from 25 to 35%, where National Workshop on shrimp disease control and coastal management, Chennai, March 5-6, 2003. Differential growth and dominance of as local hatcheries report that larvae Papers for Technical Sessions.pp1-6. larger individuals characterize obtained from wild stock have around Ling, S.W. (1969). The general biology and development Macrobrachium populations. Males 70% survival. of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man). FAO World Conference on the Biology and Culture of grow faster than the females The recently held “International Shrimps and Prawns. Fisheries Report 57: 607-619. aggravating the differential growth symposium on Freshwater prawns New, M.B. 2003. The role of freshwater prawns in sustainable aquaculture. Freshwater prawns 2003. pattern within and between sexes. 2003” at Cochin, Kerala, India, strongly International symposium Souvenir, Kerala Monosex culture of this species aims to emphasized the vital need to augment Agriculture University, Kochi, India.pp10-13. 14 Kutty, M.N., F. Herman and H. Le Menn. 2000. Culture of avoid sex based size hierarchy . quality seed production to improve and other prawn species. Chapter 21, pp.393-410. In: Further, when reared with the males the sustain freshwater prawn culture in the M.B.New and W. Velenti (eds), Freshwater Prawn precocious maturation of the females coming years. For instance the Culture: The Farming of Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Blackwell Science, Oxford. 467p. that enter into reproductive phase freshwater prawn production potential Tripathi, S.D. 2000. Need to conserve and revive the stunts somatic growth, which of India is 150,000 tonnes worth Rs depleting stock(s) of the giant freshwater prawn in Nature. National workshop on Aquaculture of ultimately affects the total yield of the 3000 crores @ Rs.200/kg (US$ 65 Freshwater prawns.Souvenir, Central Institute of population and production cost since million) among the nine coastal states Fisheries Education, Mumbai, India.pp 9-12. Mariappan, P., Balamurugan, P and C. Balasundaram. the females by virtue of their smaller of India except Goa where freshwater 2002. Diversity and utilization of freshwater prawns size are not marketed. This has paved prawn culture is yet to take off. Andhra (Macrobrachium) in river Cauvery in Tamilnadu. the way for the monosex culture of all Pradesh contributes the lion share of Zoo’s Print Journal 17(10): 919-920. Ayyappan, S. and J.K. Jena. 2001. Sustainable freshwater male populations. All male culture is 88.6% in all India production of aquaculture in India. Sustainable Indian Fisheries. the new trend adopted in commercial freshwater prawns (Table 1). In this National Academy of Agricultural Sciences.New Delhi.pp 88-133. farming of freshwater prawn, in order to state the current production is about Tripathi, S.D. 1992. Status of freshwater prawn fishery ensure maximum yield and unit weight/ 27,020 tonnes, is expected to increase and farming in India. In Silas, E.G. (ed), Freshwater prawns, Kerala Agricultural University. Thrissur, prawn. Extensive research has been three fold to reach 75,000 tonnes India. 42-49. initiated to determine the factors, accounting to 50% of the total Indian Kutty, M.N.2003. Sustainable Aquaculture - A organs, hormones and gene sequence production within the next 5 years. To comparative view of freshwater prawn and marine shrimp. Freshwater prawns 2003. International for regulatory mechanisms of sex achieve this target India needs to symposium Souvenir, Kerala Agriculture differentiation15. In India, some farmers produce 12,000 million seeds with a University, Kochi, India.pp14-20. Palacios, E., Racatta, I.S. APSA, 1999b. Spawning claim to have acquired expertise in the survival rate of 50% to get 6,000 million frequency analysis of wild and pond-reared of White culture field to segregate males and seeds per annum16. In order to fulfill the Pacific shrimp Penaeus vannamei broodstock under large-scale hatchery conditions. J. World females by various morphological seed demand the country requires 200 Aquaculture.Soc. 30: 180-191. characters. The PL 10 are collected hatcheries located in different areas. Hien, T.T.T., Minh, T.H., N.T. Phuong and M.N. Wilder. from hatchery and stocked at nursery With a viable-quality average of 30,000 1998. Current status of freshwater prawn culture in the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam. JIRCAS Journal for a period of two months, after which eggs/ female for seed production 6:89-100. experienced farmers can segregate around 2,000 broodstock are required Sindhukumari, S and T.J. Pandian. 1987. Effects of unilateral eyestalk ablation on moulting, growth, males and females with an accuracy of per hatchery per year. Hence, for year reproduction and energy budget of Macrobrachium around 95%. At this time an average round seed production the 200 nobilii. Asian Fish. Sci., 1: 1-17. Sagi, A., Snir, E and I. Khalaila. 1997. Sexual female weigh 6.5±1.5g. Any females hatcheries would need 400,000 differentiation in decapod crustaceans: role of the that finds its way into the farm are brooders to supply six billion seeds. androgenic gland. Invertebrate Reproduction and picked out and sold to the hatchery at Such a huge requirement of Development, 31: (1-3) 55-61. Sakthivel, M. 2003. Utilization of untapped water the cost of Rs.15/individual. Through brooders may adversely affect the resources for scampi culture for a rapid jump in constant observation and training over already over exploited wild stock. The production and export in India. Freshwater prawns 2003. International symposium Souvenir, Kerala a period, these local fishermen claim situation will worsen since the Agriculture University, Kochi, India.pp21-24. that they can segregate males and emerging all male culture also can not

16 aquaculture Asia Research and farming techniques

Use of new technology and skill enhancement to obtain eco-friendly production of Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

Asbjørn Drengstig1*, Asbjørn Bergheim2 & Bjørn Braaten3

1. Managing Director, HOBAS Tropical Aquaculture Water Engineering LTD, email [email protected]; 2. Senior Researcher, Rogaland Research; 3. Researcher, Norwegian Institute for Water Research

About the HOBAS technology

The HOBAS aeration technology consists of a motor, an impeller (pump), an air hose with a regulating valve, a manometer and a floating raft. The impeller, which is mounted inside the pump at the lower end of the motor, turns rapidly creating a partial vacuum inside the pump. The partial vacuum causes air above the waterline to be pulled into the air intake port where air is dispersed into the water. The air intake port (submerged in the water at the lower part of the pump) is connected to air above the waterline through a hose going onshore. Onshore a valve and a manometer are used to regulate the amount of air being introduced into the impeller. Due to the partial vacuum, the water of the physical water current aquaculture practices, the island leaving the pump is slightly over- according to the pond shape experienced an enormous expansion saturated with oxygen. (individually adjustable) within the shrimp farming sector in the Most aerators employed in • Farmers can control and regulate the beginning of the 1990s. This rapid aquaculture today mix water with air amount of aeration according to the development was mainly possible due either after the pump (e.g. ejector DO level in culture water (e.g. no to a high economic return on based aeration) or with a propeller in aeration during the day – full investments and free access to open water (e.g. Aire-O2, paddle- aeration during the night, or unpolluted water from local lagoons. wheels). The HOBAS aerator is somewhere in-between these During this period (1990 – 1995), designed to introduce air directly in categories) neither the environment nor the welfare the pump housing and mechanically • The pump prevents any kind of of the shrimps was considered, and as crush the air with water under vacuum stratification and creates uniform a result, the industry collapsed in 1997/ without reducing the effect. Suction of conditions in the water column 1998. As recently as December 2003, false air usually makes pumps less • The HOBAS technology is easy to the industry along the western coast of efficient. Moreover, compared to other use, has low maintenance, runs more Sri Lanka was again struck by a severe aeration technology, the HOBAS smoothly and makes less noise than disease outbreak. Thus, it is now technology also introduces several competitive technology evident that measures need to be other advantages in practical farm initiated in order to improve farm management: Introduction management and reduce the negative • Farmers can freely regulate the environmental impact from shrimp depth and position of the inlet and The Norwegian R&D company HOBAS farming. The industry today realises outlet of the pump Tropical Aquaculture LTD, has been the importance of unpolluted brackish • Farmers can freely regulate the angle working in Sri Lanka since 1999. At that water and suitable land sites for pond of the outlet from the pump and thus time, the shrimp farming industry was construction, and the present focus is avoid agitation of the pond bottom severely struck by disease outbreaks on sustainable production yields, independent of pond water depth in and bankruptcies. Although Sri Lanka preserving coastal environments and addition to controling the direction does not have a tradition of achieving an eco-friendly production.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 17 Research and farming techniques

sedimentation or being discharged. Moreover, the HOBAS technology maintained an optimum horizontal water current velocity (3.4 - 7.3 cm s-1) in the pond which corresponds to the acceptable range suggested by Peterson et al. (2001). According to the numbers employed, paddlewheels either created too high velocities (14.9 – 20.9 cm s-1) or insufficient velocities (1.5 – 5.1 cm s-1).

Discussion

During the last decades, there has been a development towards more efficient and intensive production units in several shrimp producing countries. In light of the worldwide debate on environmental and socio-economic issues, the industry clearly needs to Material and methods Results produce shrimp more efficiently. However, important prerequisites for The present study was conducted in The results are indicating, first and the long-term sustainability of shrimp cooperation with Rogaland Research in foremost, that the HOBAS technology farming have often been neglected in Stavanger, Norway. The overall aim of is able to keep key water quality the past. In order to achieve an eco-

the project was to evaluate the possible parameters (O2, CO2, TAN, (salinity), pH friendly production, farmers must effects on water quality in earthen and temperature) un-stratified, stable understand the complex mechanisms shrimp ponds when production was and within acceptable levels in semi- controlling the water quality and use intensified by means of new technology. intensive and intensive shrimp culture. technology suited for intensive Four small-scale commercial ponds Most efficiently, the HOBAS aerator production. stocked with three different densities totally removed the potentially toxic Poor water quality conditions in -2 (12, 25 and 31 PLs m ) and applied gases (CO2, NH3) in a highly intensive ponds stress the shrimps, which three different aeration technologies pond (stocked with 31 PLs m-2). Neither subsequently makes them more were used. These were the HOBAS paddlewheels nor aeration using susceptible to disease. The biggest technology, ordinary paddle-wheels diffusers proved a similar effect (Figure 1). stressors are mainly toxic levels of

and Aire-O2 diffuser system. The Moreover, the three ponds installed carbon dioxide (CO2) or ammonia (NH3) ponds were approximately 40 x 40 with standard aeration equipment (e.g. which are much more likely to occur in

meters with a water depth of 3 feet paddlewheels) did allow the intensive systems. Traditionally, CO2 3 (pond volume: 1920 m ). Continuous accumulation of CO2 and TAN during and TAN levels are seldom measured in monitoring of dissolved oxygen (DO), the last month of the production cycle. commercial shrimp farming. According pH, temperature, salinity, carbon The HOBAS technology employed in to EIFAC (1986), the daily cycle of

dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH3) were this trial was superior to the others metabolite levels in culture water performed during the entire production flushing capacity wise. These results should be determined at least once cycle. DO, pH, salinity and temperature clearly demonstrate that the existing during the production cycle in order to were measured by a hand-held YSI-556 technology commonly employed in locate the periods of maximum and MPS (Multi-Probe-System) instrument. shrimp farming today is not adequate to minimum levels of the relevant water

Analysis of CO2 and TAN were done at keep CO2 and TAN at acceptable levels; management components (DO, pH,

Rogaland Research’s certified QA-lab at least not during the last period of the TAN, CO2). Therefore, in intensively in Stavanger. production cycle of intensive culture. run farms (20 PLs/ m-2 and upwards), it In addition, water current velocities The HOBAS aerator also displayed is of vital importance to know the exact were measured along a transect (10 a better utilisation of nutrients. concentration of these potentially meters from shore) in all four ponds to Contrary to the other three ponds, a stressful and toxic components. The compare the different aerator’s ability very healthy phytoplankton growth results from the present study confirm to maintain the horizontal water was observed where no algae mats the importance of monitoring water circulation. The water current velocities (lap-laps) were produced. This simply quality throughout the production were monitored by an Aquadop Current implies that nutrients (nitrates and cycle in intensive systems. Meter measuring velocity (cm/s, phosphates) were suspended in the Furthermore, the organic content in accuracy: 0.5 cm/s or 1%) and direction water column for a longer time, and a effluent causing unwanted (accuracy: 0.1?). larger concentration was therefore used eutrophication in lagoons tends to be to stimulate the bloom before much higher in semi-intensive and

18 aquaculture Asia Research and farming techniques

Figure 1. Sampling of pH, carbon dioxide (CO2) and total ammonia (TAN) in four ponds in July (left) and August 2002 2 (right) (no pH and CO2 measured in Pond 15 in August) Pond 14: HOBAS aerator/31 PL m ; Pond 15: Paddlewheels/31 PL m2; Pond 16: Paddlewheels/12 PL m2 (control); Pond 17: Paddlewheels & diffuser/25 PL m2

pH pH

9.5 9.0

9.0 8.5 8.5 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.5

7.0 7.0

6.5 6.5 14 15 16 17 14 15 16 17

Pond No. Pond No.

CO2 CO2

16 16 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 micro g/L

4 g/L micro 4 2 2 0 0 14 15 16 17 14 15 16 17 Pond No. Pond No.

TAN TAN

5000 5000 4500 4500 4000 4000 3500 3500 3000 3000 2500 2500 2000 2000 micro g/L micro 1500 g/L micro 1500 1000 1000 500 500 0 0 14 15 16 17 14 15 16 17

Po nd No . Po nd No . intensive farming areas than in extensive components and to improve the • The new technology renders farmers systems. In fact, extensive shrimp utilisation of available nutrients in the to intensify their production with culture is not expected to represent any water column is clearly needed to reduce higher stocking density at reduced significant load of nutrients to the effluent loading in the future. risk of sub-optimal water quality surrounding waters at all (Phillips et al. conditions and disease outbreaks, 1993). Recent studies of shrimp culture Conclusions and without sacrificing the welfare in Bangladesh, where mainly extensive of the shrimp systems are employed, support this The overall most important conclusions • The new technology will work view (Bergheim & Braaten 2002). from the project are: excellently in combination with Bangladeshi ghers actually function as • The HOBAS technology, contrary to ordinary paddlewheels and other biofilters and sedimentation ponds commonly employed technology, diffuser aeration systems (silting) discharging rather unpolluted will sustain an eco-friendly Based on the technical results from the effluents. However, in more intensive production of shrimp testing of the new technology in Sri systems, where artificial feeds are the • The new technology has a strong Lanka, HOBAS has, in cooperation main nutritional source, water being ability and a high capacity to flush with Rogaland Research (RF) and the discharged strongly contributes to the possible toxic gasses carbon Norwegian Institute of Water Research pollution of adjacent environments. dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH3) (NIVA), started the process of initiating Thus, more efficient technology able to from culture water in earthen pond reduce or remove these waste systems Continued on page 40

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 19 Research and farming techniques

Larval rearing and spat production of the windowpane shell Placuna placenta

S. Dharmaraj, K. Shanmugasundaram and C.P. Suja

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Tuticorin Research Centre, 115, N.K.Chetty street, Tuticorin-628001 (India), e-mail:[email protected]

The windowpane shell, Placuna In Tuticorin Bay, the windowpane and antibiotics were not used during placenta is one among the pearl shell occurs in a 0.46 ha bed and its larval development. We observed the producing bivalves. It was identified as exploitation during the fishery is almost development under an inverted the second-priority mollusc species for total leading to the depletion of stock microscope using 10x10 magnification. research during the Second Conference in the bay. The natural population has After 24 hours straight-hinged larvae on Aquaculture Development in to be augmented in order to meet the were collected in 40µm mesh sieve. The Southeast Asia held in the Philippines needs of mariculture. We therefore larvae were reared in two 75 liter in July 1994 and is the basis for a undertook to develop the technology rectangular fiberglass tanks. Feeding ‘kapis’ (windowpane shell) fishery in for the production of seed of the was initiated at veliger stage on day the Philippines. Windowpane shell species in the hatchery and to sea two. The unicellular microalga provides fishermen an additional ranch them for the replenishment of Isochrysis galbana was given as food income-generating source through the wild stock. The report is the first to be to the larvae once in a day at a sale of its pearls and shells. The empty published on larval rearing and seed concentration of 5,000 cells larva -1 day - shells are used as raw material in production of P. placenta from India. 1 (10 cells µl -1) from day two; 10,000 making shell craft products and are cells day -1 (20 cells µl -1) from day five; exported. Techniques 15,000 cells day -1 (30 cells µl -1) from In India the distribution of the day seven; and 20,000 cells day -1 (40 species is confined to the Kakinada Bay The windowpane shells, collected from cells µl -1 from day ten. The microalga in Andhra Pradesh1,2,3,4; to the the Tuticorin Bay in the Gulf of was cultured in Conway medium15 and Okhamandal Coast in the Gulf of Mannar, were brought to the Shellfish harvested during its exponential phase. Kutch5,6; to the Nauxim Bay of Goa7 and Hatchery of the Tuticorin Research Algal density was assessed using to Tuticorin Bay8 and Vellapatti near Centre of the Central Marine Fisheries haemocytometer and proportionate Tuticorin9. The oysters were fished from Research Institute. Prior to the feed was given. Water change was these areas in considerable quantities experiment, these broodstock animals done once in two days by siphoning every year for pearls and shells causing were kept for 24 hours in aerated the larvae through a sieve with the concern about over exploitation of wild seawater held in a rectangular tank. mesh size smaller than the larval size. stocks. The development of techniques The oysters were treated for spawning Random sample of 50 larvae was on breeding, larval rearing and spat on the following day by thermal measured along the dorsoventral axis production of the species might stimulation at 37ºC at 1445 hours. (DVM) and anteroposterior axis (APM) eventually help to sustain the fishery. Males started to spawn at 1530 hours as a parameter to assess the growth. Hence efforts are made in different parts followed by females. When the The spat were allowed to settle free in of the world to breed the windowpane spawning was over the brood stock the tank itself, as they did not have shell in captivity and produce the seeds animals were removed and the eggs byssus thread or cement gland for for replenishment of wild stocks. allowed to fertilize. The eggs were attachment. No cultch material was Previous research has documented the yellow in colour. provided for settlement of spat. spawning and larval development of P. We collected the fertilized eggs by Aeration was given only after spat placenta10; documented the techniques gently siphoning through a 30µm sieve. setting. Unicellular microalga I. in induced spawning and early The material collected in the sieve galbana was continued to be supplied embryonic and larval development11; contained fertilized eggs, faecal as food for the spat up to 1.0mm and studied the effect of salinity on the matters, broken tissues, shell fragments was gradually replaced afterwards by embryonic development, larval growth and other waste materials. The mixed algal food. The mixed algae, and survival at metamorphosis12; contents of the sieve were passed chiefly containing Chaetoceros sp.and evaluated the effect of microalgal diets through an 80µm sieve and the other diatoms, were developed in and rearing condition on gonad maturity, unwanted materials discarded. The outdoor tanks. During larval rearing the fecundity and embryonic fertilized eggs that passed through water temperature ranged from 28ºC to development13; and reported on 80µm sieve were allowed to develop in 30ºC; salinity 34.6 – 35.2 ppt. and pH hatchery management techniques14. the tank and the larval development 7.91-8.09. was studied. No aeration was provided

20 aquaculture Asia Research and farming techniques

Window-pane shell Placuna placenta. Fertilized eggs with polar body, size 50µm.

4-celled, 8-celled and 32-celled stages. Straight-hinge larvae, average size 79.9 x 65.2µm.

Typical umbo stage, size 140 x 130 µm. Spat with its transparent shell.

Larval development

The spawned eggs are spherical in shape measuring 50µm. Fertilization was immediate and the first polar body was released 15 minutes after fertilization. First cleavage started after another 15minutes leading to the two-celled stage. The two-celled stage had a smaller micromere and a larger macromere along with a polar body at the furrow of cleavage. The trefoil stage, containing three micromeres and one macromere was obtained four minutes. After the two- celled stage. The cell wall of the 3 micromeres slowly disappeared and resulted in the four-celled stage 65 minutes after fertilization. The macromere did not take part in further Hatchery reared juveniles of P. placenta, average size 26.4 x 10.6 cell divisions. The 8-celled, 16-celled and 32-celled stages mm on day 135. are obtained in 80 minutes, 100 minutes and 155 minutes respectively after fertilization. Morula stage was reached in

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 21 Research and farming techniques

four hours and 45 minutes. The embryo conspicuous granules. The time 200µm on day five, pediveliger at 215 x began to move at the morula stage. As sequence of early embryonic 205µm on day seven, and plantigrade at the larvae move in water column, the development of larvae of P. placenta is 235 x 210µm on day eight. On day nine morula is transformed to a blastula given in Table 1 and the time series the umbo larvae constituted 14%, stage by the development of a growth data of the species from veliger eyespot 28%, pediveliger 34% and blastocoel, which opens to the exterior to spat is presented in Table 2. plantigrade 24% of the population. The through blastopore. Gastrulation spat had grown to 340 x 300µm on day commenced at this stage by Larval growth ten. On day thirteen the pediveliger convolution of cells to interior through formed 14%, plantigrade 36% and spat blastopore. After completion of The relationship between the larval 50% of the population. In view of such gastrulation, the dermal layers namely shell length (APM) and shell height heterogeneity in growth, the average ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are (DVM) is linear and is described by the size of larvae at different stages was formed along with an archenteron. By equation: taken into account in working out the the formation of single flagellum at the Y=17.982 + 0.9595X with r = 0.9981 growth rate. The average shell height apical end, the embryo reached Where Y represents APM and X on day one is 65.2µm; 81.6 µm on day trochophore stage in 5 hours and 41 represents DVM in µm. three; 121.6 µm on day six; 205.8 µm on minutes. The ectodermal cells secrete On day three all larvae were at day nine and 300 µm on day thirteen. embryonic shell material veliger stage and subsequently the D- The average daily rate of growth of the (prodissoconch 1) and formed a D- shaped veliger became globular at larvae is 23.0 µm from day 0 to 13. shaped veliger 18 hours and 45 minutes 110µm APM x 100µm DVM resulting in post fertilization and measured an the disappearance of straight hinge Spat setting and spat average of 65.2µm in DVM or shell line. On day four the typical umbo production height and 79.9µm in APM or shell stage constituted 90% of the length. The shell valves of the veliger population measuring 140 x 130µm. The The larvae set as spat on day 7-8. The are equivalve and transparent with late umbo stage is reached at 210 x spat has neither byssus nor cement gland for attachment and hence they Table 1. Time sequence of early embryonic development of larvae of Placuna were allowed to settle on tank surface. placenta The spat has an exceptionally long foot which would be of much use in Stage Time after fertilization burrowing. The shell is highly Madrones-Ladja (1997) Present study transparent with concentric growth Egg 0 0 line. The initial larval population in all First polar body 15 min 15 min the culture tanks was 1.5 x 105 in a total Second polar body - 20 min volume of 150 litres of seawater. The 2-celled stage 30-40 min 30 min total number of larvae that Trefoil stage 40-50 min 34 min metamorphosed as spat was 12,500, 4-celled stage 50-60 min 65 min giving a survival rate of 8.3 % and 8-celled stage 115-120 min 80 min production rate of 83.3 spat/liter. 16-celled stage - 100 min 32-celled stage 120 min 155 min Growth of spat Morula stage - 285 min Blastula stage - 295 min The average growth in shell height of Gastrula stage 235 min 305 min spat was 0.300mm on day thirteen; Trochophone stage 325 min 341 min 0.806mm on day 22; 3.09mm on day 36 Water temperature 27 ºC 28 ºC Salinity 33 ppt 34.6-35.2 ppt and 12.44mm on day 80. The equation Table 2. Time series growth data of Placuna placenta. The larval measurements are in µm. Whenever two measurements are given with an X sign, the first is APM and the second is DVM. Time from fertilization is given in hours (h) and minutes (m) or in days (d).

Stage Madrones-Ladja (1997) Present study size Time Size Time Egg- spherical 0 50 D-shape 89 x 75 18 h 20 m 79.9 x 65.2 18 h.45m Early umbo 98 x 82 d 5 110 x 100 d 3 Umbo 138 X 105 d 7 140 x 130 d 4 Pediveliger 192 x 190 d 9 215 x 205 d 7 Plantigrade 232 x 225 d14 235 x 210 d 8 Spat - - 340 x 300 d 10 Water temperature 24.0-27 ºC 28.0-30 ºC Salinity 32.0-35.0 ppt 34.6-35.2 ppt

22 aquaculture Asia Research and farming techniques for the growth of the spat from day 13 at 32ºC after conditioning at 24.0-26.0ºC P. placenta is naturally found burrowing to 80 is described as: for 15 days17; the great clam Meretrix in muddy or sandy-mud substratum21. Y = 0.1634 + 0.9754 X with r-value of meretrix at 4-5ºC above the ambient Provision of cultch material like glass or 0.9998. level of 24.0-26.0ºC18. plastic items might not be useful for The spat was transferred to farm on The easy response of induction of settling in P. placenta. Hence, in the day 80 and the growth rate of spat after spawning by thermal stimulation and present study no cultch materials were 54 days in the farm was 0.59mm/day. faster growth of larvae/spat has provided and therefore the larvae are During the same period the spat reared facilitated the scaling up of production allowed to set at the bottom of the in the hatchery showed a growth rate of the seeds of P. placenta in India. fiberglass tank. of 0.08mm/day (average size 26.4 x 10.6 The Shellfish Hatchery at Tuticorin had The rate, at which Madrones-Ladja11 mm on day 135). The following already demonstrated the production of fed the larvae is higher than in the equation was fitted to the spat growth pearl oyster seed to a maximum of 1.3 present study and still the growth and data: y = aebt w here y = DVM in mm and million per run19. An average survival settlements are faster in India. The t = time in days. The fitted equation for rate of 5% of pearl oyster seeds was nutritional value of Isochrysis galbana hatchery reared spat was: Y = 0.6973 + achieved. In the present study the rate may likely vary at different locations and 0.9365 X with r-value of 0.9998 and that of production of windowpane shell this may reflect in the vigor, viability and for farm reared spat was Y = 0.3410 + seed is 8.3%. The culture conditions growth of the embryo, larva and spat. 0.9955 X with r-value of 0.9984. It is (water temperature 28-30ºC and salinity Higher larval growth of Ostrea edulis evident from the equation that the farm 34.6-35.2 ppt) prevailing during this has been reported when fed a microalgal reared spat had a higher instantaneous study seemed to be favorable for the diet of I. galbana and Chaetoceros growth rate (b). The farm-reared spat production of seeds. Large-scale calcitrans22 Madrones-Ladja12 reported attained juvenile stage with an average production of seeds of P. placenta to the food value of I. galbana with 41 % size of 44.4mm on day 135. The spat replenish natural stocks seems quite crude protein and 23 % crude fat. In the produced in the hatchery was ranched feasible. present work the food value of I. in the bay. Madrones-Ladja12 reported the galbana is 59.6 % crude protein (dry settlement after fourteen days in the weight) and 14.4 % crude fat (dry Applications salinities ranging from 22-34 ppt. The weight). I. galbana is one of the most present investigation not only commonly used marine unicellular algae Regular fishing of windowpane shell is observed earlier settlement (between in mariculture and is rich in fatty acid conducted in the Kakinada Bay in the day seven and eight) but also C22:623. However a detailed study is Andhra Pradesh and in Okhamandal indicated faster growth of larvae/spat needed to determine the optimum algal Coast in the Gulf of Kutch. Huge at a water temperature of 28-30ºC and cell ration to the larvae and its food quantities of these animals are salinity 34.6-35.2 ppt. The growth of value on the growth of larvae and spat. exploited every year causing depletion larvae/spat up to day thirteen was of stock. In a notification dated July 21, 23.0µm day -1 whereas the same, as Acknowledgements 2001 the Ministry of Environment and reported by others14, was 11.0 µm day -1 Forests, Government of India, has up to the day fourteen. The faster The authors are grateful to Prof. (Dr.) included the windowpane shell in growth rate in India may perhaps be Mohan Joseph Modayil, Director and Schedule 1 of the Wildlife (Protection) related to higher water temperature. Dr. K.K. Appukuttan, Head, Molluscan Act, 1972. As a result the natural Madrones-Ladja11 provided petri dish Fisheries Division, Central Marine populations of P. placenta are as cultch at the time of settlement and Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin for protected against exploitation. While reported poor survival, which may be their interest and encouragement. Our breeding of several species of bivalves attributed to the lack of deficiency of sincere thanks are due to Miss. Anu has been achieved16, this is the first essential nutrients in the microalgae alias Meena, Senior Research Fellow, report on breeding, larval rearing and fed to the larvae and the non- Tissue Culture Project, Tuticorin for spat production of windowpane shell availability of suitable substrate. the help in computerization of data. from India. Similar results have been reported for Initial attempts to induce spawning tridacnid clams when suitable substrate References windowpane shell were made using is not available20. water manipulation techniques10. P. placenta has neither cement 1. Narasimham, K.A. 1973. On the molluscan fisheries of the Kakinada Bay. Indian J. Fish., 2(1):209-214. Others resorted to chemical and gland nor byssus thread for 2. Murthy, V.S.R., Narasimham, K.A. and Venugopalan, photochemical stimulations11. In the attachment. Hence at the time of W. 1979. Survey of windowpane oyster (Placenta placenta) resources in the Kakinada Bay. Indian J. present study thermal stimulation was settlement if a suitable substrate is Fish., 26(1&2): 25-132. successful in the induction of provided, as in the natural habitat, high 3. Narasimham, K.A., Selvaraj, G.S.D. and Lalitha Devi, spawning in P. placenta when water survival may be achieved. The foot of S. 1984. The molluscan resources and ecology of Kakinada Bay. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T & E Ser., temperature was increased to 37ºC. The the windowpane shell is exceptionally No.59:1-16. temperature at which P. placenta long when compared to other bivalves, 4. Syda Rao, G. and Somayajulu, K.R. 1996. Resource characteristics of exploited bivalves and gastropods responded to spawning seemed to be and facilitates in burrowing. In the of Kakinada Bay with a note on stock assessment. high when compared to other bivalves natural habitat the lengthy foot may be Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T & E Ser., No.144: 25-28. studied from India such as the blood beneficial in positioning the spat at the clam Anadara granosa which spawned time of settlement in the clayey bottom. Continued on page 28

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 23 Aquatic animal health Trans-boundary aquatic animal diseases: Focus on Koi herpes virus (KHV)

Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso

Dr. Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso was NACA’s Aquatic Animal Health Management Specialist from 1999 to 2002. Dr. Reantaso organized and led the Emergency Disease Control Task Force on a serious disease of common and koi carp in Indonesia. She now works as Aquatic Animal Research Pathologist at the Cooperative Oxford Laboratory of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources in Oxford, Maryland.

Chris Baldock of Ausvet (Australia) defined ‘trans-boundary animal diseases’ (TADs) as epidemic diseases which are highly contagious or transmissible, with the potential for very rapid spread irrespective of national borders and cause serious socio-economic and possibly public health consequences1. Some of the most serious problems currently faced by the sector are those pathogens and Melba Reantaso presenting KHV Attentive participants during the National diseases spread and introduced information during the National Strategy Strategy Development Workshop, Bogor, through movements of hatchery Development Workshop, June 2002. On Indonesia, June 2002. produced stocks, new species for right is Ahmed Rukyani. aquaculture and development and enhancement of the ornamental fish trade. Aquaculture is faced with what is international trade of aquatic animals herpes virus (KHV) experience in Israel. known as trans-boundary aquatic and aquatic animal products. These He predicted that it will only be a animal pathogens/diseases (TAAPs/ diseases are known and affect the most matter of time when the disease will TAADs), similar to the TADs in the commonly traded species such as spread to the Asian region. livestock sector. Minimizing the risks of salmonids, catfish, oyster and shrimps. In June 2002, while arranging for a introduction and spread of TAAPs/ The Asia-Pacific Quarterly Aquatic mission to assist in the development of TAADs through responsible movement Animal Disease Reporting System Indonesia’s National Strategy on of live aquatic animals has been the (QAAD), established in late 1998 by Aquatic Animal Health12, Dr. Rukyani of main subject of technical support and FAO/NACA/OIE-Tokyo, covers the Indonesia’s Ministry of Marine Affairs regional/international cooperation OIE listed diseases and an additional and Fisheries (MMAF) consulted when the regional aquatic animal health six diseases deemed important to the regarding an on-going disease management program of FAO/NACA2-4 Asia-Pacific region9,10. In addition to outbreak affecting common and koi started since 1999. The program the OIE-listed and the NACA/FAO carps. Based on the clinical signs received enhanced support from a listed diseases, there are many more described, patterns of mortality and number of regional/international diseases of regional and national specificity to koi and common carp, I organizations such as the Australian interests which have impacted Asian strongly suspected Koi Herpes Virus Centre for International Agricultural aquaculture11 and some are newly (KHV). During the National Strategy Research (ACIAR), the Asia-Pacific emerging in the region. Development workshop, a small Economic Cooperation (APEC)5,6, the In early January 2002, during session regarding the current disease Association of Southeast Asian NACA’s 12th Governing Council outbreak was held where Dr. Rukyani Nations (ASEAN), the Officer Meeting (GCM-12, Langkawi, and I made presentations, my International des Epizooties (OIE) and Malaysia), a Hungarian colleague, presentation was based on materials the Southeast Asian Fisheries Andreas Peteri, asked whether I was kindly provided by Dr. Ariav with Development Center (SEAFDEC)7. aware of some Koi Herpes Virus (KHV) additional information from the The OIE8 lists some 30 pathogens/ report in Asia. I wasn’t fully cognizant scientific literature. There was no diseases of finfish, molluscs and of this disease at that time! During the doubt from both presentations that we crustaceans as either ‘Notifiable’ or World Aquaculture Society (WAS) were talking about a very similar ‘Significant’ fitting the criteria of being meeting in Bejing in April, I chanced disease. Most of the participants of socio-economic and/or public health upon Dr. Ra’anan Ariav, one of my fish during the workshop were convinced importance and significant in the disease teachers who spoke about Koi

24 aquaculture Asia Aquatic animal health that that the on-going mass mortality in consistently showed abnormal Institute of Aquaculture of the Indonesia was similar to KHV. conditions and extensive abdominal University of Stirling (IA, Stirling The pattern of mortality, rapid adhesions. The disease, reportedly first University, Scotland). The Food and spread, specificity to koi and common observed in April 2002 affecting East Agriculture Organization of the United carps and clinical signs were Java, had subsequently spread to West Nations (FAO) and OIE (Tokyo) characteristics of the outbreaks of KHV and Central Java where many koi and provided valuable advice to the reported in 1999 in mid-Atlantic and in common carp farms were affected. organization and development of the 1998 and 1999 in Israel13,14. Clinical Losses were estimated at US$ 5.5 M (50 terms of reference of the Task Force signs from the current Indonesian B Rupiah, 1 US$ = 9,000 Indonesian and also pledged support to follow-up outbreaks were characterized by severe Rupiah conversion rate at the time of actions. branchial hemorrhage and necrosis, the outbreak). The Local Task Force was headed and hemorrhages on the body surface. Immediate positive responses were by Dr. Rukyani with staff members from The affected populations, limited to koi received from the ACIAR, the Aquatic the Fish Health Research Laboratory, and common carps, were also suffering Animal Health Research Institute Central Research Institute for from non-specific secondary infections (AAHRI, Thailand), Intervet Norbio Aquaculture (Jakarta, Indonesia) and of bacterial, parasitic and fungal origin. (Singapore), University of California, the Directorate of Fish Health and Internally, the kidney and liver (UC Davis, California, USA), and the Environment, Directorate General of Aquaculture (Jakarta, Indonesia), both of the MMAF, and researchers/ scientists from the Fish Disease Laboratory and Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University (Bogor, Indonesia). Field visits were undertaken from 8- 12 July and laboratory examination of collected samples followed shortly. The focus of the Task Force investigation was to assess the disease situation, determine the possible involvement of KHV13,14, and provide advice and recommendations to the Government of Indonesia on how to control the epizootic. The scope of the investigation included field observations (i.e. field visits, local/ district officials and farmer interviews) and collection of samples for laboratory examinations (e.g. histopathology, virology, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and electron microscopy (EM)). The Task Force findings revealed that an infectious agent/s is involved in the outbreak (from previous and recent epidemiological observations of sudden onset, rapid spread, specificity to koi and common carp, analogy with KHV outbreaks), that the disease was introduced to Indonesia through fish importation and spread into other areas through fish movements. This national epizootic, which occurred in ponds, raceways, and floating cages in open waters has spread both north and southward directions creating significant concern for a real international epizootic which may affect several neighboring countries. The clinical signs, consistent in all Koi and common carps showing clinical signs of the disease, i.e. branchial cases, include branchial hemorrhage, haemorrhage and necrosis, focal dermal hemorrhages on body surface. necrosis and focal dermal ulceration.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 25 Aquatic animal health

This suspected KHV introduction to Indonesia presents a huge trade implication for the high value ornamental koi carp and the regionally important food fish common carp. KHV is a serious disease condition causing significant losses and has been reported from countries such as Israel13,14, the United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark18,19 and the United States13. It is now clear that unregulated trade in ornamental fish is responsible for the escalating global spread of the disease15. Most recently, carp populations in two major lakes in Japan (Lake Kasumigaura and Lake Kitaura) were affected by this devastating disease with losses estimated at 150 M yen (approximately US$ 1.4 M) (Pro-Med News, November 4, 2003). Japan’s Common carps exhibiting typical signs of branchial necrosis. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is considering suspension of carp exports (http:// www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/pfk/ pages/item.php?news=119). Outbreaks, which have reached epizootic proportions during the past two months, have been reported by 22 prefectures since May 2003 (http:// www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/pfk/ pages/item.php?news=139). Barry Hill (of the Centre for Environmental, Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences (CEFAS) and OIE’s Aquatic Animal Health Standards Commission), was correct when he said during his plenary talk at the Fifth Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture in Queensland, Australia in November 2002, that one of the Koi carp showing typical signs of necrotic gills. possible reasons for the emergence of a new disease in a country is ‘slow The level of morbidity and mortality typical EM virions). Because this is a reported by farmers ranged from 50 to first time diagnoses of a disease 100%; water temperatures during the problem of significant magnitude, it is outbreak period ranged from 19-23°C. essential that all available diagnostic Water temperature has been suggested techniques be used in order to confirm to be a principal environmental factor the involvement of KHV. A careful influencing the onset and severity of diagnosis is required and this is KHV infection15. currently the subject of future follow- While the Task Force recognized the up work under an FAO project as a important role that KHV played in the matter of priority. The Task Force outbreak (based on the detection of findings recommended that this serious viral DNA through PCR16,17 from all outbreak of koi and common carp be KHV gill pathology. Hyperplasia and fusion case samples), there was no called ‘Mass mortality of koi and of secondary gill lamellae; intranuclear confirmation whether the agent common carp’ until a clear association inclusion (arrow) in the branchial responsible was KHV (due to absence with KHV or any other specific disease epithelium (gill section stained with of typical KHV pathology, failed viral can be established. hematoxylin and eosin). Photo courtesy of isolation and non-observance of Prof. R. Hedrick, UC Davis.

26 aquaculture Asia Aquatic animal health

recommended the inclusion of ‘Koi The Workshop envisages to improve mass mortality’ under the category the national and regional ‘Unknown diseases of serious nature’ understanding and knowledge on the of the Quarterly Aquatic Animal importance of preparedness and Disease report (QAAD) of NACA/FAO response to diseases emergencies, and OIE20. Several countries (e.g. Hong discuss approaches for reducing such Kong SAR, Japan and Thailand) now risks to cultured and wild aquatic have an on-going surveillance for KHV fauna, and to establish an action plan using Levels II, I and III diagnostics4, to provide guidance and assistance to respectively20. The disease is not the countries in the region to move currently listed under OIE’s ‘Notifiable forward on this important issue. Diseases’, however, an emergency The experience on emergency notification was provided to OIE by the response in dealing with this recent Indonesian Government in June 2002 as epizootic provided some valuable suggested by NACA. This mass insights21: (a) the importance of mortality of koi and common carp is regional and international cooperation; currently being reported by at least 21 (b) the need to increase awareness on countries in Asia-Pacific under the emerging diseases in other parts of the Asia-Pacific QAAD. globe and the risks of it’s spreading to Japan’s largest koi-grading show the Asian region; (c) the need to scheduled to be held in January 2004 improve diagnostic capabilities at both has been cancelled by the All Japan national and regional levels; (d) pro- Nishikigoi Promotion Association active reporting of serious disease (http://www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/ outbreaks as a mechanism for early pfk/pages/item.php?news=139). warning; (e) the need to have Later during 2004, FAO is proposing contingency plans both at national and to hold a regional workshop on regional levels; (f) the need to improve Farmers administer antibiotic treatment “Emergency Preparedness and compliance and implementation of (tetracycline) with poor success. Response to Aquatic Animal Diseases policies reached at regional and in Asia” (R.P Subasinghe, FAO, pers. international levels; (g) emergency awareness on emerging diseases by the comm.). The Workshop will review the preparedness as a core function of exporting country’, citing KHV as an regional experiences in responding to government services; and (h) financial example. This is an important lesson. disease emergencies, including the planning towards immediate provision The Government of Indonesia was work accomplished through an FAO of funds for emergency disease advised to temporarily restrict the TCP project in Indonesia aimed at situations be seriously considered both movement of koi and common carps providing technical assistance to at national and regional levels. It is and a Ministerial Circular took effect in improve national capacity to respond essential that appropriate health July 2002. Intensive information to the ongoing carp disease epizootic. management and biosecurity measures dissemination was also undertaken to raise awareness and inform the public sector about relevant information, including risks to human health, available at that time. Since the completion of the Task Force work and perhaps due to the impacts of the Japanese outbreak as well as increasing KHV reports from many countries, concerted actions from various stakeholders are now taking place. In October 2002, FAO responded immediately and positively by providing an emergency assistance through a Technical Cooperation Project (TCP) “Health management in freshwater aquaculture’ to further assist Indonesia in finding resolution Members of the Emergency Disease Control Task Force (Drs. Somkiat to this emergency situation. Kanchanakhan, MB Reantaso and Angus Cameron, second, fourth and fifth from left) The First Meeting of NACA’s during a courtesy call to Indonesian officials, Director Dr. Fatuchri Sukadi, Director Regional Advisory Group on Aquatic General of Aquaculture, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (third from left) and Animal Health held in November 2002 Dr. Ahmed Rukyani (sixth from left).

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 27 Aquatic animal health are continuously put in place and FAO/NACA/SEMARNAP Workshop, Puerto Continued from page 23 Vallarta, Jallisco, Mexico, 24-28 July 2000. Network effectively implemented. Otherwise, the of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, 5. Varghese, M.A. 1976. Windowpane oyster Thailand. (http://www.enaca.org/Shrimp/ risks of major disease incursions and (Placenta placenta L.) of the Gulf of Kutch, Seafood Publications/Other1.pdf, 1.07 MB) Exp. Jour., 8(5): 25-28. newly emerging diseases will continue 7. Inui, Y and E.R. Cruz-Lacierda (eds.). (2002). Disease 6. Pota, K.A. and Patel, M.I. 1988. Fishery and biology Control in Fish and Shrimp Aquaculture in Southeast to threaten the sector. Sometimes I of the windowpane oyster Placenta placenta L. on Asia – Diagnosis and Husbandry Techniques Poshitra, Gulf of Kutch. Natl. Semi. Shellfish Resour. wonder whether doing something or 8. OIE. (2003). International Aquatic Animal Health &Farming, CMFRI, Bulletin, 42(1): 163-!66. doing nothing at all can make a Code. 6th edn. Office International des Épizooties, 7. Achuthankutty, C.T., Sreekumaran Nair, S.R and Paris. (http://www.oie.int/eng/normes/fcode/ difference. Glenn Hurry, of AFFA Madhupratab, M. 1979. Pearls of the windowpane a_summry.htm) oyster Placuna placenta. Mahasagar-Bulletin of (Australia) when I reported to him 9. NACA/FAO. (1999). Quarterly aquatic animal the National Institute of Oceanography, 12 (3):187- disease report (Asia-Pacific Region), 98/3. October- about these seemingly incessant 189. December 1998. FAO Project TCP/RAS/6714, 8. Dharmaraj, S., Chellam, A., Shanmugasundaram, K. disease incursions, commented ‘not Bangkok, Thailand. 42 pp. and Suja, C.P. (MS). On a small scale fishery of 10. OIE. (2000). Quarterly aquatic animal disease report bad, especially when governments are windowpane oyster Placuna placenta (Linnaeus) (Asia-Pacific Region), April – June 2000 (2000/2). in the Tuticorin Bay, Gulf of Mannar. J. Mar. Biol. told what to and what not to do!’. Tokyo, OIE Regional Representation for Asia and Asso. India. There are many lessons from the past the Pacific, 41 p. 9. Dharmaraj, S and Sreenivasagam M.K. 2002. and hopefully our memories will not be Exploitation of windowpane oyster Placuna 11. Subasinghe, R.P., Bondad-Reantaso, M.B. and S.E. placenta Linnaeus at Vellapatti area near Tuticorin. too short to forget the events caused McGladdery. (2001). Aquaculture development, Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser., No. 174, pp. 9. health and wealth, pp. 167-191. In: R.P. Subasinghe, by various trans-boundary aquatic 10. Young, A.L. 1980. Larval and post larval P. Bueno, M.J. Phillips, C. Hough, S.E. McGladdery development of the windowpane shell, Placuna animal disease epizootics (e.g. and J.R. Arthur (Eds.) Aquaculture in the Third placenta Linnaeus (Bivalvia: Placunidae) with a Millenium. Technical Proceedings of the Conference epizootic ulcerative syndrome of fresh discussion on its natural settlement. Veliger on Aquaculture in the Third Millenium, Bangkok, 23(2):141-148. and brackishwater fishes, viral nervous Thailand, 20-25 February 2000. 471 p. 11. Madrones-Ladja, J.A. 1997. Notes on the induced necrosis of marine fish, viral diseases 12. Bondad-Reantaso, M.G. 2004. Development of spawning, embryonic and larval development of the national strategy on aquatic animal health of shrimps, haplosporidiosis in oysters, windowpane shell, Placuna placenta management in Asia. In J.R. Arthur and M.G. Bondad- (Linnaeus,1758), in the laboratory. akoya pearl oyster mortalities, etc.). Reantaso. (eds.). 2004. Capacity and Awareness Aquaculture,157:137-146. Building on Import Risk Analysis for Aquatic These lessons can assist us towards 12. Madrones-Ladja, J.A. 2002. Salinity effect on the Animals. Proceedings of the Workshops held 1-6 embryonic development, larval growth and survival preparing better and improving April 2002 in Bangkok, Thailand and 12-17 August at metamorphosis of Placuna placenta 2002 in Mazatlan, Mexico. APEC FWG 01/2002, responses to similar events when they Linnaeus,1758, Aquaculture, 214: 411-418. NACA, Bangkok In press). 13. Madrones-Ladja, J.A., de la Pena, M.R. and Parami occur in the future. 13. Hedrick, R.P., Gilad, O., Yun, S., Spandenberg, J.V., M.R. 2002. The effect microalgal diet and rearing Marty, G.D., Nordhausen, R.W., Kebus, M.J., condition on gonad maturity , fecundity and Bercovier, H., Eldar, A. (2002). A Herpesvirus References embryonic development of the windowpane shell, Associated with Mass Mortality of Juvenile and Placuna placenta Linnaeus, Aquaculture 206 (3- Adult Koi, a Strain of Common Carp. J. Aquat. Anim. 4): 313-321. 1. Baldock, C. (2002). Health management issues in the Health 12, 44-57. 14. Madrones-Ladja, J.A. and de la Pena, M.R. 2000. rural livestock sector: useful lessons for 14. Ariav, R., Tinman, S., Paperna, I. and Bejerano, I. Hatchery management for the windowpane shell, consideration when formulating programmes on (1999). First Report of Newly Emerging Viral Placuna placenta Linnaeus, 1758. Phuket. Mar. health management in rural, small-scale aquaculture Disease of Cyprinus carpio Species in Israel. 9th Biol. Cent., Spec. Publ. 21(1): 189-194. for livelihood. pp. 7-19. In: J.R. Arthur, M.J. Phillips, International Conference on Diseases of Fish and 15. Walne, P.R. 1970. Studies on the food value of R.P. Subasinghe, M.B. Reantaso and I.H. MacRae. Shellfish. European Association of Fish nineteen genera of algae to juvenile bivalves of the (eds.). Primary Aquatic Animal Health Care in Rural, Pathologists, 19-24, September 1999, Rhodes, genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Mercenaria and Small-Scale, Aquaculture Development. FAO Fish. Greece. Mytilus. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Tech. Pap. No. 406. Rome, FAO. 2002. 382 p. 15. Gilad, O., Y. Sun, M.A. Adkison, K. Way, N.H. Food: Fishery Investigations, Series II, 26(5) Her 2. FAO/NACA. (2000). Asia Regional Technical Willits, H. Bercovier and R.P. Hedrick. (2003). Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 61pp. Guidelines on Health Management for the Molecular comparison of isolates of an emerging fish 16. Loosanoff, V.L., and Davis,H.C.1963. Rearing of Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals and pathogen, koi herpesvirus, and the effect of water bivalve molluscs. In: Advances in Marine Biology, the Beijing Consensus and Implementation Strategy. temperature on mortality of experimentally infected Vol.1. Academic Press, London.1-136. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. No. 402. Rome, FAO. 2000. 53 koi. J. Gen. Virol. 84:2661-2668. 17. Muthiah, P., Narasimham, K.A., Gopinathanan, C.P., p. 16. Gilad, O., S. Yun, K. B. Andree, M.A. Adkison, A. Sundararajan, D. 1992. Larval rearing, spat 3. FAO/NACA. (2001). Manual of Procedures for the Zlotkin, H. Bercovier, A. Eldar and R.P. (2002). Initial production and juvenile growth of the blood clam Implementation of the Asia Regional Technical characteristics of koi herpes virus and the Anadona granosa. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 34 C uidelines on Health Management for the development of a polymerase chain reaction assay to (1& 2): 138-143. Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals. detect the virus in koi, Cyprinus carpio koi. Dis. 18. Narasimham, K.A., Muthiah, P., Gopinathan, C.P. and FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. No. 402. Suppl. 1. Rome. FAO. Aquat. Org. 48: 101-108. Gandhi, A.D. 1988. Larval rearing and spat 2001. 106 p. 17. Gray, M., S. LaPatra, Groff and A. Goodwin. (2002). production of the great clam, Meretrix meretrix 4. Bondad-Reantaso, M.G., McGladdery, S.E., East, I. Detection of Koi Herpes virus DNA in tissues of (Linnaeus). Indian J. Fish., 35(2):107-112. and Subasinghe, R.P. (eds). (2001). Asia Diagnostic infected fish. J. Fish Dis. 25: 171-178. 19. Alagarswami, K. (Ed.). 1987. Pearl culture. Bull. No. Guide to Aquatic Animal Diseases. FAO Fish. Tech. 18. OATA. (2001). Koi Herpes Virus (KHV). Ornamental 39. pp. 1-136. CMFRI, Cochin. Pap. No. 402, Supplement 2. Rome. FAO, 236 p. Aquatic Trade Association (OATA). United 20. Gwyther, J and Munro, J.L. 1981. Spawning 5. APEC/AAHRI/FHS-AFS/NACA. (2001). Report Kingdom. 33 pp. induction and rearing of larvae of tridacnid clams and proceeding of APEC FWG 02/2000 19. Ariel, E. (2002). Ornamental disease vectors. In: Book (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae), Aquaculture, 24: 197-217. “Development of a Regional Research Programme of Abstracts, Fifth Symposium on Diseases in Asian 21. Rosell, N.C. 1979. A study on the biology and on Grouper Virus Transmission and Vaccine Aquaculture, P 102, 25-28 November 2002, ecology of Placuna placenta L. Natl. Appl. Sci. Bull. Development”. In: Bondad-Reantaso, MG, J. Brisbane, Australia. Fish Health Section, Asian 31 (3-4): 203-251. Humphrey, S. Kanchanakhan and S. Chinabut (eds). Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 22. Enright, C.T., Newkirk, G.F., Craigie, J.S and Castell, Report of a Workshop held in Bangkok, Thailand, 20. NACA/FAO. (2003). Quarterly Aquatic Animal J.D. 1986. Evaluation of phytoplankton as diets for 18-20 May October 2000. Asia Pacific Economic Disease Report (Asia and Pacific Region), 2003/1, juvenile Ostrea edulis L. J. Exp. Mar. Biol., 96:1- Cooperation (APEC), Fish Health Section of the January to March 2003. NACA, Bangkok, Thailand. 13. Asian Fisheries Society (FHS-AFS), Aquatic Animal 53 pp. 23. Whyte, J.N.C. 1987. Biochemical composition and Health Research Institute (AAHRI) and Network of 21. Bondad-Reantaso, M.G. and R.P. Subasinghe. (2004). energy content of six species of phytoplankton used Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA). Minimizing the risks of aquatic animal disease in mariculture of bivalves. Aquaculture, 60:231- Bangkok, Thailand. 146 p. (http://www.enaca.org/ incursions: current strategies in Asia-Pacific. 241. Grouper/Publications/ Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Diseases in ResearchProgramOnGrouperVirus.pdf; 1.49 MB) Asian Aquaculture (DAA V) held in Queensland, 6. APEC/FAO/NACA/SEMARNAP. (2001). Trans- Australia in November 2002. (in preparation). boundary aquatic animal transfer and the development of harmonised standards on aquatic animal health management. Report of the Joint APEC/

28 aquaculture Asia Business

HACCP in shrimp farming Siri Tookwinas and Suwimon Keerativiriyaporn

Department of Fisheries, Thailand

The authors conducted a training workshop on the application of HACCP in shrimp farming in Chennai, India on the request of MPEDA and NACA. This article is based on their resource paper. The Thai shrimp aquaculture industry has had an excellent record in the production of safe products of consistent quality. However, as aquaculture production expands, the industry and regulatory agencies become more concerned with hazards that impact on people’s health and safety. Specific problems which may be encountered in shrimp aquaculture Processing cocktail shrimp. Taken inside the Union Frozen Food Products Public products include: Company in Samut Sakhorn Thailand. The company sources out raw materials from • Contamination by microbial shrimp farms observing good aquaculture practices or CoC in shrimp aquaculture pathogens e.g. Salmonella, Vibrio assisted by the Department of Fisheries cholerae. • Presence of veterinary drugs (and aquaculture. Shrimp has become a aquaculturists and processors to other substances) that may have major port commodity and its exercise more control over food safety. hazardous effects on consumers, production, processing and marketing a HACCP is essentially a technique handlers, and the environment. major source of income of people in the based upon anticipation and • Residues of aquaculture chemicals industry. prevention of food safety hazards and or other environmental Environmental impacts of shrimp it may be applied throughout the food contaminants. have been an increasing concern of chain from producer through to final A surveillance program for cultured government and the public. The consumer, leading to enhanced food shrimp can include HACCP at all impacts include mangrove removal, safety and better use of resources. operations, including the production salinity intrusion on ground waters, The Department of Fisheries and handling of raw materials, impacts on coastal environment and together with the aquaculture industry processing operations, the processing resources, and effects of residues of and processing industry has jointly environment, handling and storage chemical and drugs on health and the developed preventive approaches to practices, and distribution activities. environment. In order to maintain trust assure control over raw materials, the This approach reduces reliance on on safety, quality and environmental manufacturing process, the production analytical tests and the need for concerns, preventive measures are environment, and personnel. It is based comprehensive inspection of finished taken to reduce the above hazard to on the identification of potential aquaculture products by dealing with a environment and maintain the survival hazards, application of control hazard before it impacts on processors of aquaculture species. These measures at critical control points and consumers. Hazards in shrimp measures include ICZM, farm design (CCP), and monitoring and verifying of aquaculture include microbiological and management techniques, seawater CCPs thereby enabling the assurance and chemical hazards associated with irrigation systems, establishment of of food safety during culture and the inappropriate use of drugs and farmer associations, treatment of processing. chemicals in aquaculture. shrimp pond effluent, supportive government policies and regulation. Application in shrimp farming Background The Thai shrimp aquaculture industry has had an excellent record for Black tiger shrimp (Peneaus monodon) Production from shrimp aquaculture in the production of safe products of is cultured for four to five months in Thailand has increased from 1.2 million consistent quality. Techniques such as earthern ponds and fed with formulated kg in 1986 to 3.3 million kg in 2003 surveillance and inspection of final pellet feed. Water can be either (Fisheries Information Center, 2004). products do little to assure the food changed continually throughout The industry involves 80% small-scale safety. The hazard analysis critical culture period or not at all i.e zero water farmers and 20% intensive scale control point system (HACCP) enables discharge system. Permitted antibiotics

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 29 Business

or chemicals may be used to treat Figure 1: Generic aquaculture process flow chart and critical control points. shrimp at larval stages or when shrimp are found infected. Shrimp is harvested SITE SELECTION manually. Harvested shrimp is put in ice within 15 minutes after catch, it is then sorted and packed in ice and POND PREPARATION shipped to the processing factory. The process is depicted by Figure 1. WATER SUPPLY

Haszard analysis WATER MANAGEMENT CULTURE ENVIRONMENT Specific hazards that may be FARM encountered in shrimp aquaculture are MANAGEMENT shown in Table 1: FRIES FEED AND OTHER PRODUCTION Applying HACCP INPUTS

ANTIBIOTIC The potential hazards in aquaculture OR HARVESTING should be identified, and all activities CHEMICAL associated with production, harvesting, processing, storage, distribution, and RECEIVAL marketing evaluated. This includes a review of: • The use of antibiotics, and other PROCESSING veterinary chemicals. • Potential sources and specific points of bacterial contamination during PRESERVATION production and processing. • The potential for microorganisms to survive or multiply in aquaculture TRANSPORT products. • The risks and the severity of all Note : Fry, feed, and other materials input such as lime, bacteria, premix, hazards identified. chemicals and permitted antibiotics are assessed as control points It is necessary to establish whether: • Pathogenic microorganism/toxins potentially hazardous effects on production, harvesting, processing, may be present in raw materials. consumers, handlers, and the and distribution. • Pathogens may contaminate environment. Claims on the potential hazards from aquaculture products after harvest. It is largely accepted that the Salmonella and Vibrio species in the In Thailand it is recognized that microbiological quality of the context of shrimp are conflicting. specific hazards that may be production environment impacts on the Salmonella and Vibrio cholerae are encountered in shrimp aquaculture microbiological quality of the fish and known to be part of the natural products include: Contamination by ultimately the processed product. They microflora of brackish water cultured bacterial and viral parthogens e.g. represent a threat to human health shrimp, and pose a major concern for Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae, and when they are consumed raw, hence processors and exporters (Reilly and presence of antibiotics (and other there is needed for control over Kaferstein, 1997). In contrast, substances) which may have Salmonella has not been recovered

Table 1: Hazards associated with cultured shrimp

Category Examples of hazards Biological hazards Pathogenic bacteria Salmonella, Shigella, E.coli, Vibrio cholerae, V.parahaemolyticus, V.vulnificus, Listeria monocytogenes, etc

Chemical hazards Veterinary residues Hormones, growth regulators, antibiotics such as chloramphenical, nitrofuran and its metabolites and permitted antibiotics which residue is not over MRL.

Pesticide residues Herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, etc

Physical hazards Glass, wood, metal, etc

30 aquaculture Asia Business

concerns over residues in shrimp. These Farm registration prompted studies and a surveillance program to prevent these hazards All shrimp farms must be registered and initiated by the Department of Fisheries. obtain permits to operate. General requirements include: Establishment of Preventive measures water treatment ponds; lay out approval by DOF; quality of water Preventive measures, using HACCP outlet does not exceed a biological concept, can be developed specifically oxygen demand of 20 mg/l; drainage of This is the company’s newly acquired 18 to prevent drug residue and chemical mud and brackish water to public water million baht equipment for LC-MS-MS contamination in aquaculture products ways is not allowed; application of nitrofuran and metabolites analysis. The and to prevent microbiological good farming practices; and farm company’s staff have been training with contamination at the farm and hygiene and handling practices should the fisheries department processing plants. Those measures are be at a satisfactory level (based on outlined as follows: Codex Guidelines on hygienic practices Clearly, cultured crustaceans may for the product of aquaculture). present a threat to public health if they Controls at farm level are not grown and harvested under Farm inspection hygienic conditions. Once harvested, aquaculture species are at risk from Measures taken: Farm inspection ensures that the farm contamination in the processing plant observes required sanitation and with a wide range of pathogenic bacteria 1. Register farms operational standards. A farm derived from the processing 2. Control the uses of feed/antibiotics sanitation checklist was developed environment, water used in processing, 3. Monitor residue in products from based on Codex Guidelines and used in equipment, and food handlers. There is farm inspection. The criteria for inspection need for more research to identify and 4. Mobile unit control of diseases, use are: assess potential hazards and to of antibiotic and feed Large scale farms of more than 8 ha quantify the risks. 5. Monitoring the quality of water must institute a farm management Antibiotic residues became of (both inlet and outlet of farms) program which is approved by DOF. concern in 1992, when Japan’s health 6. Inspect farm hygiene and post- Farms are inspected by DOF two to authority rejected some shipments of harvest handling practices. four times a year to verify farm records. shrimp products from Thailand and 7. Train farmers on good aquaculture Small farms (less than 8 ha.) are other Southeast Asian countries that practices (GAP), safe use of visited by a mobile unit inspection were contaminated with oxytetracycline chemotherapeutic agents and good service. DOF operates 22 mobile units and oxoloinic acid. In 2002, Nitrofuran handling practices in major aquaculture areas, the units and chloramphenicol came under the inspect approximately 8 farms a week spotlight of the European market. The and rotate their visits until all areas are US Food and Drug Authority expressed covered, which often means not less than 5 inspections per farm over a year. Table 2

Potential Critical Control Points Preventive Controls Responsible Division

Farm management farm registration Coastal Aquaculture and Fisheries Research and Development Bureau

Feed production feed control Feed Research and Control Institue

Farming practices control uses of antibiotics Coastal Aquaculture Health Research Institute

Farming practices mobile unit control Coastal Aquaculture and Fisheries (monitor quality of water, Research and Development Bureau antibiotic residue, shrimp) monitoring residue in raw material

Processing plants inspection of processing Fish Inspection and Quality establishment pre shipment Control Division inspection of finished products

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 31 Table 3 Feed quality control

Country Name Maximum level In order to prevent the use – (ppb) inadvertent or intentional - of feed EU Nitrofuran (Metabolites) (ppb) containing antibiotics, the following shrimp, prawn, fish SEM = 1.00 control measures are enforced: AHD = 1.00 Registration of feed formulas; sampling AOZ = 0.30 feed/analysis for antibiotic residue AMOZ = 0.30 (from plants and farms); and inspection References except Germany SEM of feed mills. 0.50 ppb

Farm monitoring Chloramphenicol (ppb) shrimp, prawn, fish 0.30 Twenty-two mobile units operated by References except Germany 0.20 ppb them Coastal Aquaculture and

Fisheries Research and Development Oxolinic acid (ppm) Centers conduct surveillance and fin Fish (only forzen fish) 0.30 provide technical advice on: Farm

sanitation monitoring; disease control; 3-MCPD (ppm) water quality monitoring at inlet and Fish sance, Oyster sance 0.02 outlet; soil quality inspection and

Japan Oxytetracycline (ppm) determination; quality of surrounding shrimp, prawn, fish 0.20 water; antibiotic residue in shrimp from pond; and use of feed and antibiotics. Oxolinic acid (ppm) A farm sanitation rating report has shrimp, prawn, fish Not detected been developed following the Codex Code of Hygienic Practices for the Switzerland Nitrofuran (Metabolites) (ppb) product of aquaculture. shrimp, prawn, fish SEM = 1.00 AHD = 1.00 Raw materials control AOZ = 0.30 AMOZ = 0.30 The effectiveness of the surveillance program at farm level is verified by Chloramphenicol (ppb) determining the level of drug residue in shrimp, prawn, fish 0.30 shrimp raw materials from farms. The 17 units equipped with HPLC were set up China Nitrofuran (Metabolites) (ppb) in major aquaculture areas to inspect Culture shrimp, surimi SEM = 1.00 the quality of shrimp prior to AHD = 1.00 harvesting. The activities include: AOZ = 0.30 Establish record of farm; sampling AMOZ = 0.30 shrimp from farm (> 3 months) prior to harvesting to determine level of drug Chloramphenicol (ppb) and chemical residue using Culture shrimp, surimi 0.30 microbioassay. A certificate of antibiotic-free raw materials will be USA Chloramphenicol (ppb) given for shrimp that are drug free. One Culture shrimp 0.30 unit equipped with LC-MS-MS was set up to inspect nitrofuran in shrimp Oxytetracycline (ppm) before harvesting. Salmon, Catfish and Lobster 2.00 Processing plant monitoring Canada Nitrofuran (Metabolites) (ppb) shrimp, prawn, fish SEM = 1.00 To prevent microbiological hazards AHD = 1.00 such as Salmonella, monitoring of AOZ = 0.30 processing plants are conducted. In AMOZ = 0.30 addition to microbiological hazards, chemical hazards such as antibiotics Chloramphenicol (ppb) and chemical residues, which are of shrimp, prawn, fish 0.30 concern to a verification program are prevented through monitoring of Oxytetracycline (ppm) sanitation, hygiene and processing (p48)

32 aquaculture Asia Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network Magazine

First Breeding Success of Napoleon Wrasse and Coral Trout

Sih Yang Sim (editor)

Contents The Research Institute for Mariculture juveniles have survived at around 2-3 – Gondol, Bali, Indonesia - has inches. The growth rate for this species successfully bred Napoleon wrasse, a is very slow; at 5 months old the fish • Regional Developments & premium species in the live reef fish only reach a maximum of 3 inches. Update market, commanding prices as high as However, slow growth is a common US$100 per kg. Captive breeding of issue when a new species is bred for • A Guide to Small-Scale Napoleon wrasse has long been one of the first time, and will likely improve as Marine Finfish Hatchery the “holy grails” of marine fish culture the nutritional needs of this species are Technology and NACA and the APMFAN better understood. congratulates the Gondol researchers Researchers at Gondol have also • Thailand Success in in achieving this breakthrough. Many had some success in breeding coral Culture of Coral Trout others have tried, but this is the first trout (Plectropomus leopardus). The reported success. spawning took place in January 2004 • Indonesia Gearing up for The spawning took place around and by April 2004 around 100 Commercial-Scale Grouper December 2003, via combined hormone Farming treatment and environmental control. More photographs overleaf... Larviculture is • Indonesia is Set for Yellow- still at a very early fin Tuna Breeding stage and survival rate of • Gemma Micro – Leaving the larvae is Artemia Behind currently low. The larvae have a • Report of the Komodo Fish small mouth so culture Project first feeding is still the main • Capture and Culture of Pre- issue to be settlement Fish for the tackled. SS-rotifer Marine Aquarium Trade in seems to be a Solomon Islands suitable first feed for Napoleon • Seed Production of Sand wrasse. Bass So far (April 17, 2004) around • ACIAR marine finfish 100 small Handling male Cheilinus undulatus broodstock. project - 2nd phase Network Sponsors: • Workshop on Seafarming and Seafood Markets

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 33 fingerlings of 2 inches are kept in the research facility. Similar to Napoleon wrasse, coral trout also have small mouths and require very small first feed, such as SS-rotifers.

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Magazine An electronic magazine of the Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network

Contact Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network Canulating female C. undulatus broodstock PO Box 1040, Kasetsart Post Office Bangkok 10903, Thailand Tel +66-2 561 1728 (ext 120) Fax +66-2 561 1727 Email [email protected] Website http://www.enaca.org/ marinefish

Editors Sih Yang Sim Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network, c/o NACA [email protected]

Above / below: Coral trout broodstock (Plectropomus leopardus) from the Gondol Dr Michael J. Phillips Research Institute for Mariculture. Coral trout can change colour in just a few seconds. Environmental Specialist & Manager of R&D, NACA In the wild they usually adopt a smooth, even tone while swimming (which may be light or [email protected] dark, depending on their surroundings). They swiftly shift to a disruptive pattern with spots and saddles when threatened, or when settling on the bottom to ambush their prey.

Simon Wilkinson Communications Manager, NACA [email protected]

Dr Mike Rimmer Principal Fisheries Biologist (Mariculture & Stock Enhancement) DPIF, Northern Fisheries Centre PO Box 5396, Cairns QLD 4870 Australia [email protected]

34 aquaculture Asia Welcome to the magazine

Issue 1, 2004 (April-June)

Welcome to the new quarterly Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Magazine. This is a new publication of the Asia- Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network (APMFAN), coordinated by NACA, in cooperation with ACIAR, APEC, Queensland DPI&F, and SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. This magazine builds on the successful electronic newsletters of the marine fish network. The regular marine fish “eNews” will continue, complemented with this new “e-magazine”. The magazine provides the opportunity for researchers, development projects, and industry, to share experiences and report progress in research and development of marine fish aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region. The editors welcome articles on breakthroughs in marine fish culture research, case studies of successful development initiatives, examples of better farming and marketing practices, and other interesting new developments. In each edition the magazine emphasizes different themes in marine finfish aquaculture. This edition provides an update on recent progress in marine fish hatchery and nursery development. Future editions are planned on marketing, trade and economics, nutrition and feeding, and environment and health themes. The next issue of the magazine will be focused on markets and trade in marine fish, and the economics of marine finfish farming in Asia. If you would like to contribute to the magazine, please send your article – short or long – to the editors at the address in the side panel. Contributions are very much appreciated.

The Editors

Above: And here they are...the world’s first hatchery-reared Above and below: Live reef fish holding facilities for the export Cheilinus undulatus fingerlings. Below: Hatchery-reared juvenile trade coral trout.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 35 Regional Developments & Update

Sih Yang Sim

NACA, PO Box 1040, Kasetsart Post Office, Bangkok 10903, Thailand, Tel: (66-2) 5611728 (ext 120), Fax: (66-2) 5611727, E-mail: [email protected]

With recent progress in grouper on marine finfish aquaculture been reported to be produced in hatchery and nursing technologies and development in Indonesia by the Lampung, Indonesia (Ref: Marine techniques, hatchery reared groupers government. However, increasing Finfish Aquaculture Newsletter No. 6, are increasingly contributing to the concern also been raised for the quality July-September, 2003) while aquarium trade or grow-out industries. of seed produced from some of the Plectropomus leopardus was been Training in grouper hatchery and hatcheries in Indonesia. There are some produced in Trad, Thailand (Ref: article nursing technologies has been one of 50 and 3 grouper hatcheries in Bali and below). Both places are government the activities of the Asia-Pacific Marine Lampung respectively. Although some research facilities and the number of Finfish Aquaculture Network through other species of groupers such as E. fingerlings produced is still relatively the coordination of the Network of coioides and E. polyphekadion are low, about 100 and 49, respectively. Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific also reported to be produced, the Many research institutes in the region (NACA) in cooperation with Northern commercial interests are not strong. E. also targeting Plectropomus spp. as Fisheries Center, Queensland, Australia coioides fetches a lower price and wild part of their grouper breeding (QDPI) and Research Institute for fingerlings are abundant, so hatchery programs. Mariculture-Gondol (RIM-Gondol). operators are not expressing strong Increasing research interest is Two regional grouper hatchery training interest. While for E. polyphekadion, focusing on the CITES listed species of courses were conducted in 2002 and although it commands a relatively Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus 2003. The support for this training higher wholesale price in Hong Kong undulatus). Several countries, such as came from the Ministry of Marine (US$25) and Southern China (US$27) Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia, the markets, the fact is that it grows very collecting broodstock and aiming at Network of Aquaculture Centres in slowly for grow-out stage, and breeding this species in captivity. Asia-Pacific (NACA), the Australia economic returns become a problem for Other high value species, such as Centre for International Agricultural small-scale farmers who do not have tuna are also moving toward hatchery Research (ACIAR), the Asia-Pacific strong cash flow. technology development. A large tuna Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Recently, preliminary success in hatchery facility in Indonesia was Japan International Cooperation Plectropomus spp. breeding is also completed in 2003 and collection of Agency (JICA). The training courses opening up a new potential for these yellowfin tuna broodstock has been have successfully trained 28 people species to be produced in hatcheries. achieved. Breeding trials are expected from 10 countries, with some trained Although at an early stage of research to begin in 2004. participants already reporting success and development, promising results in grouper fingerling production and have been archived in Indonesia and improved Thailand. Plectropomus maculatus has hatchery techniques, from Australia, India, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. Indonesia has been leading in the production of mouse and tiger grouper fingerlings, with most of these fingerlings now supplying domestic grow- out. This development is due to the increasing focus Plectropomus maculatus at the Trad Research Station, DOF, Thailand. Photo by Hassanai Kongkeo.

36 aquaculture Asia A Guide to Small-Scale Marine Finfish the newly hatched larvae only survived three days. A Hatchery Technology second batch was spawned in August 2003, and this time larvae only survived six days. Another 17 trials had been The guide provides an outline of the requirements to conducted up to October 2003. establish a small-scale marine finfish hatchery, giving The first successful batch yielded 49 surviving attention to both technical and economic aspects. It is fingerlings at 100 days with average of 6 cm body length and intended to provide sufficient information for potential 3.5 g body weight. It is accepted that 100 day fingerlings investors to decide whether investment in such ventures is have passed the critical juvenile period. This is the first appropriate for them. The guide provides some basic success in Thailand for breeding of this grouper. technical information to help indicate the level of technical expertise necessary to operate a small-scale marine finfish Indonesia Pushing for Commercial-scale hatchery. It is not intended as a detailed technical guide to Grouper Farming the operation of small-scale hatcheries but additional information sources on technology, including training Indonesia has been leading the region in production of courses are provided. grouper fingerlings, particularly for mouse and tiger grouper. This guide has been written by a team of experts in This success has in part been due to support from grouper marine finfish aquaculture who have been involved in a projects by organizations such as ACIAR & JICA to the multinational collaborative research project since 1999. This Research Institute for Mariculture – Gondol since 1999. research project Improved hatchery and grow-out Mass production of hatchery techniques for these two technology for grouper aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific grouper species are now relatively well developed and have region, funded by the Australian Centre for International been adopted by small-scale hatcheries, however larger Agricultural Research (ACIAR), has made an important scale operations are also increasingly emerging. contribution to improving the sustainability of marine finfish Indonesia is expecting to see grouper aquaculture aquaculture by improving hatchery production of high-value accelerate over the next few years. The government research species, particularly groupers. centers, located at Gondol, Lampung and Surabaya, are The second phase of the ACIAR project will commence in playing key roles in providing technical support to the July 2004 and information and progress on this project will industry as well as supplying eggs, fry and fingerlings to the be available from the project web site: http://www.enaca.org/ industry. There has been a lot of development in Lampung grouper/ Bay, South Sumatra for grouper grow-out, particularly cage culture operations. Thailand Success in Culture of Coral Trout However, development of the industry is not without (Plectropomus leopardus) problems and constraints. Diseases such as VNN and iridovirus have been causing mass mortality at hatchery and (Based on a translation of an article in the agriculture & scientific grow-out stages. In addition, parasitic diseases (benedenid column, Thairath Newspaper, 9th March 2004 by Mr. Hassanai monogeneans and Cryptocaryon sp.) are also major issues. Kongkeo) There is increasing concern about the possibility of spreading these diseases to wild grouper populations. Blue-spotted grouper is the Thai local common name of coral trout. There are many species and families of grouper with different sizes varying from 5 cm up to 200-300 kg. Groupers in Thailand are usually named after their appearance such as red-banded, duskytail, yellow, greasy, green eye, humpback, etc. Due to their high value in both domestic and export markets, scientists have been attracted to conduct research on artificial breeding and culture. There has been success with some species such as E. coioides. It is locally believed that eating leopard coral grouper will have aphrodisiac effects, creating high demand for this fish in local markets with prices of up to Baht 800-1,000/kg. This in turn has led to overfishing and fishermen have reported difficulty in catching this fish over the past 1-2 years. Mr. Thawat Sriveerachai, Chief of Trad Coastal Aquaculture Station of the Department of Fisheries reported that research carried out in Trad has provided information on the life history and behaviour of coral trout. This species is easily frightened, lives in very clean water, and the larvae feed on very tiny aquatic organisms. He collected wild fish with assistance from offshore fishermen and now there are 20 broodstock available in the Trad station. An artificial breeding programme commenced at Trad station in 2002. The first spawning occurred in July 2003 but Coral trout broodstock at Lampung station. (Photo: S.Y. Sim)

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 37 However, protocols are being developed to reduce the risk Gemma Micro – Leaving Artemia Behind of these diseases and their economic impacts. Continued research on formulated feed for grouper grow- out is been carried out in RIM-Gondol. The second phase of Trine Karlsrud the ACIAR Project “Improved Hatchery and Grow-out Technology for Grouper Aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific SKRETTING - Australia, 26 Maxwells Rd., Region” will commence in the second half of 2004 and this Cambridge, Tasmania, 7170, Australia, 3.5 year project will continue to support the development of Tel: +61 3 6216 1211, Fax: +61 3 6216 1234, the formulated feed for grouper aquaculture. E-mail: [email protected] Some research activities have been prioritized by the Indonesian government including focus on the development A novel technology is employed for making Gemma Micro of reliable methods and techniques for improving nutrition and this article outlines some of the concepts and results (live feeds; feeding of larvae, fingerlings, juveniles and behind that product. broodstock) and disease control. Genetic improvements and Production of marine fish juveniles in commercial disease resistance are also come under consideration. hatcheries still depends on the supply of live feed. Until A further proposal from the Australian Institute of Marine now, dry feed substitution for live feed (weaning) is only Science and Indonesia’s Directorate of Aquaculture on GIS/ performed after some weeks of life in marine fish hatcheries. Database computer models to identify best sites for Weaning is crucial for lowering production costs and to aquaculture and mariculture along the Bali coastline is meet the demand for high and constant quality juveniles. currently also under consideration for funding by ACIAR. As cultivated live feed is similar to natural plankton, this Submitted on 8 February 2004 by Seamus McElroy, can have some advantages for example; live feeds stimulate contact: Dr Seamus McElroy, AMSAT Ltd, Wisma BNI 46 feeding behaviour by chemical and tactile cues. Cultivated Level 43, Jl. Jendral Sudirman, Kav 1, Jakarta 10220, live feed is not optimal, as it needs to be enriched to meet Email: [email protected] the nutritional requirements of larvae. Moreover, quality of live feed is variable, and use carries microbial risks. From a Indonesia Gearing up for Yellowfin Tuna practical point of view, live feed requires separate biological Breeding production systems to that of larval rearing. This increases the complexity and uncertainty of juvenile production and The Research Institute for Mariculture–Gondol (RIM- Gondol), Bali, Indonesia began constructing a yellowfin tuna hatchery facility in 2001, which was completed in 2003. At the NACA TAC 7 meeting, July 2003, a field trip was arranged to visit RIM-Gondol facilities which had already started to collect yellowfin tuna broodstock for their breeding program. In early 2004, at a press conference Dr Adi Hanafi (Director of RIM-Gondol) stated that RIM-Gondol currently has 43 yellowfin tuna broodstock in the holding tanks, and they are expecting to conduct the first spawning trial in June 2004. This yellowfin tuna project is partly funded by Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF) of Japan in a four year project with the objective to successfully spawn, fertilize and hatch yellowfin tuna in captivity. If breeding is Above: The tuna hatchery situated on the bay. Below: One of the successful, this may bring farming of yellowfin tuna to huge tuna broodstock tanks (Photo: S.Y. Sim) commercial farmers in Indonesia. Submitted on 8 February 2004 by Seamus McElroy, contact: Dr Seamus McElroy, AMSAT Ltd, Wisma BNI 46 Level 43, Jl. Jendral Sudirman Kav 1, Jakarta 10220, Email: [email protected]

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38 aquaculture Asia This means that only 2.2 kg of Artemia was used per million larvae weaned over the larval rearing period (20-30 kg Artemia per million larvae is considered to be excellent in similar systems using the standard weaning protocol). On the basis of results obtained in this trial, Jerome Bosmans is now confident that they can completely eliminate the use of Artemia in their intensive larval rearing system.

40 days old sea bream larvae fed Gemma Micro 28,000 barramundi juveniles (Lates calcarifer) were produced without any Artemia in Indonesia from an economic point of view, live feed supply and purchase price both vary widely. At Fega Marikultura located in Jukung Island, Pulau One of Skretting’s products launched in 2003 for marine seribu, Indonesia, barramundi larvae were reared using only fish is Gemma Micro, a feed developed to replace Artemia in Gemma Micro - no Artemia. most marine fish larvae (barramundi, yellowtail, grouper, One 10 m3 tank was stocked with about 100,000 2-day old etc.). Developed by INRA/IFREMER Skretting in France barramundi larvae. The experimental tank was fed rotifers started the exclusive manufacture of Gemma Micro on a and Gemma Micro until day 9 (larvae length about 4 - 4.5 commercial scale from summer 2001. Both laboratory and mm), while the control tank was fed only rotifers. The larvae commercial tests have given very good results (growth, in the experimental tank showed normal feeding behaviour survival and improved development) for several marine fish and microscopic analyses showed that larvae had feed in species. their digestive system. The results showed that larvae fed Gemma Micro has some revolutionary thinking behind it: rotifers and Gemma Micro grew better than larvae in the it corresponds to the specific requirements of marine fish control tank. during very early development. The INRA/IFREMER On day 9 the experimental tank was split into two Nutrition team studied digestive enzymatic activity onset (experimental and control) 10 m3 tanks by siphoning. The during larval development. These studies defined optimal experimental tank was fed Gemma Micro followed by routine protein, dietary fat and phospholipid levels both from the weaning diet, while the control tank was fed Artemia quantitative and qualitative points of view. followed by routine diet until day 25. It was observed that larvae in the experimental tank became brown (a sign of 202,000 barramundi (Lates calcarifer) weaned metamorphosis) at 8 mm length compared to 11 mm length in larvae were produced using Gemma Micro with the control tank. This is clear proof of the superior minimum use of Artemia at Darwin Aquaculture nutritional value of Gemma Micro compared to Artemia. At Centre in Australia the end of the experimental period (day 25), they counted 28,000 high quality barramundi juveniles. The survival rate Jerome Bosmans and his team at Darwin Aquaculture was the same in both the experimental and control tanks. Centre, Northern Territory Fisheries, in Australia, have recently tested Gemma Micro in barramundi larvae. Larvae were stocked in two square 5-ton intensive recirculated tanks (water Figure 1 - Relationship between average length (mm) and days post hatch for exchange of 15-30 %/hour, water larvae fed Gemma Micro and the control tank temperature of 29.5-300C) at a density of 80 larvae per liter. 14 Photoperiod was 12 hours/day. Both the experimental and control tanks were 12 fed rotifers only from 36 hours post- hatching until day 5. Then the 10 experimental tank (Gemma Micro) was fed Gemma Micro and rotifers until day 8 12 when a small amount of Artemia was Gemma Micro introduced with Gemma Micro. The Control control tank (Control) was fed 6 employing the standard weaning (mm) Length protocol using rotifers, Artemia and a 4 commercial weaning diet. At day 25 larvae fed Gemma Micro were on 2 average 35 % bigger than larvae in the control tank (Figure 1). 0 In the experimental tank only one 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 can (0.44 kg) of Artemia was used to Days post hatch wean 202,000 fish using Gemma Micro.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 39 Report of the Komodo fish culture project

Trevor Meyer MSc & Peter J. Mous PhD

TNC Southeast Asia Center for Marine Protected Areas, Jl Pengembak 2, Sanur, Bali, Indonesia, Tel: +62-(0)361- 287272, Fax: +62-(0)361-270737, E-mails: 6 day old barramundi larvae (photo: Sagiv Kolkovski) [email protected]; [email protected]

A pilot project to establish a multi-species reef fish Conclusion hatchery in Loh Mbongi and village-based grow-out farms in communities surrounding Komodo National Park, West Gemma Micro has really proved itself as an effective Artemia Flores, Indonesia. Report from The Nature Conservancy, replacement diet for barramundi and a number of other Southeast Asia Center for Marine Protected Areas in marine species. This will prove a valuable tool for the marine collaboration with the Komodo National Park authority. hatchery wishing to reduce costs, improve quality and to put juvenile production onto a more convenient and cost- The main objective of the fish culture project is to provide effective footing. Gemma Micro will give marine fry a ‘flying sustainable fish culture as an alternative livelihood to non- start’ and provide a valuable foundation for the next feed in sustainable fishing practices in and around Komodo Skretting’s product range: Gemma. National Park. A secondary objective relates to the Hong For more details please contact the author Trine Kong based trade in live reef fish. Currently, the live reef fish Karlsrud at Skretting in Australia trade is rapidly depleting the Indo-Pacific stocks of [email protected]. Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) and groupers Editors note: We do not endorse any commercial (Serranidae). It is hoped that the Komodo fish culture project product, the article is merely the view of the author. can demonstrate how fish culture of groupers can be done in a sustainable and environmentally sound manner, thereby Reference contributing to the market transformation of the live reef fish trade from unsustainable, capture-based to sustainable, Skretting Outlook Magazine, Number 19, Spring 2003 pp. 7 - 10. culture-based. The Komodo fish culture project aims to involve local communities in the grow-out of estuary grouper Hobas...continued from page 19 Epinephelus coioides, mouse grouper Cromileptes altivelis, tiger grouper Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, sea bass Lates a skill enhancement programme for shrimp farmers in Sri calcarifer and mangrove jack Lutjanus argentimaculatus, Lanka (Drengstig et al. 2004). This project focuses on which can be marketed as live product to the Hong Kong - communicating Codes of Practices and Best Management based live reef fish trade. Practices, and to facilitate a practical implementation of such Fingerlings are produced from captive broodstock in a voluntary standards among farmers in Sri Lanka. It is hatchery situated in Loh Mbongi (ca. 6 km North of Labuan beyond all doubts that more efficient technology in Bajo). The pilot project aims to produce 25 tons of live fish combination with an improved understanding of these yearly, to be realized over 3-4 harvests per year per grow-out complex systems will contribute to a more viable shrimp unit. A grow-out unit consists of a complex of 16 floating farming industry. cages, varying in size between nine and 25 m2 surface area. Moreover, NIVA, RF and HOBAS is also cooperating in a In the pilot phase, four grow-out units will be deployed near major R&D project in India together with the National the villages that are participating. The produced volume will Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa were the HOBAS consist of a mix of the five species for which broodstock is technology is being tested under commercial conditions. presently secured. This multi-species approach reduces Finally, the HOBAS technology is being tested in Spain under risks related to species-specific vulnerability to disease and commercial terms for production of the carp tench (Tinka to fluctuation in consumer preference and price. The species tinka) in earthen ponds. The technology seems highly composition of initial batches of fingerlings will depend on suitable for pond farming either in brackish or freshwater hatchery practicalities, as this batch will be used for training systems producing fish or shrimp. in grow-out in village-based fish farms rather than for the Note: Cited references are available from the corresponding generation of revenue. author. In the pilot phase (i.e. production capacity of 25 tons annually) the project will involve ca. 20 villagers on a full- time basis, but many more will be trained in grow-out techniques. Once economic viability and environmental sustainability have been demonstrated, a carrying capacity analysis will be carried out to determine the optimal production capacity, after which a private business partner will be invited to upscale and develop the project into a

40 aquaculture Asia triple bottom-line business – economically viable, socially involvement in the Fish Culture Project, and by its suitability responsible and environmentally sound. for cage culture. As culturing of grouper still poses some technical Community members of all targeted villages have visited challenges, the fish culture project created partnerships with the facility at Loh Mbongi and discussed the aims of the institutes that can provide the necessary know-how. The Fish Culture Project. To date, most have shown considerable main partners in the Komodo fish culture project are the interest in the project, and efforts are now underway to Research Institute for Mariculture in Gondol (Bali, install the second community-based grow-out unit. Indonesia), the Department of Primary Industries & The Komodo Fish Culture Project is now entering its Fisheries, Queensland (Australia) and the Network of most critical phase, that of its transfer to a private business Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific (NACA). partner, to allow for its upscaling to a commercially viable By March 2003 construction was completed, and the business. The pilot project has demonstrated the viability of hatchery at Loh Mbongi was officially inaugurated in July community-based grouper culture in the Komodo region, 2003 by the Minister of Fisheries and Marine Affairs of and a massive demand for hatchery-reared juvenile grouper Indonesia. This event was attended by senior local and snapper exists in eastern Indonesia at the present time. government officials and key stakeholders. Existing Indonesian commercial hatcheries are unable to Full operational capability of the hatchery was reached meet this demand. by March 2003. The first batch of eggs that were transferred The Komodo Fish Culture Project is currently seeking a from the broodstock facility to the hatchery were of estuary business partner to assist in the transformation of this pilot grouper, collected during March 2003. Larval survival project to a financially sustainable enterprise, whilst reached 3.7%, an encouraging result for the first production. conforming to the primary project aims of social This batch had been successfully stocked into grow-out responsibility and environmental soundness. All interested cages by June 2003 and had reached an average weight of parties are invited to contact Dr. Peter J. Mous (Science 350g by February 2004. Since hatchery production and Training Manager) or Mr. Trevor Meyer (Mariculture commenced, all of the five species of fish maintained at the Manager). Komodo Fish Culture Project have been successfully reared to the grow-out phase. Conclusion of Research on Capture and Hatchery production, however, has not been without its Culture of Pre-settlement Fish for the challenges, and survival rates have varied considerably. To Marine Aquarium Trade in Solomon Islands date, the best survival rate achieved has been 7.6%, for a batch of mouse grouper produced in July 2003. During July 2003, a batch of 20,000 mouse grouper were reared in the Cathy Hair, Warwick Nash, Peter Doherty nursery, representing the first production of a commercial- sized batch by Loh Mbongi. Ms Cathy Hair: Senior Fisheries Biologist, Agency for An assessment of suitable sites for the installation of Food and Fibre Sciences, Department of Primary Industries cage fish farms around the Komodo area was completed by & Fisheries, Northern Fisheries Centre, PO Box 5396, the end of October 2002, with the most suitable sites being Cairns QLD 4870, AUSTRALIA, Tel: 617 4035 0150, found close to the villages of Boleng, Medang, Sape and Fax: 617 4035 6703, E-mail [email protected] Menjaga. Subsequently, other suitable sites have been identified at Warloka and close to Pulau Misa. At present, no Between February 1999 and December 2003 the WorldFish aquaculture development is envisaged within the national Center, Solomon Islands, carried out research on a new park boundaries. artisanal fishery based on the capture and rearing of pre- The first of the four planned community grow-out units settlement coral reef fish (Hair et al. 2002). This work was was installed and stocked with fish during December 2003, in funded by the Australian Centre for International the village of Warloka. This site was chosen due to the Agricultural Research (ACIAR). Environmentally friendly considerable interest shown by the community in methods (light traps and crest nets) were used to capture postlarval fish as they settled from the plankton. Simple aquaculture techniques were used to grow these fish to marketable size. The key factor is that fish are plentiful at this stage of their life cycle, but high mortality accompanies the transition from a planktonic to benthic lifestyle (i.e. settlement) (Doherty et al. 2004, Phillips et al. 2003). By harvesting fish immediately prior to or at settlement, adequate numbers of pre-settlers can be taken for aquaculture without affecting natural replenishment to the reefs since the large majority of those harvested would not have survived to adulthood anyway. The new fishery can therefore assist in addressing concerns of over-fishing for marine ornamentals (Sadovy and Vincent 2002, Wabnitz et al. 2003) and has potential to provide a vital source of cash income for coastal communities in the Pacific and Asian Cromileptes altivelis fingerlings produced at Loh Mbongi regions.

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 41 In the first phase of the research light traps and crest nets recruitment month for lobster, abundance in the crest traps sampled postlarval supply for a week before and a week after and logs was the same (mean = 1.8±0.3 se per device per the new moon every month from October 1999 to September night). The highest overnight log catch was 31 pueruli (mean 2001. Light traps were deployed in shallow water near = 6.0±1.7 per log). Floating artificial seaweed puerulus submerged reefs and predominantly sampled competent, collectors were also deployed during the lobster recruitment positively phototactic pre-settlers (Doherty 1987). Crest nets season but were unsuccessful, possibly due to insufficient were set behind the surf zone on a shallow reef to capture conditioning or strong currents. fish passing between oceanic and lagoonal habitats (Dufour Efforts to enhance the survival and growth of valuable 1993). Very few species of value to the live reef food fish species through improved grow-out techniques had mixed trade were recorded but ornamental species comprised 15% results. Banded cleaner shrimp were the most abundant and and 5% of the light trap and crest net catches, respectively. valuable species collected. With careful handling they were Only one species, lobster (Panulirus sp.) showed any easily kept in good condition between collection at the reef seasonal trend in settlement rate, being more common from crest and transfer to their grow-out habitat. Rearing cleaner June to September in both years. Grow-out to market size shrimp was problematic due to fierce intra-specific was initially done in land-based concrete raceways, but later aggression. All attempts to grow them en masse resulted in in sea-cages as this is a more appropriate technique for a poor survival (12-60% in three weeks); the best survival was village situation. Growth and survival of all teleosts (i.e. fin- achieved through growing them individually in jars (80-100% fish) improved when rearing was transferred to floating sea- in four weeks). The highest survival and growth were cages, although survival of crustaceans was higher in obtained in jars that were painted black to reduce exposure stationary, benthic cages. Fish and crustaceans were fed to sunlight that caused algal growth on the exoskeleton. The small amounts of minced fish, fish roe, crustacean and jar-rearing technique, however, was only suitable for mollusc meat – items readily available in a coastal village. Stenopus hispidus (banded cleaner shrimp). Two of the less In the first phase of the study a suite of species suitable abundant but higher-value species of banded cleaner for capture, rearing and sale to the marine aquarium trade shrimp, S. zanzibaricus and S. tenuirostris, survived but did were identified. Surprisingly, although the study originally not grow well in jars. Future work will investigate whether a proposed to catch and rear teleosts, banded cleaner shrimp combination of jar culture to nurse them through the first (Stenopus spp.) and lobster (Panulirus sp.) were the most week, followed by rearing on an artificial reef is more valuable component of the catch in Solomon Islands. Crest appropriate for these species. Lobster were generally easy to nets were chosen as the method with most potential for an rear and were successfully grown en masse in cages on the artisanal fishery as they caught significant numbers of high- seafloor as long as sufficient food was provided (average value crustaceans, yet were relatively cheap and simple to survival was greater than 70% over three weeks). Problems build and operate. Unfortunately, mortality in the nets was with teleost grow-out were experienced due to the location very high because animals caught in the soft cod-end either of the sea-cage in deeper, exposed water. Small fish in the dried out at low tide or were crushed against the mesh floating cages were subjected to strong currents moving during strong current flow. The second research phase was through the nets and further disturbance in rough seas, carried out in 2003 with the principle aims of (i) developing a forcing them to swim vigorously for extended periods to cheap and simple “fish-friendly” harvest method for village maintain their position in the water column. During rough use (based on the crest net); and (ii) developing ways to sea conditions, mortalities in sea-cages were higher than in enhance survival and growth rates of fish in sea-cages. Several modifications of the crest net were tested in an effort to improve survival at capture. The cheapest and most versatile of these comprised a cod-end constructed from a plastic bin or wooden box with mesh sides and roof. The solid cod-end retained water at low tides and provided shelter for fish during strong currents. Fish were guided into the cod-end via a hand-sewn, knotless 3 mm mesh net attached to the front of the box (Fig. 1). The effectiveness of the new “fish friendly” cod-end was well demonstrated by the improved survival rates: teleosts increased from 5 to 64%, shrimp from 10 to 97% and lobster from 85 to 97%. A novel technique used to boost catches of lobster pueruli in 2003 was coconut logs drilled with holes (Fig. 2) and deployed in approximately 2 m depth on the reef flat behind the crest nets. The logs were a modified form of a fishing method used in Vietnam (K. Williams, pers. comm.). This was the first time the method had been used in the Pacific and it was very successful. The log collectors were mostly occupied by clear pueruli, although occasionally a pigmented puerulus was recorded. Logs were checked every morning during the new moon sampling periods of July, August and September 2003. During August, the peak Figure 1: Larvae trap

42 aquaculture Asia Hair, C.A., Bell J.D. and Doherty, P.J. (2002) The use of wild-caught juveniles in coastal aquaculture and its application to coral reef fishes. Pages 327-353 in R.R. Stickney and J.P. McVey (Eds) Responsible Marine Aquaculture. CAB International. Phillips, B.F., Melville-Smith, R. & Cheng, Y.W. (2003) Estimating the effects of removing Panulirus cygnus pueruli on the fishery stock. Fisheries Research 65:89- 101 Sadovy, Y.J. and Vincent, A.C.J. (2002) Ecological issues and the trades in live reef fishes. Pages 391-420 in Coral Reef Fishes: Dynamics and Diversity in a Complex Ecosystem (edited by P.F. Sale). Academic Press, San Diego. Wabnitz, C., Taylor, M., Green, E. and Razak, T. (2003) From Ocean to Aquarium. UNEP- WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

Seed Production of Sand Bass (Psamoperca weigensis)

Le Dinh Buu

Support to Marine and Brackishwater Aquaculture - SUMA, 78 Thong Nhat St, Nha Trang, Khanh Hoa, Vietnam, Figure 2: Lobster pueruli trap Tel : +84 058 822941, Fax: +84 058 822921, E-mail: [email protected] calm weather. A fixed sea-cage in shallow, sheltered water near-shore is proposed as a more acceptable alternative. The Fisheries University of Nha Trang, Vietnam, with A draft manual explaining how to catch and rear these funding support from the “Support to Brackish and Marine species has been produced and the methodology will be Aquaculture Component (SUMA)” component of the proposed for Marine Aquarium Council approval under the DANIDA/Ministry of Fisheries Sector Program Support has Mariculture Standards that are to be drafted soon (P. successfully produced the seed of sand bass (Psamoperca Holthus, pers. comm.). A computer model of the fishery weigensis, Cuvier & Valennciennes). The local names for using estimated start-up costs, production (calculated from this fish in Vietnam are “ca chem mom nhon” (pointed snout three years of fish collection) and local farmgate prices fish) or “ca thay boi” (fortune teller fish). The species indicated that a fishery for marine ornamental species based belongs to the Centropomidae family and is found in on pre-settlers is economically viable. Furthermore, similar Indopacific region. In the wild, it lives in schools near coral fisheries are operating commercially in other areas of the reefs, in bays or associated with seaweed or sea grass in Pacific (Dufour 2002, X. Neyrat pers. comm.). The Solomon lagoons. This fish has a good taste with a price in Vietnam of Islands artisanal model is based on fishing with two crest around USD 5-6 / kg. traps that would sample a total of three metres of reef. The experiment involved a total of 34 broodstock However, these methods are yet to be tested in a village collected from the wild. Two females and two males were situation and at a profitable scale (i.e. production of 200-300 reared in a 12m3 tank with the following water quality - high-value animals per month). A new project to support salinity 22-34 ppt, temperature 22-320C, pH 7-8.9, with tank is aquaculture development in the Pacific is commencing in aeration. early 2004. The project, funded by ACIAR and run jointly by Broodstock were injected with the hormone LRHa. The Queensland Department of Primary Industry Northern fertilized eggs are around 0.8 mm in diameter. They were Fisheries Centre, Secretariat of the Pacific Community and incubated in a tank with water temperature between 28-290C, the WorldFish Center, will oversee transfer of the postlarval salinity 33-35 ppt and pH 7.6-7.8. The eggs hatched after 14 fish capture and culture technology to a demonstration farm hours and the hatching rate was 86%. in a Solomon Islands’ village. This exciting stage of the work The larvae were reared in tanks ranging from 200 litres, 2 will be the ultimate proof of the feasibility of the new fishery. m3, and 12 m3. Nanochloropsis occulata was mass produced The draft manual will be rewritten to reflect the lessons in 1 m3 volume containers for rotifers that were enriched with learned during this process and be made available to assist squid oil before being used to feed larvae. in adoption of the techniques by other Pacific Island and The density of rotifer used for various stage of larvae Asian countries. culture was as follows: • 3 rotifers/ml for larvae of 1.5 days age References • 3-5 rotifers/ml for larvae of 2.5–9 days age The fish larvae were fed with Artemia nauplii and rotifers Doherty, P.J. (1987) Light traps: Selective but useful devices for quantifying the from 10 to 50 days old. Artificial feed was used from 51 day distributions & abundances of larval fishes. Bulletin of Marine Science 41:423- 431. onwards. The growth rate of fish is slow, around 0.04-0.06 Doherty, P.J., Dufour, V., Galzin, R., Hixon, M.A. and Planes, S. (2004) High mortality cm/day and the survival rate to 50 days around 5.8 %. during settlement bottlenecks the abundance of a coral reef fish. Ecology (in press) Dufour, V. and Galzin, R. (1993) Colonization patterns of reef fish larvae to the lagoon Fingerlings of 50-51 day old were nursed both in earthen at Moorea Island, French Polynesia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 102:143- ponds and floating cages. Fish reared in cages were found 152. Dufour, V. (2002) Reef fish post-larvae collection and rearing programme for the aquarium to do better than in ponds. The conditions in rearing ponds market, report on the first year of operations at the AquaFish Technology farm in were as follows: French Polynesia. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin 10:31-32. • Salinity – 27-30 ppt • Temperature – 30-38°C

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 43 • pH 8-8.5 identifying ingredients likely to lower diet cost and reduce • Fish stocking density - 40/m2 environmental impacts (nutrient outputs). • Feeding - trash fish (4 times/day, 20-40% of fish weight) A third component of the project will evaluate the socio- • Survival rate from stocking - 50% (4 months) economic constraints to uptake of the technologies The conditions in floating cages were as follows: (hatchery production, artificial diets) and develop strategies • Salinity - 35-36 ppt to overcome these constraints. The communication and • Temperature - 27-29°C coordination strategies developed under FIS/97/73 will be • PH - 7.9-8.5 continued and the Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture • Density - 30/m3 Network will be strengthened and expanded through a • Feed - trash fish and artificial feed process of formalisation of participating agencies and • Survival rate - 70% (4 months) individuals. Enhanced industry involvement in the network The success of seed production of sand bass will enable will be encouraged, and long-term network sustainability will farmers in Khanh Hoa coastal area and other places in be enhanced, by accessing corporate sponsorship of Vietnam to have the opportunity to culture another valuable network activities. marine fish for seafood markets. These outputs will contribute to the development of sustainable marine finfish aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific ACIAR Project “Improved hatchery and grow-out region by increasing the supply of hatchery-reared technology for marine finfish in the Asia-Pacific fingerlings to support increasing demand for high-value region” marine finfish species for aquaculture. The use of compounded grow-out diets will reduce ‘trash’ fish The second phase of the ACIAR marine fish project has utilisation and reduce pollution associated with the use of been approved and is due to commence in July 2004. The ‘trash’ fish as a feed source. The project will link closely with project will continue to support the Asia-Pacific Marine two other ACIAR projects: Environmental impacts of cage Finfish Aquaculture Network and its activities. This is a 3.5 aquaculture in Indonesia and Australia (FIS/2003/027) and year project and the activities will covers Australia, Feasibility study of economic impacts of developments in Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. the live reef fish food trade in the Asia-Pacific region (ADP/ The overall objective of the project is to enhance the 2003/022). sustainability of marine finfish aquaculture in the Asia- Pacific region by improving hatchery production technology NACA/DOF/TDH* Workshop on Seafarming and and facilitating the uptake of compounded feeds for grow- Seafood Markets out. Progress and development of the project will be reported and made available to wider audience through the A one day workshop was held in NACA Secretariat Office at network website and newsletter. A brief project summary is Bangkok, Thailand on March 25, 2004. The purpose of this given below. workshop was to conduct a review of seafarming Marine finfish aquaculture is an important contributor to experiences and start to identify opportunities for future the economies of coastal communities throughout the Asia- development in Thailand. The workshop was attended by Pacific region. Although production of hatchery-reared some 50 participants. fingerlings is increasing, much of the seedstock supply for The workshop aimed to assist the Department of this sector continues to be dependent on capture of wild fry Fisheries to prioritise future research and development and fingerlings, which limits fingerling availability and activities in seafarming in Thailand, and provide contributes to over-harvesting. Grow-out operations use opportunities for further cooperation with NACA, TDH and ‘trash’ fish, which results in localised pollution and other stakeholders to strengthen research and development competes with other needs for fishery products. The for seafarming in Thailand. previous project Improved hatchery and grow-out The workshop covered the following themes: technology for marine finfish aquaculture in the Asia- • Regional overview of mariculture Pacific region made substantial improvements to the • Markets and demand trends for mariculture products sustainability of marine finfish aquaculture in the Asia- • Marine fish farming in Thailand Pacific region. This follow-on project will continue lines of • Mollusc farming in Thailand research that demonstrated maximum benefits in the earlier • Seaweed farming in Thailand project, and will continue to support the synergies that were • Other seafarming species developed between partner agencies in the earlier project The report of this workshop is available on the NACA through collaborative research activities. website. The follow-on project will focus on improving survival of *TDH - Terre des Hommes Foundation-Italy. NACA has hatchery-reared high-value marine finfish larvae, and started cooperation with TDH project in Phanga Nga Bay, increasing the reliability of hatchery production. Larval Southern Thailand entitled “Children of the Sea – rearing technologies will be expanded to other high-value Requalification of Small-scale Fisheries Micro-enterprises species such as coral trout (Plectropomus spp.). The grow- and Ecosystem-based Innovation of Aquatic Production out diet development component of the project will focus on Systems for the Sustainable Development of Thai Coastal promoting uptake of compounded pellet diets at the expense Communities”. The cooperation involves simultaneous of ‘trash’ fish use. Research activities will focus on studies of seafarming technology and markets in southern Thailand, Bangkok live fish markets and trading networks,

44 aquaculture Asia regional markets and a status review Collaborators of regional seafarming production technologies. Further information on The following organizations and contacts have been designated as focal points the project will be made available for communication in the marine fish network. through a new web site and a report expected to be available in July 2004. Hong Kong Malaysia In the meantime, further information can be obtained from Paolo Montaldi Dr Jim Chu, Marine fish culture in coastal areas - or Sandro Montaldi at [email protected] Mr Ali bin Awang, [email protected]. [email protected] Dr Mohan Joseph Modayil, Fish quality - Mr Ismail Ishak & Mr [email protected] Hamdan Jaafar, [email protected] / Indonesia [email protected]

Dr Ketut Sugama, [email protected] Low food chain species - Mr Hussin bin Mat Ali Dr Muhammad Murdjani, [email protected] [email protected] Philippines Iran Ms Prescilla B. Regaspi, Dr Shapour Kakoolaki, [email protected] [email protected] Ms Marygrace C. Quintero, [email protected]

Collaborating organisations

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April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 45 For more events listings the NACA Events & Training page at http://www.enaca.org/modules/extcal/

Aquaculture Europe 2004 conference Workshop on environmental issues of Training Course on Mangrove- on “Biotechnologies for Quality”, 20- marine fish farming in the Friendly Shrimp Aquaculture, 23 23 October 2004, Barcelona, Spain Mediterranean, 20 October 2004, October – 11 November 2004, Barcelona, Spain Philippines This European and international meeting will bring together participants There will be a 1-day workshop in The goal of the course is to provide from as many as 40 countries to address connection with the Aquaculture participants with a basic understanding the key issues and discuss some of the Europe 2004 At the University of of the mangrove ecosystem, and most advanced scientific results and Barcelona, Spain, on 20th October, 2004 technical knowledge and skills on technological tools. Aquaculture Europe presenting results from on-going EU shrimp culture so that they can grow 2004 will be organized through plenary marine environmental research projects. shrimp in a sustainable and mangrove- thematic sessions, parallel sessions, The workshop will focus on new friendly manner. At the end of the poster sessions and a workshop. directions in monitoring, management training course, the participants should Although emphasis will be given tools and bioremediation techniques, be able to demonstrate the basic through the plenary sessions to including coverage of the following concepts of the mangrove ecosystem; “Biotechnologies for Quality”, other topics: Use of bio-assays to monitor explain the interrelationships between challenges for aquaculture development release of nutrients in the mangroves and shrimp culture; apply will also be approached during parallel Mediterranean; effects of sustainable culture methods and sessions. On the first day of Mediterranean fish farming on the management techniques; and prepare a Aquaculture Europe 2004 (October 20), seagrass Posidonia oceanica; feasibility study of a mangrove-friendly the EAS and the Spanish Aquaculture monitoring of seagrasses around shrimp aquaculture project. Society (SEA) will jointly organize the Mediterranean fish farms; predicting Participants must be nominated by their workshop “Challenges for impacts on seagrass meadows through respective governments; presently Mediterranean Aquaculture Products”. modeling Sensitive tools to detect engaged in aquaculture extension or The workshop is designed to facilitate organic enrichment of fish farm research work; with at least 2-3 years exchange of information between sediments (use of meio- and experience in aquaculture; under 45 producers, researchers and others macrofauna); comparison of years old; good command of English associated with the industry in an aquaculture monitoring methodologies; language; and with good physical and informal setting. The event is based at modelling cage aquaculture impacts; mental condition. For more information the first-class facilities of the Universitat measurable aquaculture impacts; cage and a detailed propsectus visit the Politècnica de Catalunya in the aquaculture and wild fish interactions; SEAFDEC AQD website. wonderful city of Barcelona. More MERAMED recommended monitoring details on the programme together with methods; the succession dynamics of Global Shrimp Outlook 2004, 9-12 the “Call for Contributions Form” and naturally settled mixed heterotrophic November, Bangkok, Thailand other information can be found at the and autotrophic communities and their Aquaculture Europe website http:// potential for nutrient capture in GAA presents the Global Shrimp www.easonline.org/agenda/en/ differing environments; the economics Outlook series to help international AquaEuro2004/default.asp. A paper of biofiltration; and the potential for a shrimp marketers gain vital version of the brochure can be secondary harvest using co-culture in perspectives on the future of the requested through differing environments. The workshop shrimp industry. During this year’s [email protected]. is free of charge. If you would like to focused morning meeting sessions, register to attend the workshop, Please industry experts and executives will inform either Marianne Holmer, report on current shrimp production [email protected] or Patrick and demand, and project shrimp prices White, [email protected] for 2005 and beyond. Afternoons will remain free for business interaction and relaxing social activities. The GSOL

46 aquaculture Asia schedule also includes panel emphasis on product presentation as Practical Application of Food & Feed discussions that will allow participants well as marketing in the major markets, Extrusion Technology, 1-3 December to actively address such issues as EU, US and Japan. For more 2004, Bangkok, Thailand antidumping, antibiotic residues, information and registration email product traceability and facility [email protected] or The three day program with be held in certification. Given the timing of the [email protected], or visit Bangkok, Thailand, and is aimed at preliminary antidumping duties on www.infofish.org. The organizers may providing participants with a practical imported shrimp recently established also be contacted at INFOFISH, PO Box knowledge of current industrial by the U.S. Department of Commerce, 10899, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. extrusion technology. The course takes this Global Shrimp Outlook meeting will participants from the basics of likely be even more strategically 7th Asian Fisheries Forum 2004, 30 extrusion through to an understanding important than usual. Global Shrimp November – 4 December 2004, of rheology and flow in the extruder Outlook: 2004 is a by-invitation Malaysia barrel. The role of different ingredients, meeting for major international shrimp extruder configurations, and die buyers, producers and related The Asian Fisheries Society endeavors effects, are also covered. The content suppliers. Due to the proprietary nature to make the 7th Fisheries Forum the of the course covers both single and of the conference content, registration largest fisheries event in Asia, in terms twin screw extrusion technology. The is not available to members of the of the number of participants and course is relevant to a range of human media. If you have not received an impact. Working on the theme “New and pet foods, as well as to the invitation to GSOL, please visit http:// Dimensions and Challenges in Asian production of aquafeeds. Offered by www.gaalliance.org/gsol.html online or Fisheries in the 21st Century”, the Food Engineering Pty Ltd in contact the GAA office to request status of Asian fisheries will be elevated conjunction with the Food Research further information. To reach GAA, to a new level, providing ideas and and Product Development Institute at telephone +1-314-293-5500, fax +1-314- solutions to overcome the inherent and Kasetsart University in Bangkok. 293-5525 or e-mail unique challenges in Asian fisheries and Further information is available from [email protected]. generating technical advancement in the web at www.fie.com.au/ tandem with global development. The extrusionasia/, or contact Gordon Women in Fisheries and Aquaculture, programme will include: How to Make a Young, email [email protected]. 10-13 November 2004, Spain Difference: Research for Impact on Fisheries and Aquaculture; recent International Workshop on Culture, The international conference AKTEA Advances in Biotechnology; Fisheries and Stock Enhancement of “Women in Fisheries and Aquaculture: Globalization and its Impact on Asian Portunid Crabs, 20-22 January 2005, Lessons from the past, current actions Fisheries: Implications for Fisheries Iloilo, Philippines and dreams for the future” will take Management; Restoration and place in Santiago de Compostela Management of Small-Scale Fisheries: The workshop will include sessions on (Galicia, Spain). Women in fisheries and Meeting the Challenge. A number of broodstock nutrition; larval culture and aquaculture and researchers working on special symposia will also be held nutrition; nursery grow-out; fisheries women issues from all parts of the world concurrently including on Gender in and stock enhancement; genetics and are all invited to visit our website: http:// Fisheries; Advances in Shrimp taxonomy. The proceedings will be conference.fishwomen.org Biotechnology; Restocking the Stock published in special edition of a peer- Enhancement of Coastal Fisheries: reviewed journal. Registration fee: International Conference on Potential Problems and Progress; $150. For more information please Aquaculture Production and Technology Needs and Prospects for contact [email protected]. Marketing of Shrimp and Finfish and Asian Aquaculture: Participation of the Bangladesh Seafood Expo 2004, 28-29 Poor; Biotechnology for Growth and November, Dhaka, Bangladesh Reproduction in Fish; and Aquatic Ecosystem Health. For further The conference will focus on the latest information, please contact: The developments in aquaculture Secretariat, 7th Asian Fisheries Society, production and marketing of warm School of Biological Sciences, Universiti water shrimp and finfish species with Sains Malaysia,11800 Minden, Penang, special reference to freshwater prawns Malaysia, Tel: +604-6533888 ext. 3961/ Macrobrachium rosenbergii, tiger 2932/ 4005/ 4009, Fax: +604-6565125, shrimp Penaeus monodon, white Email: [email protected], Website: http:/ shrimp P. vannamei, tilapia and marine /www.usm.my/7AFF2004. finfish. The conference will also focus on environment friendly production techniques including organic production systems, emerging product quality/safety assurance approaches including traceability and labeling with

April-June 2004 (Vol. IX No. 2) 47 What’s New on the Web Asian Fisheries Society The new AFS website highlights Australian Aquaculture The member’s section contains fisheries events and publications, and Portal valuable information, research, contacts abstracts of papers from the AFS journal and dynamic information relating to Asian Fisheries Science are provided. The Australian Aquaculture Portal has what is currently happening around AFS is a scientific society organized been developed in an attempt to Australia. A comprehensive ‘conference in 1984 for fishery professionals in Asia centralise the growing body of portal’ is also included to keep members to communicate, share information and information, research and business and others ‘updated’ with current and cooperate with each other. Since its opportunities in the Australian upcoming conferences. Here portal establishment, the Society has grown Aquaculture Industry. An initiative of users can access information and from the 14 charter members who signed the Australian Aquaculture Council register online as well as refer to white the constitution to over 2,800 members with funding from the Department of papers prepared by past and current from 75 countries and territories. Asia Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, this conference speakers. As information in has been the leading world producer of Portal is an essential reference tool for the public, members and conference fish. Its long history of fishing and fish all those working in the Aquaculture parts of this site is updated weekly. farming has attracted several thousand Industry. It contains an overview of the Commercial aquaculture farm owners scientists, researchers and students to major Australian industry sectors, and workers, students, vets, teachers, the field of tropical fisheries and contact details for industry government bodies and advisors should aquaculture. As their numbers grew, the associations and a comprehensive all find this portal a valuable resource need to improve interaction and collection of links to relevant containing information that is ‘database cooperation among fisheries scientists Australian and overseas sites for those driven’, therefore updated in a timely and institutions became more apparent. wishing to ‘dig a little deeper’ into the and systematic manner. http:// Thus, the seeds for the Asian Fisheries complexities and opportunities this www.australian-aquacultureportal.com/ Society were sown. http:// industry offers. www.asianfisheriessociety.org/

Continued from page 32 wholesomeness. implementation should be guided by practices of the plant and verification For drug residue, shipments are scientific evidence of risks to human of end product quality. Monitored are: examined by: health. • Sanitation, hygiene, good • Sampling for antibiotic residues of A combination of measures are manufacturing practice as a basic the group of tetracycline, penicillin observed to prevent or control disease quality control program. and others using micro-bioassay outbreaks. HACCP would be an • Processors must demonstrate a • Sampling for oxolinic acid using effective complement to health Quality Control program based on HPLC management practices. HACCP HACCP. • Sampling for chloramphenicol using application, along with observance of • Quality system verified by DOF. HPLC Good Aquaculture Practice (GAP) or • Processing plants are inspected 2-4 • Sampling for nitrofuran and its Code of Conduct for sustainable times/plant/year, for sanitation, metabolites using LC-MS-MS aquaculture (CoC), enhance the overall hygiene practices, quality control For microbiological hazards, shipments effort at promoting sustainable and system, laboratories and record at are determined for pathogenic bacteria profitable aquaculture. Critical Control Points and sanitation and other microorganisms based on the record. Those that pass the grade requirements of the market. The References are included in the List of Approved maximum level for antibiotics and other Tookwinas, S. and S. Suwanrangsi 1996 Hazard Control Fish Processing Plants and issued contaminants imposed by a number of in Aquaculture. Page 338-391 in R.E. Martin, R.L. Collette and J.W. Slavin, editors. Fish Inspection, an Approval Number. importing countries or blocks are as per Quality Control and HACCP ; A Global Focus, • Sanitary Certificate and Certificate of table 3. Proceeding of the Conference Held in May 19-24, 1996 Arlington, Virginia, Techinnomic Pub. Co., Analysis of the shipment are issued, INC. USA. on request, to processing Conclusion Fish Inspection and Quality Control Division. 2004. The Maximum Level for Antibiotic and establishment and shipment that Contamination Sustance in Fisheries Products, meet standard requirements. Preventing hazards to people’s safety Department of Fisheries, Bangkok. and health to human from cultured Fisheries Information Center. 2004. Fisheries Statistic of Thailand, Department of Fisheries, Bangkok Product monitoring products can be made more effective (contact information). by the application of HACCP at the Lima dos Santos, C.A. 2002. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point and Aquaculture. Page103-119 in As required still, by import authorities, farm, in other words, before the raw M.L. Jahneke, E.S. Garrett, A. Reilly, R.E. Martin and shipment of fishery products must be material even goes into the processing E. Cole, editors. Public Animal and Environmental Aquaculture Health Issues, Wiley-Interscience, Inc. accompanied with a certificate stating plant. Lima dos Santos (2002) said that Reilly, A. and F. Kaferstein. 1997. Food Safety Hazards the quality or laboratory results. This HACCP can be applied through the and the Application of the Principles of the Hazard requires sampling and analysis of end food chain from primary production to Analysis and Critical Control in Aquaculture Production. Aquaculture Res. 1997(28): 735-752. products for safety, quality and final consumption but stressed that its

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