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Sns College of Technology SNS COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY COIMBATORE-35 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING UNIT I - FORESTRY AND FOREST REGENERATION Topic 6: Silviculture Silviculture is the practice of controlling the growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. The name comes from the Latin silvi- (forest) + culture (as in growing). The study of forests and woods is termed silvology. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment(s) of forest stands are used to preserve and to better their productivity. Generally, silviculture is the science and art of growing and tending forest crops, based on a knowledge of silvics, i.e., the study of the life history and general characteristics of forest trees and stands, with particular reference to locality factors. More particularly, silviculture is the theory and practice of controlling the establishment, composition, constitution, and growth of forests. No matter how forestry as a science is constituted, the kernel of the business of forestry has historically been silviculture, as it includes direct action in the forest, and in it all economic objectives and technical considerations ultimately converge. The focus of silviculture is regeneration, but more recently, recreational use of forestland has challenged silviculture as the primary income generation from forests, due to increasing recognizance of forestland's use for leisure and recreation. Some of the distinction between forestry and silviculture is that silviculture is applied at the stand level and forestry is broader. For example, John D. Matthews says "complete regimes for regenerating, tending, and harvesting forests" are called "silvicultural systems". Adaptive management is common in silviculture, where forestry can include natural, conserved land without a stand level management and treatment being applied. A common taxonomy divides silviculture into regenerating, tending, and harvesting techniques. Silvicultural systems The origin of forestry in German-speaking Europe has defined silvicultural systems broadly as high forest (Hochwald), coppice with standards (Mittelwald) and compound coppice, short rotation coppice, and coppice (Niederwald). There are other systems as well. These varied silvicultural systems include several harvesting methods, which are often wrongly said to be a silvicultural systems, but may also be called rejuvenating or regenerating method depending on the purpose. The high forest system is further subdivided in German: • High forest (Hochwald) o Age class forest (Altersklassenwald) ▪ Even-aged forestry ▪ Clear cutting (Kahlschlag) ▪ Shelterwood cutting (Schirmschlag) ▪ Seed-tree method ▪ Uneven-aged forestry ▪ The Femel selection cutting (group selection cutting) (Femelschlag) ▪ Strip selection cutting (strip-and-group felling system) (Saumschlag) ▪ Shelterwood wedge cutting (Schirmkeilschlag) ▪ Mixed-form regeneration methods (Mischformen) o Continuous cover forestry (Dauerwald) ▪ Uneven-aged forestry ▪ Selection forest (Plenterwald) ▪ Target diameter harvesting (Zielstärkennutzung) These names give the impression is that these are neatly defined systems, but in practice there are variations within these harvesting methods in accordance with to local ecology and site conditions. While location of an archetypal form of harvesting technique can be identified (they all originated somewhere with a particular forester, and have been described in the scientific literature), and broad generalizations can be made, these are merely rules of thumb rather than strict blueprints on how techniques might be applied. This misunderstanding has meant that many older English textbooks did not capture the true complexity of silviculture as practiced where it originated in Mitteleuropa. This silviculture was culturally predicated on wood production in temperate and boreal climates and did not deal with tropical forestry. The misapplication of this philosophy to those tropical forests has been problematic. There is also an alternative silvicultural tradition which developed in Japan and thus created a different biocultural landscape called satoyama. After harvesting comes regeneration, which may be split into natural and artificial (see below), and tending, which includes release treatments, pruning, thinning and intermediate treatments. It is conceivable that any of these 3 phases (harvesting, regeneration, and tending) may happen at the same time within a stand, depending on the goal for that particular stand. Regeneration Regeneration is basic to the continuation of forested, as well as to the afforestation of treeless land. Regeneration can take place through self-sown seed ("natural regeneration"), by artificially sown seed, or by planted seedlings. In whichever case, the performance of regeneration depends on its growth potential and the degree to which its environment allows the potential to be expressed.[8] Seed, of course, is needed for all regeneration modes, both for natural or artificial sowing and for raising planting stock in a nursery. Natural regeneration is a "human-assisted natural regeneration" means of establishing a forest age class from natural seeding or sprouting in an area after harvesting in that area through selection cutting, shelter (or seed-tree) harvest, soil preparation, or restricting the size of a clear-cut stand to secure natural regeneration from the surrounding trees. The process of natural regeneration involves the renewal of forests by means of self-sown seeds, root suckers, or coppicing. In natural forests, conifers rely almost entirely on regeneration through seed. Most of the broadleaves, however, are able to regenerate by the means of emergence of shoots from stumps (coppice) and broken stems. Seedbed requirements Any seed, self-sown or artificially applied, requires a seedbed suitable for securing germination. In order to germinate, a seed requires suitable conditions of temperature, moisture, and aeration. For seeds of many species, light is also necessary, and facilitates the germination of seeds in other species, but spruces are not exacting in their light requirements, and will germinate without light. White spruce seed germinated at 35 °F (1.7 °C) and 40 °F (4.4 °C) after continuous stratification for one year or longer and developed radicles less than 6 cm (2.4 in) long in the cold room. When exposed to light, those germinants developed chlorophyll and were normally phototropic with continued elongation. For survival in the short and medium terms, a germinant needs: a continuing supply of moisture; freedom from lethal temperature; enough light to generate sufficient photosynthate to support respiration and growth, but not enough to generate lethal stress in the seedling; freedom from browsers, tramplers, and pathogens; and a stable root system. Shade is very important to the survival of young seedlings. In the longer term, there must be an adequate supply of essential nutrients and an absence of smothering. In undisturbed forest, decayed windfallen stemwood provides the most favorable seedbed for germination and survival, moisture supply being dependable, and the elevation of seedlings somewhat above the general level of the forest floor reduces the danger of smothering by leaves and snow-pressed minor vegetation; nor is such a microsite likely to be subject to flooding. Advantages conferred by those microsites include: more light, higher temperatures in the rooting zone, and better mycorrhizal development. In a survey in the Porcupine Hills, Manitoba, 90% of all spruce seedlings were rooted in rotten wood. Mineral soil seedbeds are more receptive than the undisturbed forest floor, and are generally moister and more readily rewetted than the organic forest floor. However, exposed mineral soil, much more so than organic-surfaced soil, is subject to frost heaving and shrinkage during drought. The forces generated in soil by frost or drought are quite enough to break roots. The range of microsites occurring on the forest floor can be broadened, and their frequency and distribution influenced by site preparation. Each microsite has its own microclimate. Microclimates near the ground are better characterized by vapour pressure deficit and net incident radiation, rather than the standard measurements of air temperature, precipitation, and wind pattern. Aspect is an important component of microclimate, especially in relation to temperature and moisture regimes. Germination and seedling establishment of Engelmann spruce were much better on north than on south aspect seedbeds in the Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado; the ratios of seeds to 5-year-old seedlings were determined as 32:1, 76:1, and 72:1 on north aspect bladed-shaded, bladed-unshaded, and undisturbed-shaded seedbeds, respectively. Clearcut openings of 1.2 to 2.0 hectares (3.0 to 4.9 acres) adjacent to an adequate seed source, and not more than 6 tree-heights wide, could be expected to secure acceptable regeneration (4,900, 5-year-old trees per hectare), whereas on undisturbed-unshaded north aspects, and on all seedbed treatments tested on south aspects, seed to seedling ratios were so high that the restocking of any clearcut opening would be questionable. At least seven variable factors may influence seed germination: seed characteristics, light, oxygen, soil reaction (pH), temperature, moisture, and seed enemies. Moisture and temperature are the most influential, and both are affected by exposure. The difficulty of securing natural regeneration of Norway spruce and Scots pine
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