DOCSLIB.ORG

Computer Networking in Nuclear Medicine

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Computer Networking in Nuclear Medicine CONTINUING EDUCATION Computer Networking In Nuclear Medicine Michael K. O'Connor Department of Radiology, The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota to the possibility of not only connecting computer systems Objective: The purpose of this article is to provide a com­ from different vendors, but also connecting these systems to prehensive description of computer networks and how they a standard PC, Macintosh and other workstations in a de­ can improve the efficiency of a nuclear medicine department. partment (I). It should also be possible to utilize many other Methods: This paper discusses various types of networks, network resources such as printers and plotters with the defines specific network terminology and discusses the im­ nuclear medicine computer systems. This article reviews the plementation of a computer network in a nuclear medicine technology of computer networking and describes the ad­ department. vantages and disadvantages of such a network currently in Results: A computer network can serve as a vital component of a nuclear medicine department, reducing the time ex­ use at Mayo Clinic. pended on menial tasks while allowing retrieval and transfer­ WHAT IS A NETWORK? ral of information. Conclusions: A computer network can revolutionize a stan­ A network is a way of connecting several computers to­ dard nuclear medicine department. However, the complexity gether so that they all have access to files, programs, printers and size of an individual department will determine if net­ and other services (collectively called resources). In com­ working will be cost-effective. puter jargon, such a collection of computers all located Key Words: Computer network, LAN, WAN, Ethernet, within a few thousand feet of each other is called a local area ARCnet, Token-Ring. network (LAN). LANs that are remote from each other can J Nucl Med Techno/1994; 22:4~55 be interconnected by telephone or satellite to form a wide area network (WAN). A network can be organized as a server-based system or This is the second article in a four-part series on computers as a peer-to-peer system. In a server-based system, one or in nuclear medicine. Upon completion, the technologist will more computers act as servers. These servers make the be able to (1) describe a computer network, (2) understand network resources available to any client computer on the network terminology and (3) have an overview of a currently network. A client computer can only talk to another client operational network used in a large nuclear medicine labo­ computer through the server. Hence, the server essentially ratory. controls the network and decides what resources to make available to a given client computer. In a peer-to-peer sys­ Computer networks are becoming an integral part of the tem, there is no server or "master" system. Instead, any way we move information around our department, our insti­ computer can communicate directly with any other com­ tution and between institutions. While the ability to network puter on the network and has access to the hard drive and nuclear medicine computer systems has been available for other resources (e.g., printers) available on that computer. several years, many of these network schemes were propri­ etary and nonstandard and only permitted communication NETWORK TERMINOLOGY between systems from the same vendor. More than any other area of computers, networking As more and more vendors have moved toward the use of abounds with confusing acronyms, such as AFP, TCP/IP, off-the-shelf computer hardware (e.g., Sun computers or Ma­ CSMNCD, etc. Before entering into a full discussion of cintosh systems), with minimal proprietary hardware, they networking, the following definitions may clarify some of the have also made use of the standard networking hardware and confusion surrounding networks. Let us consider the cre­ software available for use on such systems. This now leads ation of a very simple network of two PCs. The connection of these two desktop computers requires two network inter­ face adapters (generally called interface cards or adapter For correspondence or reprints contact: Dr. M. K. O'Connor, Section of Nuclear Medicine, Charlton 2, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905. cards). Each computer will need one printed circuit card YOLUMI! 22, NUMBI!R 2, JUNI! 1994 48 (Fig. 1) plugged into the computer's motherboard. These adapter cards are connected to each other by a cable, such as a coaxial cable or a twisted-pair telephone wire. Finally, each computer will need to run a software program to permit the computers to communicate with each other. This pro­ gram typically runs in the background and provides users with access to the hard drive and printers of the other com­ puter, as if they were directly attached to their system. Currently, the majority of computers are either IBM-com­ patible 286-, 386- or 486-based personal computers (PCs) or Macintosh systems (Macs). Therefore, the greatest variety of hardware and software products for networking has been developed for these systems. Many of the more powerful computers, such as the Sun Microsystems SPARC 10 or DEC Alpha systems, are UNIX-based and come with networking as a standard feature of the system. A description of the major hardware and software components of a network follows. FIGURE 1. Token-Ring (top) and Ethernet (bottom) interface adapter cards. These cards are designed to plug into the mother­ board of a PC. NETWORK ADAPTER CARD There are several types of adapter cards available. Gen­ lowest numbered station becomes the controller of the net­ erally, a card can only transmit data using a specific scheme. work. This controlling station sends a token to each station The three most commonly used schemes are Ethernet, ARC­ in numerical order. When each station receives the permis­ net and Token-Ring. A simple analogy to these schemes is a sion token, it either sends its message or remains silent. The radio station that broadcasts in AM or FM. Clearly, an AM controlling station then sends a permission token to the next receiver cannot pick up an FM transmission. Likewise, an station in numeric sequence. ARCnet cards can be pur­ Ethernet adapter card cannot communicate with a Token­ chased for as little as $50 and provide a very economical Ring adapter card. The choice of adapter card is based on network architecture. cost and speed requirements. The cheapest and slowest is Token-Ring ARCnet, while Ethernet is potentially four times faster for In a Token-Ring scheme, a special toke~ (software mes­ data transkr over a network, with only a slight increase in sage) continuously circulates through all the systems on the cost. Token-Ring is proprietary IBM technology and is the network. Unlike ARCnet, it has no controlling station. Only most expensive of the three, with a speed intermediate be­ a system that currently has the token is allowed to transmit tween Ethernet and ARCnet. Typical costs in 1993 for messages on the network. When it has finished transmitting, adapter cards ranged from $100 to $300. it passes the token to the next system on the network. There Ethernet is one potential problem with Token-Ring that is not present with either Ethernet or ARCnet; each system must actively In an Ethernet card, the card checks the network to see if pass the token to the next system in line, hence if one the network is busy (i.e., another system is transmitting). If adapter card on the network fails, it can bring down the it doesn't hear the transmitted signal of another computer, entire network. Although this is not a common problem, it the card broadcasts its signal to all other systems on the can be catastrophic. Token-Ring is primarily an IBM prod­ network. When the inevitable happens and two computers uct and is expensive and should be considered if direct broadcast simultaneously, a special software protocol built access to mainframe computers is required. into the Ethernet card detects the collision and each card stops transmitting and goes into its internal program to de­ NETWORK TOPOLOGY termine a randomly selected time for retransmission. This protocol is called carrier-sense multiple access with collision Phrases such as Star, Ring, or BUS topology refer not to detection (CSMNCD). Ethernet was one of the first LAN the type of network, but rather to how computers on the architectures and is still the most popular. It provides high­ network are physically or logically connected. In a logical speed transmission at an economical price and offers a broad sense, computers on an Ethernet LAN can be considered as base of support for a large array of PCs, mini-computers and a string of systems daisy-chained together (BUS topology), mainframes. whereas ARCnet LANs work on a star topology with a central controlling system. Obviously, Token-Ring works on ARCnet a ring topology. Physically, computers can be connected An ARCnet card uses a different scheme from Ethernet. using any of these topologies, however in the real world, The user can set an identification number on an ARCnet card only Star and BUS topologies are used, each with its own from 1 to 255, using switches on the back of the card. When advantages and disadvantages. A BUS (daisy-chain) topol­ activated, the adapters broadcast their numbers, and the ogy uses less cable, does not need a central wiring hub, but 50 .JOURNAL OF NUCLUR MEDICINE TECHNOLOGY one bad connection can bring down the network. The Star operating system. Some vendors have combined it with topology requires that each system be connected to a central TCP/IP to give their network software greater flexibility. wiring hub. This is more expensive than the BUS topology, NFS: The Network File System was developed by Sun but is easier to install and more reliable.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 1) What Is the Name of an Ethernet Cable That Contains Two
    1) What is the name of an Ethernet cable that contains two electrical conductors ? A coaxial cable 2) What are the names of the two common conditions that degrade the signals on c opper-based cables? Crosstal and attenuation 3) Which topology requires the use of terminators? Bus 4) Which of the following topologies is implemented only logically, not physical ly? Ring 5) How many wire pairs are actually used on a typical UTP Ethernet network? Two 6) What is the name of the process of building a frame around network layer info rmation? Data encapsulation 7) Which of the connectors on a network interface adapter transmits data in para llel? The System bus connector 8) Which two of the following hardware resources do network interface adapters a lways require? I/O port address and IRQ 9) What is the name of the process by which a network interface adapter determin es when it should transmit its data over the network? Media Access Control 10) Which bus type is preferred for a NIC that will be connected to a Fast Ether net network? PCI 11) A passive hub does not do which of the following? Transmit management information using SNMP 12) To connect two Ethernet hubs together, you must do which of the following? Connect the uplink port in one hub to a standard port on the other 13) Which term describes a port in a Token Ring MAU that is not part of the ring ? Intelligent 14) A hub that functions as a repeater inhibits the effect of____________? Attenuation 15) You can use which of the following to connect two Ethernet computers togethe r using UTP
    [Show full text]
  • Strategic Use of the Internet and E-Commerce: Cisco Systems
    Journal of Strategic Information Systems 11 (2002) 5±29 www.elsevier.com/locate/jsis Strategic use of the Internet and e-commerce: Cisco Systems Kenneth L. Kraemer*, Jason Dedrick Graduate School of Management and Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations, University of California, Irvine, 3200 Berkeley Place, Irvine, CA 92697-4650, USA Accepted 3October 2001 Abstract Information systems are strategic to the extent that they support a ®rm's business strategy. Cisco Systems has used the Internet and its own information systems to support its strategy in several ways: (1) to create a business ecology around its technology standards; (2) to coordinate a virtual organiza- tion that allows it to concentrate on product innovation while outsourcing other functions; (3) to showcase its own use of the Internet as a marketing tool. Cisco's strategy and execution enabled it to dominate key networking standards and sustain high growth rates throughout the 1990s. In late 2000, however, Cisco's market collapsed and the company was left with billions of dollars in unsold inventory, calling into question the ability of its information systems to help it anticipate and respond effectively to a decline in demand. q 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Internet; e-commerce; Cisco Systems; Virtual Organization; Business Ecology 1. Introduction Information systems are strategic to the extent that they are used to support or enable different elements of a ®rm's business strategy (Porter and Millar, 1985). Cisco Systems, the world's largest networking equipment company, has used the Internet, electronic commerce (e-commerce), and information systems as part of its broad strategy of estab- lishing a dominant technology standard in the Internet era.
    [Show full text]
  • Networking Hardware: Absolute Beginner's Guide T Networking, 3Rd Edition Page 1 of 15
    Chapter 3: Networking Hardware: Absolute Beginner's Guide t Networking, 3rd Edition Page 1 of 15 Chapter 3: Networking Hardware In this chapter z Working with network interface cards z Selecting and installing a NIC z Using hubs z Working with PC motherboards z Understanding processors and PC RAM z Working with hard drives z Differentiating server and client hardware Our Age of Anxiety is, in great part, the result of trying to do today’s jobs with yesterday’s tools. –Marshall McLuhan Now that we’ve discussed the different kinds of networks and looked at network topologies, we should spend some time discussing the hardware involved in networking. This chapter will concentrate on the connectivity devices that define the network topology—the most important being the network interface card. We will also take a look at hubs, routers, and switches. Another important aspect of building your network is selecting the hardware for your client PCs and your network servers. There are many good primers on computer hardware—for example, the Absolute Beginner’s Guide to PC Upgrades, published by Que. Also, numerous advanced books, such as Upgrading and Repairing PCs (by Scott Mueller, also from Que), are available, so we won't cover PC hardware in depth in this chapter. We will take a look at motherboards, RAM, and hard drives because of the impact these components have on server performance. We will also explore some of the issues related to buying client and server hardware. Let's start our discussion with the network interface card. We can then look at network connectivity devices and finish up with some information on PC hardware.
    [Show full text]
  • PCI20EX PCI Express (Pcie)
    PCI20EX PCI Express (PCIe) Bus ARCNET® Network Interface Modules INSTALLATION GUIDE INTRODUCTION The PCI20EX series of ARCNET network interface modules (NIMs) links PCI Express (PCIe) bus compatible computers with the ARCNET local area network (LAN). Since most PC motherboards have migrated from the legacy PCI and PCI-X Bus, a PCI Express style NIM is required. The PCI20EX series is compliant to the PCI Express Card Electromechanical Specification Revision 2.0 and both standard height and low-profile brackets are provided. The PCI Express interface allows for jumperless configuration and Plug and Play operation. The module operates with either an NDIS driver or a null stack driver in a Windows® environment. The PCI20EX incorporates the COM20022 ARCNET controller chip with enhanced features over the earlier generation ARCNET chips. New features include command chaining, sequential access to internal RAM, duplicate node ID detection and variable data rates up to 10 Mbps. Bus contention problems are minimized since the module’s interrupt and I/O base address are assigned through Plug and Play. The PCI20EX exploits the new features of the COM20022 which includes 10 Mbps communications utilizing the various EIA-485 transceiver options. Each PCI20EX module has two LEDs on the board for monitoring network operation and bus access to the module. It is equipped with an 8 position, general purpose DIP switch typically used to assign the ARCNET node address. Ultimately, the node address is configured via software so the DIP switch can also indicate user-defined functions such as data rate, cable interface, or master/slave status of the system.
    [Show full text]
  • Windows NT Workstation in Engineering and Science
    Windows NT Workstation in Engineering and Science A White Paper from the Business Systems Technology Series Windows NT Workstation in Engineering and Science A White Paper from the Business Systems Technology Series Abstract This paper will assist in the evaluation of workstation operating systems used by engineers and scientists. Microsoft Windows NT Workstation is a powerful desktop operating system for the most demanding engineering, scientific and manufacturing applications. Windows NT enables better integration between existing productivity applications and the new generation of 32-bit applications. All applications benefit from the Windows NT robust architecture, preemptive multitasking, network access, security, and reliability. Combined with the mix of available productivity and specialized applications, these factors make Windows NT Workstation ideal for technical users. About the Microsoft Business Systems Technology Series The Microsoft Business Systems Technology Series consists of a number of interrelated white papers dedicated to educating IT professionals and advanced users, such as engineers and scientists, about Windows NT and the Microsoft BackOffice™ family of products. While current Microsoft technologies are often covered, the objective of this series is to offer an idea of how major technologies are evolving, how Microsoft will use those technologies, and what it means to technology planners and users. Legal Notice The descriptions of other companies’ products in this paper are provided only as a convenience to the reader. Microsoft cannot guarantee their accuracy, and the products may change over time. Also, the descriptions are intended as brief highlights to aid understanding, rather than as thorough coverage. For authoritative descriptions of these products, please consult their respective manufacturers.
    [Show full text]
  • ARCNET E.Pdf
    ARCNETâ. The universal, realtime capable fieldbus solution Take the lead with ARCNET ! AUG - ARCNET user group e. V. AUG - ARCNET user group e. V. CONTENTS 1 ARCNET, the universal, realtime capable Fieldbus Solution ____3 2 History________________________________ _________________ 4 3 Characteristics of modern Fieldbusses _____________________ 4 3.1 Topology ____________________________________________________ 5 3.1.1 Bus __________________________________________________________ 5 3.1.2 Star __________________________________________________________ 5 3.1.3 Tree__________________________________________________________ 6 3.2 Bus Access Management _______________________________________ 7 3.3 Transmission Protocol__________________________________________ 8 3.4 Transmission Integrity __________________________________________ 8 3.5 Physical Interface _____________________________________________ 8 3.6 Implementations ______________________________________________ 9 4 ARCNET________________________________ _______________ 10 4.1 Topology ___________________________________________________ 10 4.2 Bus Access Management ______________________________________ 10 4.3 Protocol Components _________________________________________ 10 4.4 Network Access______________________________________________ 13 4.4.1 Passing on the Token____________________________________________ 13 4.4.2 Data Transfer _________________________________________________ 13 4.4.3 Broadcast Message_____________________________________________ 13 4.5 Configuration Mechanisms
    [Show full text]
  • An Extensible System-On-Chip Internet Firewall
    An Extensible System-On-Chip Internet Firewall ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ABSTRACT Internet Packets A single-chip, firewall has been implemented that performs packet filtering, content scanning, and per-flow queuing of Internet Fiber packets at Gigabit/second rates. All of the packet processing Ethernet Backbone Switch operations are performed using reconfigurable hardware within a Switch single Xilinx Virtex XCV2000E Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). The SOC firewall processes headers of Internet packets Firewall in hardware with layered protocol wrappers. The firewall filters packets using rules stored in Content Addressable Memories PC 1 (CAMs). The firewall scans payloads of packets for keywords PC 2 using a hardware-based regular expression matching circuit. Lastly, the SOC firewall integrates a per-flow queuing module to Internal Hosts Internet mitigate the effect of Denial of Service attacks. Additional features can be added to the firewall by dynamic reconfiguration of FPGA hardware. Figure 1: Internet Firewall Configuration network, individual subnets can be isolated from each other and Categories and Subject Descriptors be protected from other hosts on the Internet. I.5.3 [Pattern Recognition]: Design Methodology; B.4.1 [Data Communications]: Input/Output Devices; C.2.1 [Computer- Recently, new types of firewalls have been introduced with an Communication Networks]: Network Architecture and Design increasing set of features. While some types of attacks have been thwarted by dropping packets based on the value of packet headers, new types of firewalls must scan the bytes in the payload General Terms of the packets as well. Further, new types of firewalls need to Design, Experimentation, Network Security defend internal hosts from Denial of Service (DoS) attacks, which occur when remote machines flood traffic to a victim host at high Keywords rates [1].
    [Show full text]
  • Cisco Systems (A): Evolution to E-Business
    Case #1-0001 Cisco Systems (A): Evolution to E-Business "We view the Internet as a prototype of how organizations eventually will shape themselves in a truly global economy. It is a self ruling entity." —John Morgridge, Annual Report, 1993 Cisco Systems, says president and CEO John Chambers, is “an end-to-end networking company.” Its products and services enable the construction of corporate information superhighways, a driving concern of today’s CEOs, seeking to become “e-business” leaders in their industries. Defining “e-business” can prove more difficult than embracing it, however. In executive programs at the Tuck School, Professor Phil Anderson frequently asks participants, “How will you know when you have seen the first e-business within your industry?” Typically, there is little consensus. Is it mass customization? Streamlined production processes? One- to-one marketing? Cisco’s Internet Business Systems Group (IBSG), an internal consulting group, advises senior executives on information technology investment strategies. The group is closer to major corporate buying decisions than anyone at Cisco. As advocates for Cisco’s equipment, group members’ main struggle is identifying the benefits of becoming an e-business, which are wide, varied, and difficult to quantify. Additionally, the initial infrastructure investment is large enough to prompt many CEOs to wonder whether it’s really worthwhile to become an e-business. Trying to build a business case (calculate an ROI) for making a major IT investment can be an exercise in frustration. Says Sanjeev Agrawal, a director within the IBSG, “Can you show me the ROI of going to sixth grade? The amount of time it is going to take to try to go through the logic of that is not worth it.” The IBSG hopes that potential customers will look to Cisco as an example of how a company can make the most of information technology.
    [Show full text]
  • Linux Networking-HOWTO
    Linux Networking−HOWTO: Linux Networking−HOWTO: Table of Contents Linux Networking−HOWTO:............................................................................................................................1 Author: Joshua Drake poet@linuxports.com...........................................................................................1 1.Introduction...........................................................................................................................................1 2.Document History.................................................................................................................................1 3.How to use this HOWTO......................................................................................................................1 4.General Information about Linux Networking.....................................................................................1 5.Generic Network Configuration Information.......................................................................................1 6.Ethernet Information.............................................................................................................................2 7.IP Related Information..........................................................................................................................2 8.Advanced Networking with Kernel 2.2................................................................................................2 9.Using common PC hardware................................................................................................................2
    [Show full text]
  • ARCNET Tutorial Presentation
    ARCNET Tutorial What is ARCNET? Attached Resource Computer NETwork Token-Passing Local Area Network (LAN) Originally 2.5 Mbps data rate 255 Nodes or Stations Variable Packet Length Bus or Distributed Star Wiring Unicast or Broadcast Messages One to one or one to all What is ARCNET? Coaxial, Fiber Optic, Twisted-pair Cabling Over 11 Million Installed Nodes Originally developed by Datapoint Corporation as an office network Chip sets available from SMSC ANSI/ATA 878.1-1999 Standard Ideally suited for an industrial network What are ARCNET’s Benefits? Broad Acceptance Large Installed Base Deterministic Performance Simple to Install Low Cost per Node Robust Design Multiple Cable Media Support Multi-master Communication Where is ARCNET Used? HVAC Motor Drives Power Generation Data Acquisition and Control Manufacturing Information Systems Office Automation Shipboard Automation Where is ARCNET Used? Printing Press Controls Telecommunications Gaming Machines Vehicular Navigation Security Systems Any application where real-time performance, high security and robust design is important. How Does ARCNET Work? Distributed Star topology requires the use of hubs NODE NODE NODE NODE HUB HUB HUB NODE NODE NODE NODE NODE How Does ARCNET Work? OSI Reference Model Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical ARCNET defines the bottom two layers of the OSI model ARCNET Protocol Only Five Simple Commands ITT - Invitation to transmit FBE - Free buffer enquiry PAC - Packet ACK - Acknowledgement
    [Show full text]
  • Professional Services Online
    Professional Services Online IT Categories CATEGORY # YRS OF EXP. PER DIEM RATE Identify the category(ies), years of experience and rate(s). To view the duties of each category go to http://www.pwgsc.gc.ca/acquisitions/text/ps/category-e.html Business Transformation Architect Call Centre Consultant Database Administrator/Analyst Enterprise Architect Information Architect Internet/Intranet Site Specialist IT Project Executive IT Risk Management Service IT Security Consultant IT Technical Writer IT Tester Platform Analyst Programmer Programmer Analyst Project Administrator Project Leader Project Manager Quality Assurance Consultant Senior Platform Analyst Senior Systems Analyst Systems Auditor Technology Analyst Technology Architect Technology Operator WEB Accessibility Services Wireless Application Services Consultant SKILL GROUP/SKILLS X Select every skill within each group with a mark. To view the definitions of each skill go to http://www.pwgsc.gc.ca/acquisitions/text/ps/skills-e.html 4th Generation Clarion CSP Focus Foremark Ideal Ingres LINC MANTIS Natural OMNIS 7 Oracle PowerBuilder PowerHouse Progress QMF SAS SQL/QL Windows VisionBuilder ZIM Application Accounting ARCHIBUS/FM Autorun CD Axios Assyst Billing Business Objects CALS CA Unicentre CCM Plus Software Cognos Impromptu Web Reports (IWR) Cognos PowerPlay Cognos PowerPlay Web Cognos Reporting Environment Cold Fusion Command and Control Systems ComSec Congnos Impromptu Distribution and Warehousing Document Management EIS Financial Financial Applications Financial Programming
    [Show full text]
  • Bab 9 Pengenalan Jaringan Komputer
    11 BAB 9 PENGENALAN JARINGAN KOMPUTER Jaringan komputer, atau jaringan data, adalah jaringan telekomunikasi digital yang memungkinkan simpul untuk berbagi sumber daya. Dalam jaringan komputer, perangkat komputasi jaringan bertukar data satu sama lain menggunakan data link. Sambungan antar simpul dibuat menggunakan media kabel atau media nirkabel. Perangkat komputer jaringan yang berasal, rute dan penghentian data disebut node jaringan. Node dapat mencakup host seperti komputer pribadi, telepon, server serta perangkat keras jaringan. Dua perangkat seperti itu dapat dikatakan jaringan bersama bila satu perangkat dapat bertukar informasi dengan perangkat lain, apakah mereka memiliki hubungan langsung atau tidak langsung satu sama lain. Dalam kebanyakan kasus, protokol komunikasi khusus aplikasi berlapis (yaitu dibawa sebagai muatan) melalui protokol komunikasi umum lainnya. Koleksi teknologi informasi yang tangguh ini membutuhkan pengelolaan jaringan yang terampil agar tetap berjalan dengan andal. Jaringan komputer mendukung sejumlah besar aplikasi dan layanan seperti akses ke World Wide Web, video digital, audio digital, penggunaan bersama dari server aplikasi dan penyimpanan, printer, dan mesin faks, dan penggunaan aplikasi email dan pesan instan serta banyak lainnya Jaringan komputer berbeda dalam media transmisi yang digunakan untuk membawa sinyal mereka, protokol komunikasi untuk mengatur lalu lintas jaringan, ukuran jaringan, topologi dan maksud organisasi. Jaringan komputer yang paling terkenal adalah Internet. 9.1 Sejarah Kronologi perkembangan jaringan komputer yang signifikan meliputi: l Pada akhir 1950-an, jaringan komputer awal mencakup sistem radar militer A.S. Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE). l Pada tahun 1959, Anatolii Ivanovich Kitov mengusulkan kepada Komite Sentral Partai Komunis Uni Soviet sebuah rencana terperinci untuk pengorganisasian kembali kendali angkatan bersenjata Soviet dan ekonomi Soviet berdasarkan jaringan pusat komputasi , OGAS.
    [Show full text]