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Home , Edmund Burke, Thomas Paine

BURKE, PAINE, AND THE OF MAN Les ouvrages publies dans la collection de l'Ecole des politiques et sociales de l'Universite de Louvain etant l'oeuvre personelle de leurs auteurs, n'engagent que leur seule responsabilite. UNIVERSITE CATHOLIQUE DE LOUVAIN

COLLECTION DE L'ECOLE DES SCIENCES POLITIQUES ET SOCIALES

Nr.I7I

BURKE, PAINE, AND THE

A DIFFERENCE OF POLITICAL OPINION

PAR

R. R. FENNESSY oJ.m. LICENCIE EN SCIENCES POLITIQUES ET SOCIALES

MARTINUS NI]HOFF - LA HA YE ISBN 978-94-015-2387-5 ISBN 978-94-015-3637-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-3637-0

Nihil Obstat: Imprimi potest: Edwin Rabbitte o.f.m. Celsus O'Briain o.f.m. Roger Moloney oj.m. Minister Provincialis Censores deputati Imprimatur: A. Descamps Rector Universitatis Lovanii, die 24a ianuarii 1963 PREFACE

At the present day, when there is renewed interest in the concept of and in the application of this concept to the problems of ,! it may be instructive to review an eighteenth-century dispute which was concerned precisely with these themes. Nor should the investigation be any less interesting because the disputants were and : both these men have also been the object of renewed attention and study in recent years. Critical work on the biography and bibliography of Paine is being done by Professor Aldridge and Col. Richard Gimbel respectively;2 while Burke is being well looked after, not only by the able team of experts who, under the leadership of Professor Copeland, are engaged in producing the critical edition of his Correspondence, but also by such individual scholars as D. C. Bryant, C. B. Cone, T. H. D. Mahoney, P. J. Stanlis, C. Parkin, F. Canavan, and A. Cobban.3 But though Burke and Paine are being studied separately, little work appears to have been done on the relationship between them, apart from an by Professor Copeland published more than twelve years ago. 4 It is hoped that the present study, while it does not claim to add anything to the facts about Burke and Paine already known to his-

1 See Nehemiah Robinson, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Its Origins, Significance, and Interpretation, (New York: Institute of Jewish Affairs, 1958); also Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1958-1959 ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1960). 2 Alfred Owen Aldridge, Man of . The Life of Thomas Paine, (London: The Cresset Press, 1960); Richard Gimbel, Thomas Paine: a Bibliographical Checklist Of ; with an Account of its Publication, (Yale: Press, 1956). 8 For recent works by these scholars, see Bibliography. 4 Thomas W. Copeland, Edmund Burke. Six Essays, (London: Jonathan Cape, 1950), 146-189. VI PREFACE torians,l nevertheless may suggest a valid interpretation of the relationship between the two men. In his essay Professor Copeland remarked that "the great controversy in which Burke and Paine were the principal antagonists was perhaps the most crucial ideological debate ever carried on in English." 2 This controversy began with the publication in November 1790 of Burke's Reflections on the in , and produced such other well-known works as Burke's Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791), Sir 's Vindiciae Gallicae (1791) and Paine's Rights of Man Part I (1791), and Part II (1792); it also pro• duced a host of pamphlet replies to Burke and Paine,3 and numerous paragraphs, letters and reviews in newspapers and periodicals. It is not intended in this study to trace the course of this long and tedious controversy, but to consider specifically the two chief publications of its early phase, Burke's Reflections, and Paine's Rights of Man, Part 1.; the pamphlets, newspapers, and periodicals will be treated only as evidence of public reaction to these two famous books. But what exactly was the controversy about? The matter is more complicated than might appear at first sight; and there is room for different methods of approach and treatment. The dispute might be considered as being primarily concerned with the merits and demerits of the ; but it might also be interpreted as a theoreti• cal discussion of rights and government; or as a controversy about the desirability of introducing political reforms in , after the example of the French revolution. The discussion in England of the merits and demerits of the French revolution would certainly be a subject worthy of study; indeed a certain amount of work has already been done on it.4 In the present work, however, we treat of that discussion only incidentally, and with• out attempting to assess the value of the various opinions of the French revolution expressed in England; we are concerned rather with the meaning of the doctrine of "the rights of man," and with the question of political reform in England.

1 A number of references to Paine in the Burke Correspondence are here published for the first time, but they do not add anything material to our knowledge of his life. 2 T. W. Copeland, op. cit., 148. 3 For a list of such replies, see Bibliography. 4 See P. A. Brown, The French Revolution in English History, (London: Allen & Unwin, 1923); C. Cestre, La Revolution franr;aise et les poetes anglais I789-I809, (: Champion, 1906); A. Cobban, The Debate on the French Revolution I789-I8oo, (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1950); E. Dowden, The French Revolution and (London: Kegan Paul, 1897); W. T. Laprade, England and the French Revolution, (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 19°9)· PREFACE VII

The justification of this choice is the fact - which, it is hoped, will be made clear in the following pages - that both Burke and Paine regarded the French revolution as primarily and essentially the appli• cation in France of a certain set of political principles summarily described as the doctrine of "the rights of man," and that both were mainly concerned - from opposite points of view - with the possible application of that doctrine in England. We shall therefore proceed by inquiring, first of all, what exactly Burke and Paine understood by the doctrine of "the rights of man," and what place the concept of rights held in their respective political philosophies; it is hoped that a study of the political ideas of the two men, understood in the context of their respective political careers, .will enable us to see why they adopted opposing views of the French revolution, and of the desirability of radical political change in England. In examining the political ideas of the two men, no attempt will be made to trace the influence of other political writers on either, or to establish their place in the history of political theory; the intention is rather to establish the contrast between the convictions of the two men; to show how and why these two famous eighteenth-century writers could have totally different opinions on such typical eighteenth• century topics as "nature," "reason," and "rights." We shall then examine Burke's rejection of the "rights of man" doctrine, made in Reflections, and his for claiming that this doctrine was not only theoretically unsound but was also specifically incompatible with the spirit of the English , and therefore by no means a suitable basis for the eventual reform of that consti• tution. We shall see at the same time that Burke's book was a studied attempt to counteract and discredit pro- sentiment in England. We shall then see how far, and in what way, Paine replied to Burke in Rights of Man, Part I, concluding that this book is much less an actual reply to Burke's arguments than simply a counter-manifesto of pro-revolutionary and republican sentiments. It will then be clear that there was no actual controversy between Burke and Paine - that is, no exchange of argument, reply, or counter• argument - but simply two appeals to English public opinion, from two entirely different and totally irreconcilable points of view. It will therefore appear appropriate to inquire how these appeals were re• ceived by English public opinion. This inquiry, made in the last two chapters of the book, reveals the fact that, despite the widespread circulation and great influence of both books, English public opinion VIII PREFACE in general did not side immediately with either man, nor did it divide into two camps, one in favour of Burke, and one in favour of Paine. Burke's attack on the French revolution and its English admirers was generally considered to be exaggerated; it was resented very strongly by the various groups and that were working for reform of parliament and of religious legislation; and it was badly received by a large section of his own political party - the important section which looked to as its leader. As a result, Burke publicly declared his political separation from Fox and, since he was not supported by the rest of the party, remained politically isolated until the course of events in France and the consequent growth of anti-revolutionary feeling in England caused public opinion to swing to his side. Meanwhile, Paine had also been disappointed in his hopes of exercising a decisive pro-revolutionary influence on English opinion. His book was sponsored by certain societies for constitutional reform, and with their help achieved a wide circulation; but his views were too radical and republican for most of his English readers, and, by exciting protest and reaction, contributed to the defeat of the cause of political reform in England. Rights ot Man was not what Paine intended it to be, the manifesto of the revolution in England; but it achieved a success which Paine did not foresee, as the favourite text• book of the working class political clubs. This book was written as a doctorate dissertion presented at the School of and Political Sciences of the Catholic University of Louvain. I wish to express my gratitude to the professors and lecturers of that school for the training in the social and political sciences I received from them, and for that special kind of inspiration and direction which only a lively and purposeful University Faculty can give. I am particularly indebted to Professor Pierre de Bie, under whose direction this work was prepared, for his guidance and encour• agement. I thank also those who helped me in various ways during the pre• paration of the book. Mr Adrian BruneI amiably gave me the benefit of his expert knowledge of Thomas Paine, and access to his invaluable Thomas Paine library. Mr Charles Parkin of Clare College, Cambridge, and Professor H. Butterfield, Master of Peterhouse, very kindly discussed particular points with me, and gave me helpful advice. Professor Thomas W. Copeland generously allowed me access to transcripts and other documents being used for the preparation of future volumes of the critical edition of Burke's correspondence, of PREFACE IX which he is the General Editor. The extracts from the correspondence which I have used will appear in due course in this edition, published by the University of Chicago Press and the Cambridge University Press. To Professor Copeland and to his able assistant Mrs Valerie jobling, who very kindly checked the extracts before they went to the printer, I am especially grateful. I should like also to express my appreciation of the courtesy and efficiency of Mr john Bebbington, Sheffield City Librarian, and his staff, and of the staffs of the British Museum Reading Room, the Public Record Office, Cambridge University Library, and the Library of the Royal Irish Academy. Finally, for permission to quote from the Fitzwilliam manuscripts I am indebted to Earl Fitzwilliam and Earl Fitzwilliam's Wentworth Estates Company. I am likewise indebted to the Trustees of the British Museum for permission to quote from the Minute Book of the for Constitutional Information, and to the Treasury Solicitor and the Public Record Office, for permission to quote from the Letter Book of the London Corresponding Society.

R.R.F. College St Antoine, Louvain February I963 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface v Chapter One I A Public Controversy 1790-1792 I

Publication of Reflections; mixed reception I English opinion of the French revolution; surprise at Burke's hostility 3 Paine's complaint against Burke; was it justified? 10

Chapter Two I Thomas Paine: the man and his ideas 1737-1790 12 I. PAINE'S EARLY LIFE 12 Religious formation 12 Self-education 14 Family life 18 Paine goes to America, and enters 19 II. PAINE'S POLITICAL IDEAS 22 23 Mechanism 24 28 Enlightenment 32 Reason 34 Nature 35 III. PAINE'S HOPES OF A POLITICAL REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. HIS RETURN TO EUROPE 37 Hopes for England 37 Return to Europe; renewed political activity 39 Paine tries to influence Burke 45 XII TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Three I A different outlook: Edmund Burke 48

I. BURKE AND PAINE CONTRASTED 48

II. BURKE'S CHARACTERISTIC IDEAS 52 Attitude towards 52 The critique of reason 60 Nature 68 Nature and reason; 71 Natural rights 72 79 Attachment to the English constitution 80 III. BURKE'S REACTION TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 85 Why Burke was friendly to Paine 85 Burke's political position in I789 86 Influence of the regency crisis and the Hastings impeach- ment 88 First reaction to the French revolution 94 First letter to Depont 96 Dr Price's sermon; Burke plans a reply 99 Paine's letter to Burke !O3

Chapter Four I Burke rejects the ri~hts of man 108

I. CRITICISM OF THE "RIGHTS OF MAN" PHILOSOPHY IIO The IIO The end of government; ruler and ruled II] Defence of existing institutions I2I Rank 122 125 Religion 128 Prescription, presumption, prejudice 130 Rejection of "metaphysical" reasoning in politics 134 Rejection of the rights of man I38 Right as individual privilege, and as relation 139 The right of self-government I4I

II. THE "RIGHTS OF MAN" PHILOSOPHY INCOMPATIBLE WITH THE SPIRIT OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION 145 The hereditary principle 146 The principle of church establishment ISO Respect for natural feelings I54 TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII

III. CRITICISM 156

Chapter Five / Paine replies to Burke: Rights of Man 160 Paine plans to write on the revolution I60 Paine fails to understand Burke I6I Paine's interpretation of the French revolution 164 Man and his rights 168 Paine's attack on the English constitution 173 Rejection of the hereditary principle in government 174 Rejection of state religion 176 Criticism of the English financial system 177 Attack on the English crown, and parliamentary system of government 178 Conclusion 180

Chapter Six / Reflections and public opinion, 1791 181 The reaction within Burke's own party 182 Mackintosh and the "New Whigs" 194 The interpretation of the French revolution 194 The interpretation of 196 The rights of man 196 The criticism of Burke 197 The reply of the reformers 200 and the social protest 203 and the reply of the dissenters 206 Burke's retort: "Either Burke or Paine" 2IO

Chapter Seven I Rights oj Man and public opinion, 1791 2I3 I. THE PAMPHLETEERS AND REVIEWERS 2I3 II. Rights ot Man AND THE CONSTITUTIONAL SOCIETIES 22I Aims of the societies; their situation early in I79I 22I Effect of Rights ot Man; a new policy 224 The campaign in favour of Rights ot Man 228 Counter-propaganda and reaction 232 Paine's hopes are defeated; failure of the reform movement 237 III. POSITIVE EFFECT OF Rights ot Man. PAINE AND THE WORKING-CLASS MOVEMENT 244 Conclusion 251 Bibliography 255 Ouvrages publics dans la Collection de l' Ecole des Sciences politiques et sociales 269