Tropenbos Document 14

METHODS FOR NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS RESEARCH THE TROPENBOS EXPERIENCE

Mirjam A.F. Ros-Tonen, Tinde van Andel, Willem Assies, Johanna W.F. van Dijk, Joost F. Duivenvoorden, Maria Clara van der Hammen, Wil de Jong, Marileen Reinders, Carlos A. Fernández Rodríguez, Johan J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg

No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print photocopy, microform, electronic or electromagnetic record without written permission.

2 CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 7

2 OVERVIEW OF TROPENBOS PROJECTS ON NTFPS 10

3 METHODOLOGIES TO DETERMINE THE AVAILABILITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES 12 3.1 Standard vegetation analysis 12 3.2 The nested sampling or transect method 13 3.3 Land ecological survey methods 15 3.4 The role of local informants 16

4. METHODOLOGIES TO ESTABLISH SUSTAINABLE HARVEST LEVELS 18

5. METHODOLOGIES FOR MARKET SURVEYS 20

6. METHODS TO STUDY NTFP-BASED HOUSEHOLD LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES 22 6.1 Participatory registering of forest use 22 6.2 Personal and participatory personal interviews methods 24 6.3 The agro-extractive cycle 25

7. METHODOLOGIES FOR PARTICIPATORY PLANNING 26

8. CONCLUSIONS 27

REFERENCES 29

APPENDIX 1 List of authors 31

3 BOXES AND FIGURES

Boxes Box 1 The Tropenbos Foundation Box 2 Ongoing projects on NTFPs in the Tropenbos programme

Figures Figure 1 Main attributes of sustainable NTFP extraction Figure 2 Layout of research plots in Guyana (van Andel)

4 1 INTRODUCTION

In the 1990s research on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) received an important impulse worldwide. Much of this research departs from the hypothesis that commercial extraction of NTFPs can provide a stimulus to conservation and sound forest management through adding economic value to the forest, and through contributing to the peoples' cash-incomes and a country's national income and export earnings. However, extraction of NTFPs is not sustainable per definition neither in ecological nor in socio-economic terms. Overexploitation, substitution by synthetics, and exploitative commercialization systems discourage extractors to manage the forest resource in a sustainable way (Richards, 1993). The challenge is to identify the conditions for successful commercial extraction, in a way that it contributes to the conservation of forests and increased well-being for forest-dwelling people. The Tropenbos Foundation (see Box 1) takes up this challenge, by aiming at the development of a checklist of requirements for sustainable extraction of NTFPs and of a methodology to apply it in land-use planning. The checklist could also be used at community level, to assess the feasibility of (small-scale) commercial extraction on a sustainable basis.

Tropenbos already supported several studies on NTFPs in Colombia (Dominguez and Gomez, 1990; Galeano, 1991; van der Hammen, 1991; Rodriguez, 1991), Guyana (van Andel, 1996; Verhey and Reinders, 1997), Côte d'Ivoire (Bonnéhin, 1992), Cameroon (van Dijk, forthcoming) and Indonesia (de Jong, 1993; van Valkenburg and Ketner, 1994; van Valkenburg, 1997). In an attempt to streamline activities dealing with NTFPs, and to maximize its orientation towards forest policy and management, Tropenbos published a research strategy in 1995 (Ros-Tonen, Dijkman and Lammerts van Bueren, 1995). The strategy paper contains an overview of attributes of ecologically sound, economically viable and socially and politically acceptable extraction. It also highlights some pitfalls and potential dead ends of commercial NTFP extraction as a conservation strategy. The document is completed with a list of hypotheses concerning the sustainable extraction of NTFPs. The strategy paper was written to provide an analytical framework for studies carried out at various sites. It also forms the basis for the checklist in development.

Several Tropenbos studies were formulated when this analytical framework was not yet available. However, these studies could contribute in several ways to the realization of the Tropenbos NTFP research strategy. More specifically, they could provide: - insight into the most important forest land use requirements for sustainable extraction; - insight into the problems and restrictions with respect to these requirements; - judgement on the hypotheses which can be accepted or which need further testing; - judgement on standardized methodologies, e.g. for inventories or market surveys. The focus in this document is on the methodological aspects of these studies, rather than on the themes studied or their results.

In this document, NTFPs are defined as all tangible animal and plant products other than industrial wood, coming from natural forests, including managed secondary forests and enriched forests. The cultivation of products in home gardens and agroforestry systems remains beyond the scope of this document, although in practice the distinction between 'wild' and (semi)cultivated products is often difficult to make (de Jong, 1993; van Dijk, 1994; van Valkenburg and Ketner, 1994; van Valkenburg, 1997). Without denying the importance of NTFPs for subsistence use, the emphasis here is on commercial extraction as a potential incentive to forest conservation and sound management, at local as well as national level.

5 BOX 1: THE TROPENBOS FOUNDATION

The Tropenbos Foundation was established in July 1988 in order to continue and expand the international Tropenbos Programme, which was set up by the Netherlands’ government in 1986. The main objectives of the Foundation are: - to contribute effectively to the conservation and wise use of tropical rain forests, through generating wledge, deepening insights and developing and testing methods for forest policy and management; - to involve local research institutions and to strengthen research capacity in tropical rain forest

To realise these objectives, the Tropenbos Foundation formulates, coordinates and finances objective oriented research programmes, based on the needs of policy makers and forest users. In close cooperation with research institutions and governments in a number of tropical countries, permanent research sites have been established in Colombia, Guyana, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Indonesia. At these sites, interdisciplinary programmes have been set up to produce results which have significance for application on a local as well as on a broader scale. Extension and training are important elements in the international and national Tropenbos programmes. To strengthen the coherence between the sites and to enhance the effectiveness of the Tropenbos programme, in recent years attention has also been paid to the development of themes such as biodiversity, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management and NTFPs.

Figure 1 presents the key conditions for sustainable extraction, grouped in three subsystems: ecological sustainability, economic feasibility and social and political acceptability. Ecologically sustainable extraction is defined in terms of the continuous availability of the resources, with minimal degradation of biological diversity. This is to be evaluated both at the level of individual organisms, at population level and the level of the ecosystem. Extraction is considered to be economically feasible if the cost-benefit balance is positive and income and returns can compete favourably with other economic activities. This requires that natural resources, capital and labour are available, and that markets are accessible. By social and political acceptability is meant that the extraction of NTFPs contributes to the welfare of rural and forest-dwelling people, that it does not lead to cultural disruption, social instability or inequities and that it is supported by local governments.

Not all requirements play an equally important role in the success of commercial and sustainable extraction. First of all, the resource is to be there (Peters, 1996). But there also seems to be a general consensus that tenure and exploitation rights, access to markets, the economic organization and dynamics at national level and the combination with subsistence and other economic activities play a crucial role (Tropenbos Newsletter, 1997; van Valkenburg, 1997). Also participatory planning is considered to be an important element (Bawa, personal communication), especially in relation to the social aspects of sustainablility. It is mainly the availability of natural resources, household livelihood strategies, and access to markets which received most attention in the Tropenbos programme thus far. Methods to establish sustainable harvest levels have been developed in relation to fishing (Rodriguez, 1991), while a modest effort was undertaken for rattan by van Valkenburg (1997). Methods for participatory planning have been applied in Colombia by van der Hammen (1991). An overview of these methods and the experiences therewith can be found below.

6 Figure 1 Main attributes of sustainable NTFP extraction

Ecologically sustainable at level of individual organism !

Ecologically sustainable at ! ! level of population dynamics Ecologically Ecologically sustainable at sustainable ecosystem level !

Natural resources available ! SUSTAINABLE

Natural resources accessible ! NTFP Economically Labour and skills available ! ! feasible EXTRACTION Capital available ! Access to markets !

Support of local governments ! Socially and Socially acceptable ! politically ! acceptable Culturally acceptable !

7 2. OVERVIEW OF TROPENBOS PROJECTS ON NTFPS

The Tropenbos projects dealing with NTFPs (Box 2) can be subdivided in three categories. The first group of projects deal with NTFPs as part of a more comprehensive project on indigenous forest use and management. The work of Clara van der Hammen (1991) (Tropenbos-Colombia), Janette Forte (Tropenbos-Guyana), Marileen Reinders (Tropenbos-Guyana) and the social cluster in the Tropenbos- Cameroon programme belong to this group, as well as the work undertaken by Wil de Jong (1993) in West-Kalimantan.

A second group of projects specifically study the potential of NTFPs. To this group belongs the non- timber forest plant resource assessment coordinated by Joost Duivenvoorden (Tropenbos-Colombia)i, the study of NTFPs in the North-West District and Pomeroon region by Tinde van Andel (1996) (Tropenbos-Guyana), the economic and ecological assessment of NTFPs in the Bipindi-Akom II region undertaken by Han van Dijk (forthcoming) (Tropenbos-Cameroon), and the recently completed study on NTFPs in East Kalimantan (Tropenbos-Indonesia) by Johan van Valkenburg (1997).

Finally, some studies deal with specific products and focus on aspects of their sustainable use. These studies are those undertaken by Carlos Rodriguez (1991) on commercial fishing (Tropenbos- Colombia) and by Willem Assies (1997) on the social, economic and political aspects of Brazil nut exploitation in the Bolivian and Brazilian Amazon region.

The project carried out in Côte d'Ivoire (Bonnéhin, 1992) stands somewhat apart from these, as it deals with the prospects for domestication through vegetative propagation of two forest fruit trees (Coula edulis and Tieghemella heckelii) in the Taï region. The idea behind this study is that the integration of these species in local farming systems would reduce the pressure on the protected forest areas in the Taï National Park. As such it does not deal directly with NTFP extraction from natural forest.

i This project is part of a joint effort of Latin American and European universities to obtain an improved appraisal of the resource availability of non-timber forest plant products in Northwest Amazonia. The project includes research on NW Amazonian markets for non-timber forest plant products and potential supply of these products from mature forests in three pilot areas. The project is funded by the INCO-DC programme of the European Community. In Colombia it receives support from the Tropenbos-Colombia programme.

BOX 2: ONGOING PROJECTS ON NTFPs IN THE TROPENBOS PROGRAMME

Colombia: 1. Diagnosis of commercial fishing: project aimed at the development of a management model for commercial fisheries, based on a comprehensive diagnosis that includes social, economic, cultural and biological aspects, in order to define possible scenarios for sustainable extraction. Responsible researcher: Carlos Rodriguez. 2. Natural resource management with indigenous communities: project aimed at drafting regional natural resource management plans together with indigenous communities, through documentation and analysis of actual forest use. Information collected includes shifting cultivation, hunting, fishing and gathering of NTFPs, as well as the cultural value of natural resources. The project combines indigenous and western knowledge through a participatory approach. Responsible researcher: Clara van der Hammen. 3. Non-timber forest plant resource assessment in NW Amazonia: appraisal of resource availability of plant NTFPs in NW Amazonia (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru), using a land ecological approach. Includes research on markets and potential NTFP supply of plant origin in three pilot areas. Coordinator: Joost Duivenvoorden.

Guyana: 4. NTFPs in the NW District and Pomeroon region: project aiming to increase knowledge on NTFPs in the region by an extensive inventory of NTFPs of plant origin and of economical and ecological aspects of their use, extraction and management. To assess abundance and diversity of NTFPs, 1 hectare inventories are made in different forest types. Responsible researcher: Tinde van Andel. 5. Amerindians as manipulators, consumers, producers and actors in their natural environment: project aiming to increase knowledge of economic, cultural, social and ecological aspects of management and use of the natural environment by Amerindian tribes (the Caribs) in the NW district and Pomeroon region, with particular reference to the flora. Special attention is given to changes in management and use resulting from factors like education, contacts with other inhabitants, absorption into the cash economy and changes in government policy. Relationships with timber and gold mining companies are also part of the study. Responsible researcher: Marileen Reinders. 6. Adaptive strategies of Kariña (Carib) people in the upper Cuyuni/Barama/Barima areas: study of the migratory way of life of scattered groups of Caribs in the area and their response to new extractive industries, gold mining and logging. Responsible researcher: Janette Forte.

Cameroon: 7. The integration of NTFP resources in multiple-use forest management: project aiming at the assessment of economic and ecological characteristics of NTFPs and at formulating concrete recommendations for the integration of NTFP resource management in sustainable forest management systems and strategies, by determining the actual and potential value of NTFPs for local people, assessment of the impact of exploitation on NTFP resources and identification of opportunities to increase the benefits of extraction for local people. Responsible researcher: Han van Dijk. 8. Peoples' perspective of the forest: project describing the role of the local population in forest exploitation, their perceptions and knowledge of the forest environment and the possibilities of involving them in sustainable forms of forest management. Responsible researchers: Karin Biesbrouck, Yolanda van den Berg, Francois Tiayon and Francis Nkoumbele.

Côte d'Ivoire: 9. Domestication of two fruit tree species from the Taï forest: project investigating the prospects for domestication and integration in local farming systems through vegetative propagation of two forest fruit trees (Coula edulis and Tieghemella heckelii) in the Taï region, so that pressure on the protected forest areas in the Taï National Park will be reduced. Responsible researcher: Léonie Bonnéhin.

Indonesia: 10. The economic and ecological potential of NTFPs in East Kalimantan (completed): study of the economic and ecological potential of rattan and other NTFPs in East Kalimantan, describing the forest vegetation and the abundance and importance of various NTFPs, focusing on rattan and indigenous fruit trees. The inventory gives harvestable volumes of (potentially) commercial species, with projections of sustainable yield. Responsible researcher: Johan van Valkenburg. 11. Forest management practices of Dayaks in West Kalimantan (completed): project evaluating the potential of existing indigenous management practices for the development of sustainable and economically feasible small-holder forestry. Responsible researcher: Wil de Jong.

Bolivia/Brazil: 12. The social, economic and political aspects of Brazil nut exploitation in the Amazon region: project aimed at establishing the socio-economic and cultural parameters of sustainable extraction of Brazil nuts. Responsible researcher: Willem Assies.

9 3. METHODOLOGIES TO DETERMINE THE AVAIL-ABILITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES

It is principally the group of studies dealing with the potential of NTFP extraction where methods have been (or are being) used to determine the availability of NTFP resources. In the Tropenbos programme, several methods are used to determine the abundance and distribution of NTFP species. In East-Kalimantan where the principal aim was to investigate the influence of a-biotic factors (principally relief) on NTFP availability, and where attention was focused on rattan and fruit tree species, a standard vegetation analysis was applied. The Importance Value index (I.V.) of Cottam and Curtis (1956) was used to describe, quantify and compare the tree taxa composition of the plots (van Valkenburg, 1997). In both Guyana and Cameroon, where in addition to trees also shrubs, vines and herbs are of interest, the nested sampling design described in Hall and Bawa (1993) was used to get insight into the availability of NTFPs at different locations. The EC-funded project in Colombia works at a larger scale, using land-ecological survey methods to link potential use and information about the composition of mature forests to remote sensing imagery. In this case, the land unit concept is applied to distinguish different forest types (Duivenvoorden and Lips, 1995).

3.1 The standard vegetation analysis

In the study carried out in East-Kalimantan (Van Valkenburg, 1997) several plots were surveyed. As the principal aim of the inventory was to get insight into the influence of a-biotic factors (i.e. relief) on the occurrence of NTFPs, the plots were located at three different sites to cover regional differences in species composition. At each site, the plots were situated in a topo-sequence from ridge-top to valley- floor. In these plots, which vary in size from 035-2.0 ha, the vegetation was arbitrarily divided in trees and other plant species yielding. NTFPs. Literature survey and informal interviews indicated that in primary forest only tree and rattan species were of economic importance. Therefore all other plants were excluded from the analysis.

In the permanent plots all trees with a diameter at breast height (dbh) >10 cm (at 130 cm above ground level or if buttresses present 30 cm above buttresses) were measured using the circumference method. The location, within the plot, of each tree was recorded with a 10 cm accuracy. The vernacular name and local use were recorded based on information of local assistants. Each tree was labelled with a numbered aluminium tag, and voucher specimens of all trees were collected. The specimens were identified with the assistance of botanists. Local use or potential use were verified by consulting existing literature using the list of scientific names based on the voucher specimens. All species were allocated to a certain end-use category based on the Prosea list (Jansen et al., 1991).

Rattan plants in the plots were labelled with numbered aluminium tags. Within a population, only plants with a minimum cane length of 50 cm were included. The growth stage of all shoots was recorded by classifying them in different growth stages. The plants were monitored over a two-year period. Growth was defined as the passage from one stage to the next.

The importance value index (I.V.) of Cottam & Curtis (1956) was used to describe and compare the tree taxa (family, genus, species) composition of the plots and the various research sites. The I.V. of a taxon is defined as the sum of its relative density (Rde), relative dominance (Rdo) and relative frequency (Rfr) (I.V.= Rde + Rdo + Rfr), whereby:

Number of individuals of a taxon Relative density: Total number of individuals X 100%

Basal area of a taxon Relative dominance Total basal area of all taxa X 100%

Frequency of a taxon Relative frequency Sum frequencies of all taxa X 100%

The frequency of a taxon is defined as the number of subplots in which a taxon is present divided by the total number of subplots, whereby each subplot covers a surface of 100 m2. The theoretical range of values for relative density, relative dominance and relative frequency is 0 to 100. Thus, the range of values for the importance value index is 0 to 300.

When the I.V. values are used to compare various end-use categories, the importance of timber trees would be overestimated in relation to fruit trees. Fruit trees start producing at 20-30 cm dbh and sometimes even at 10 cm dbh, whereas timber is only harvested at a dbh of 60 cm and more. The number of adult or harvestable trees belonging to fruit, commercial exudates and timber categories was therefore given as an indication for the value of these respective categories.

3.2 The nested sampling or transect method

A method which was designed to give insight into the availability of NTFPs in a relatively quick manner, is the nested sampling method described in Hall and Bawa (1993). This method was applied in the Tropenbos-Guyana programme (van Andel, 1996) and the Tropenbos-Cameroon programme (van Dijk, forthcoming). Following this method, a strip of 1 ha (1 km by 10 m) is laid out in the forest (Figure 2). Throughout the length of the strip, all trees and lianas  10 cm dbh are identified and measured. Every 100 m, shrubs, trees and lianas higher than 1.50 m (1 m in Cameroon) and with a dbh < 10 cm are counted in a subplot of 10 x 10 m. Within these subplots, herbs and seedlings < 1.50 m (< 1 m in Cameroon) are counted in small plots of 2 x 2 m (4 x 4 m in the case of Cameroon). Shrubs, vines and herbs are included in the inventory because they often provide NTFPs for local people, which would be neglected if only trees  10 cm dbh were counted.ii

In Guyana, all unknown plants are being collected, even those which are not used, to calculate the use- percentage per forest type in one ha. The basal areas of the tree species is used as an indicator for

ii Thee forest hectare inventory in Guyana has shown that more than half of the NTFP producing species in Mora forest are shrubs, herbs and lianas < 10 cm dbh.

Figure 2 Layout of research plots in Guyana (van Andel)

1 km All trees  10 cm dbh in 1 ha

Trees, shrubs < 10 cm dbh: 0.1 ha 10 (10 subplots of 10 x 10 m) 100 m 2 Seedlings, herbs: total 0.004 ha 2 (10 subplots of 2 x 2 m)

1 plot per forest type 10

10 m

the dominance of each species in a certain forest type (Alder and Synott, 1992). Since the aerial roots of Heteropsis flexuosa, Thoracocarpus bissectus and Clusia spp. are harvested for commercial use in the Guyanese furniture industry, the total amount of useful and immature roots of those epiphytes per ha is counted, as the epiphytes themselves are invisible in the canopy. In Cameroon, where time restrictions played a role, only the dbh of selected species were measured. The dbh of other species was estimated, using global size classes of 10 cm.

Contrary to the NW District in Guyana, where forests are homogeneous, in Cameroon the heterogeneity of the forest had to be taken into account in the selection and lay-out of forest plots. The Tropenbos-Cameroon programme area is situated in a zone of floristic transition from the sea- shore land inwards, influenced by an important variation in altitude (170-1,400 m) and exploitation by logging companies, farmers (Bantu villagers) and hunter-gatherers (Bagyeli-Pygmies). The resulting

12 high species diversity and floristic patchiness necessitates the inclusion of various forest types and disturbances. In order to cover the potential variation in abundance and distribution of NTFP species throughout the area, sampling was based on aerial photographical interpretation in which differences in geology, geomorphology, vegetation structure and land use were taken into account. In this way not only primary forest types, but also farm and fallow lands, late secondary vegetation and (cocoa) plantations were included in the inventory. This is not to say that the inventory in Guyana is restricted to only 1 ha of primary forest. This would not give a complete image of available NTFPs in a community, as many of them occur in secondary forest, abandoned fields, and grassy vegetation or simply do not occur in the 1 ha plot. Therefore additional plants are being collected, following the ‘walk in the woods’ method of Johnston and Colquhoun (1996), and informal interviews are held about plant use. Leaves of sterile plants are collected, too, which are tagged to make it possible to collect flowers or fruits in a later stage.

Whereas the study in Guyana is ongoing, the data in the study by van Dijk (forthcoming) already have been analysed. This was done by a post-stratification of data according to size classes and various ecological factors which may influence growing conditions. As most of the important NTFP species are not very abundant, the influence of various environmental factors such as topography, vegetation structure and climate had to be determined separately before a final classification of major habitat types could be made. An attempt was also made to get insight into the influence of logging and NTFP extraction by comparing population structures under different circumstances (logged-over forest vs. undisturbed forest, plots with varying distances to the market and collection sites vs. unexploited tracts of forest). However, the restricted number of individuals of most species did not permit a detailed subdivision in size classes.

The results show a clear picture of the distribution and the abundance of NTFP species in the area. Average densities and - more important - the densities per habitat type could be determined. This provides a sound base for the estimation of available resources. It became clear that certain habitat types contain a number of high-density populations of NTFPs with commercial value. In secondary forests, for example, relatively high concentrations of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and the fruit tree Myrianthus arboreus were found. High altitude forests have relatively high densities of Garcinia lucida, the bark of which is used in the production of palm wine, and of the ‘garlic tree’ Scorodophloeus zenkeri.

The methodology of selecting transects on the basis of aerial photography and applying the nested sampling inventory is considered very appropriate to determine species distribution and abundance in a heterogeneous area such as the Tropenbos-Cameroon site. The method is quick, cheap and involves the local population. The major problem in the Cameroonian case is that many important NTFP species are not very abundant, putting serious restrictions to the possibilities for data analysis in relation to, for example, the impact of NTFP extraction on the population structure. For pure scientific purposes, the information of ‘local taxonomists’ will not be sufficient, as it does not always allow the identification of separate species within a genus.

3.3 Land ecological survey methods

The project carried out in Northwestern Amazonia aims at producing maps depicting the spatial distribution of floristically different forest types and the availability of NTFP resources of plant origin of these forest types. It does so by linking information about potential use of NTFPs of plant origin and about the composition of mature forests to remote sensing imagery. The different forest types will

13 be distinguished on the basis of land ecological survey methods, in which the land unit concept is applied (Duivenvoorden and Lips, 1995). According to this method, land units are recognized by means of interpretation of remote sensing imagery. In this respect, the land ecological method probably hardly differs from the methods applied in the Tropenbos-Cameroon programme. Subsequently, field sampling takes place applying small plots in a random stratified design. The land units are classified in an integrated way on the basis of relevant land attributes such as mineral soils, humus forms, forest composition and potential use. In comparison with single attribute surveys (i.e. soil surveys, timber inventories or any other survey that classifies land on the basis of only one of its attributes), land ecological survey methods allow for a more direct and quicker way to classify land as a whole. The comparison of land use requirements with land qualities in land evaluation and planning procedures will be more efficient and realistic when land is conceived in all its complexity simultaneously from the beginning (Zonneveld, 1989).

Forest composition and use will be estimated in plots of 0.1 ha applying a rigorous field collection of all plant species with a dbh  2.5 cm, and subsequent identification in the major herbaria of the world. In addition, transects will be used to estimate the environmental variability within land units on the basis of indicator species of ferns and Melastomataceae. The use of the small plots ensures that samples are homogenous with respect to the a-biotic environment. This greatly facilitates analysis of forest environment relationships which forms the basis for a sound ecological typification of the forests. The small plots also allow for a better spatial sample distribution in the various land units. Together with the transect analysis, this will provide good insight into the spatial variation of the forests and their use.

Potential forest use will be evaluated using informant indexed methods with collaborating experienced indigenous guides (Phillips and Gentry, 1993) and by means of use values assigned by researchers themselves (Prance et al., 1987). The informant indexed methods yield use values on the basis of daily field guide information concerning potential use of plant (or animal) individuals. These methods minimize the bias of the researchers in this valuation process.

3.4 The role of local informants

In all cases, local informants play a crucial role in the identification of NTFP species. Different groups appear to have distinct and complementary knowledge of NTFP resources. Not only gender, age, and ethnicity of the respondents play a role, but also their occupation. Gender knowledge of NTFP resources appears to be narrowly related with the division of labour between women and men. In Cameroon, women are specialized in food products and NTFPs from fields and fallow lands, as they are responsible for the cultivation of food crops and the preparation of meals. They know less, however, of NTFPs from virgin forests, which is the domain of men who go out for hunting (van Dijk, forthcoming). Also in Guyana women pay more attention to the work related to cultivation and care of the field. Adult men generally are experienced in identifying wood species used for the construction of houses and canoes, temporary forest camps, aphrodisiacs and plants used in game trapping and plaiting material (if they are making the crafts in the community), while they could also provide information on techniques used in hunting, fishing and mining.

The knowledge (and use) of NFTPs is also related to age. Elder women often have an extended knowledge on medicinal plants, and in Guyana they appeared to be eager to earn some extra money as a field guide. The involvement of children in NTFP research is uncommon, but the experiences of Tinde van Andel in Guyana proved that the involvement of local schools adds valuable information on

14 NTFP use. As children often walk long distances to school every day and are frequently under- nourished, they are experts on wild fruits, traps and bait to catch small animals. Children use plants which adults don’t use, for example fruits which adults dislike or products they use to make toys. During a field trip in which 40 primary school children were asked to collect plants which they considered to be useful, in one morning 96 species were collected, of which seven were ‘new’, and 131 uses were recorded, of which ten were unknown so far. Nine previously unrecorded plant names were registered. Children in the age of nine were able to distinguish (in native language) 12 of the 15 edible species of Inga in the forest surrounding the village. Such field trips also help children to value their traditional knowledge. In Cameroon, too, examples were found of NTFP use specific for children.

In relation to ethnicity, differences in knowledge and use were found between Bagyeli pygmies and Bantu groups in Cameroon, and between different Dayak groups in East Kalimantan (van Valkenburg, 1997).

Knowledge of NTFP uses may also be specific for occupational groups such as traditional healers, midwives or fishermen. Traditional healers, for example, are experts on medicinal and magic plants. In many cases, this profession is dying out, however, and when they are present they may not be willing to share their (secret) information. Midwives are experts on plants used in case of pregnancy complications, child delivering, abortions, venereal diseases and birth control, which are subjects other people might prefer not to talk about. Fishermen could inform about species providing fishing rods, fish traps and bait. This makes clear that differences in knowledge between different groups have to be taken into account in the selection of guides and respondents.

Of course, adequate salaries need to be paid to field assistants, whereas attention and time is also to be given to inform a community about the objectives of the study and the kind of equipment and tools which are used and of which people may be afraid.

15 4. METHODOLOGIES TO ESTABLISH SUSTAINABLE HARVEST LEVELS

Efforts in the Tropenbos programme to establish sustainable harvesting levels for NTFPs have been undertaken for rattan in East Kalimantan by van Valkenburg (1997) and for large catfish in the Caquetá area (Colombia) by Rodriguez (1991).iii

In Indonesia, a harvesting experiment with three rattan species was conducted to obtain a better estimate of harvestable length per plant and, in particular, to supply information on the effect of harvesting on the growth of remaining shoots. In addition to the harvesting of canes in some of the research plots at the end of the study, rattan plants outside these plots were subjected to maximum harvesting.

Rattan plants of three locally important and (potentially) commercial species: Calamus javensis, Calamus ornatus, and Daemonorops sabut were harvested. Each plant was labelled with an aluminium tag. The total number of shoots belonging to the different growth stages was recorded and habitat of the plant was classified in terms of silvigenetic stage (Oldeman, 1990) of the surrounding forest, geomorphology/topography (valley floor/middle slope/upper slope/ ridge crest) and steepness of slope. Harvestable mature canes, with a minimum length of 3 m, were cut and their total length measured. The remaining shoots were tagged according to their growth stage. After 12 months the growth response of the plants and the individual shoots was recorded, and canes that had attained harvestable size were cut.

In a non-exploited state a rattan clump might invest in elongation of already mature canes that have reached the canopy. Or, in response to changes in the environment, an acceleration of the growth of dominant shoots might prevail. If the mature canes are harvested, growth of the remaining shoots may be released. Acceleration of the growth stage of the minor/young shoots might be induced, or new suckers could be formed. The tree species involved in the experiment showed clear differences in response to the maximum harvesting. In general, commercial collecting of all harvestable canes has a negative effect on the vitality of a plant after one year. The difference in dynamics of a species might be an indication for a different survival strategy. Whereas C. ornatus plants invest in a small number of relatively tolerant shoots, C. javensis plants invest in a large number of shoots with a shorter life expectancy. For sustainable exploitation, maintaining the vitality of a rattan clump is essential. This vitality and resilience after harvesting differs between species, but a minimum remaining leaf surface area or number of shoots is essential for a clump to be able to recover. Therefore preference should be given to methods of limited harvesting, whereby intensity and frequency of harvesting can be species- dependent.

The project on commercial fishing of large catfish species - the most important NTFP in the Colombian Amazon - uses an interdisciplinary approach to develop a sound management model for commercial fishing (Rodriguez, 1991). Data collection is focused on socio-cultural, administrative, biological and economic aspects of the fishing activity, with a view to obtaining a basis for fishery regulation and management.

iii In a follow-up to the pilot study in Cameroon, which will be carried out in 1997-98, an experiment is planned to assess the impact of different harvesting techniques on Garcinia lucida.

16 To establish sustainable extraction levels for fluvial fisheries, the theoretical model proposed by Welcomme (1985) was considered useful. This model is based on historical statistics of the total catch (in kg), effort (in number of fishermen or journeys carried out), and catch per unit of effort. The potential effort is determined by the availability of labour and is defined as the number of fishermen or the number of journeys that could be carried out. Through daily monitoring of the activity in the cold storage units, together with censuses of the local population, the total number of fishermen can be easily calculated. Data on the frequency of fishery journeys offer a typology of fishermen who can be characterized on a scale between occasional fishermen and professionals who are almost exclusively dedicated to fishery.

In the case of the Colombian Amazon, it was necessary to generate data on the aforementioned parameters, as no statistics on commercial fishery of large catfish were available. A methodology was designed to collect daily fishery registers directly from individual fishermen (cf. the participatory registering method described in Section 4.1), while the daily fishery data kept by managers of the cool storage installations were revised and improved. The local archives and books of traders constitute a solid base to obtain information on the history of commercial fishing. Also the archives of air cargo enterprises that have been operating in the region form an important source of data to calculate the magnitude of commercial fish extraction since its start, as the only way to transport the products to the parts of the country where the markets are located, is by aeroplane.

The methodology also includes censuses, thematic interviews and in-depth interviews. Questionnaires have been avoided, especially in cases in which a certain precision is required of extraction values and labour investment.

The peculiarity of the methodology followed is the direct involvement in data collection of the actors participating in the activity. This contributes the necessary elements for the management of commercial fishing, including control standards. In this way all the actors - fishermen, traders and government institutions - count with the relevant information.

The development and application of these methodologies require long-term fieldwork as it is necessary to establish a close contact with all the actors. This is not always easy taking into account the normal distrust of the fishermen and traders. Notwithstanding, most actors were willing to cooperate knowing that the objective of the study was to realise the sustainable management of fishery resources.

The type of information collected through the years made it possible to indicate critical elements for sustainable extraction such as species composition, catch, effort and catch per unit of effort. Different types of actors, executing diverging pressure on the fishing resource, have to be taken into account, as well as the way incomes are generated and distributed. Only such interdisciplinary and participatory approach of the fishing activity permits to obtain agreement between the actors on the best management plan.

17 5. METHODOLOGIES FOR MARKET SURVEYS

Most NTFP studies carried out in the Tropenbos programme pay attention to the marketing of these products. The market aspects can be studied in two ways, which preferably both are used. Starting in the market the origin of the products for sale can be traced or the products can be followed from the forest down to where they are sold in the market.

In his study on the potential of NTFPs in East Kalimantan, Valkenburg (1997) paid several visits to the major rattan traders in Samarinda. Interviews were conducted with managers and foremen to obtain information on species traded now and in the past, and their prices. Inquiries were made into the origin and destination of the rattan. Information on the volumes traded was obtained from government agencies. Visits were also paid to villages renowned for both trading and cultivating rattan, where recent prices and local use of species were recorded. After discussions and interviews, trips were made to secondary and logged-over forests in the vicinity. These trips were aimed to verify a consistent use of trade and vernacular names. Herbarium material of commercial species was collected and matched with authenticated specimens. After identification of the herbarium specimens, information obtained from the traders and in the two villages was combined to link the trade names to scientific names .

During the fieldwork period, two major markets in Samarinda were visited twice a week. During each visit the number of vendors, the price and origin of indigenous fruit species were tallied per species. Voucher specimens of indigenous fruits and nuts on sale were collected for identification and documentation.

In order to get a better estimate of the actual volumes traded, and to verify the positive correlation between the number of vendors and the volume of fruits, a census was made of all (seasonal) fruits and nuts sold on a specific day in both markets. At the height of the fruiting season temporary fruit stalls account for the bulk of fresh fruits on sale. These temporary fruit stalls were surveyed once a week. Fruit species traded and volumes were tallied for each fruit stall. Since facilities for cold storage of fruits are lacking, a minimum turn-over rate of the stock was assumed to be at least twice weekly.

During the fruiting season visits were paid to the reported source areas of the fruits which were sold in the village markets. Based on interviews with village elders, cultivation status and trade of indigenous fruit species was recorded. In addition, local markets were visited to record species and volumes on sale.

Also in the studies carried out in NW Amazonia, Guyana and Cameroon market inventories are foreseen. In the case of NW Amazonia, the market survey is of particular interest, as preliminary information indicates that hardly any markets for NTFPs of plant origin exist in Colombia and Ecuador. This contrasts sharply with the situation found in Peru by Padoch (1992). The method used by Padoch in Peru will be followed in Colombia and Ecuador to get insight into product differentiation, prices, quantities sold, quality, provenance, the distribution and selling system, and number and types of vendors and intermediaries. This information will be collected during periodic visits to randomly selected settlements along the major Amazonian rivers and in the Andes.

In Guyana, like in Indonesia, a more botanical approach will be followed. Wild fruits and medicinal plants will be collected (bought!) at market places and identified in a herbarium. The fruits will be

18 preserved on alcohol, while barks, stems or roots from medicinal plants will be dried. A specimen voucher of the original plant species will be collected through field trips with the extractors, to ensure that the identification is correct. To this end, wholesalers will be contacted to find out the exact provenance of the NTFPs. In addition, information will be collected on similar items as mentioned in relation to the study in NW Amazonia. Attention will also be given to species domesticated for the market, illegal marketing of NTFPs such as wildlife and protected plants, and marketing problems perceived by sellers.

19 6. METHODS TO STUDY NTFP-BASED HOUSEHOLD LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES

NTFP extraction is rarely an exclusive land use, but generally is part of a total livelihood strategy and combined with agricultural and other economic activities (Ros-Tonen et al.,1995). To study the role of NTFP extraction as part of such livelihood strategy several methods have been employed in the Tropenbos programme. In Colombia (van der Hammen) and Guyana (Reinders) preference is given to the daily registering of forest use by households. In West Kalimantan (de Jong), use was made of in- depth interviews and of a unique interview method whereby personal interviews were held in the presence of community members. The interrelationship between NTFP extraction and other economic activities performed at household level gave rise to the concept of agro-extractive cycle developed by Assies on the basis of his research on Brazil nut exploitation in Bolivia and Brazil.

6.1 Participatory registering of forest use

In both the Tropenbos-Colombia and the Tropenbos-Guyana programme, participatory methods are used to register forest use at household level. In Colombia, this methodology combines symbolic and quantitative aspects of forest and NTFP use, in order to get profound insight into the management practices of present-day indigenous groups of Colombian Amazonia (van der Hammen, 1991).The study in Guyana focuses on household livelihood strategies of Carib Amerindians in the North-West District, the role of the natural environment therein and the relative importance of activities supporting the household economy. In both cases daily forest use is registered through direct participation of the Indians and local inhabitants. The daily register includes information on hunting, fishing, the agricultural production and gathering activities.

In Colombia, the way of registering was developed in close collaboration with the local communities, and simple forms were designed accordingly. The forms include information about the persons which make a contribution to the household-economy, the names of the products, their quantity, size or weight, capture area, instruments, arms or baits used, the time involved in the various activities and destination of the products (household consumption, sale, ritual consumption, exchange or gift). Biological data of the animals hunted and fishes caught include sex, stomach content and presence of eggs. In some cases the registering was started with forms of five columns, to be developed further to forms with 14-16 columns. The forms are collected every month to be processed in a database for further analysis. Together with the participants the information is processed in maps in order to visualize the extractive areas for each resource and to quantify the pressure exercised by the community on each of them.

In Guyana, the researcher initially designed similar forms, but people did not understand them and preference was given to keeping diaries in exercise books. The kind of information registered is similar to that in the Colombian case, but attention is also given to the collection of firewood, the processing of the products harvested or collected, the employment in mining or other remunerating activities, the amount of products bought in a store, and the coming and leaving of family members (e.g. for mining or fishing expeditions). Here, too, information is collected on products given away or credited (‘trusted’) to other villagers, as this kind of barter plays an important role in people’s livelihood strategies. The researcher makes fortnightly visits to the households to keep contact, to

20 check the diaries, to give explanations, to recover lacking information, to talk about special events during the past period, to discuss techniques used and to observe activities such as craft work and cooking.

To enable the correct registration of data, participants are provided with equipment such as a balance, a ruler, notebooks, pencils and baskets or bags for measurement. In Colombia, this method yielded a complete and continuous registration of the consumption in a malocaiv (van der Hammen, 1991). It has been applied at a regional level in the Middle and Lower Caquetá region through nine households of different communities distributed along 400 km of the river, to get insight into spatial variation. The methods is now being applied by all households in the Andoke indigenous community of Caño Aduche. These efforts allow to calculate with major precision what is the pressure exercised on specific resources and on certain areas, such as lakes, creeks, salt- lick places and palm marshes (cananguchales).

In Guyana, the method is applied in one Carib village, where 16 families (20% of the population) were selected on the basis of criteria such as family size, well-being, lifestyle (modern or traditional), craftsmanship, distance of the house to the village centre and river, and other factors which influence livelihood strategies. The records are held by both men, women and adolescents, to grasp gender- and age-specific information. Children are often asked to help, for example in weighing the products. The data from the record books will be combined measurements of cultivated fields, as well as with the inventories carried out by van Andel (see Section 3.2) in order to assess the economic importance for the Caribs of different ecological zones and to calculate the amount of land needed for their survival.

Some authors have criticized this method for several disadvantages. One of these is that it relies on the continued enthusiasm and conscientiousness of the diary keeper to maintain accurate records (Grossman, 1986). Others mention the lack of accuracy of information, due to careless record keeping, lying, faulty memory or a bias towards the reporting culturally significant events or information people suspect interviewers want to hear (Godoy and Lubowsky, 1992). The method can also be applied only in societies where people are literate. If not all people in a community are literate, this may influence the choice of participants (Gregory and Altman, 1989). Nevertheless, the experience in both the Tropenbos-Colombia and Tropenbos-Guyana programme are quite positive.

In Guyana, the method is considered to be the most comprehensive and useful one available given the objectives of the study, the location of the study area, the degree of literacy, and the resources available. It is applied during a full year to cover seasonal variations in livelihood strategies. In Colombia, people consider the project as their own and therefore do not feel the need to ly. To the contrary, they try to report as complete as possible. Problems with literacy do hardly exist, as in most households children between 10 and 14 years old are in charge of the registration. Most parents control what they do and consider the project as a possibility to educate their children in the ‘western’ scientific method of knowing the world, while they assure at the same time that their own cultural knowledge of the environment is transmitted. The experience has learned that this approach allows to follow resource use with a high degree of reliability. It is, however, essential that close collaboration with the communities and individuals and a confidential relationship exist. For that reason, frequent field visits and in some cases even the continuous presence of the researcher or collaborating students are necessary.

iv Indigenous roundhouse

21 6.2 Personal and participatory personal interviews methods

The method of diary keeping is less suitable if labour investment and cash incomes from forest harvesting in relation to other sources of income is investigated over a longer period. Detailed monitoring also becomes problematic if the aim is to assess fluctuations in incomes from forests in the course of time. In such cases, appropriate methods for data collection are personal interviews, group interviews, or key-informant interviews.

Personal interviews can be conducted using standard questionnaires, asking the same questions to the number of informants that is deemed necessary. A variation to the questionnaires are standardized in- depth interviews, a method used by de Jong (1993) in Indonesia while conducting research on Dayak forest management. In a standardized in-depth interview the same list of questions is asked to all the informants, but whenever an issue of special interest emerges during the interview, additional questions are asked about that specific issue.

In some cases, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods may be more accurate than personal interviews. PRA methods have become in vogue, mainly to make information collection more efficient. PRA methods allow for group discussions, as well as for the use of clarification tools which cannot be used in personal interviews. They also allow for a more extensive discussion between informants and the collector of information. PRA methods do, however, have the risk that the opinion of sections within the group prevail, which may result in skewed information.

An entirely new method used in a West Kalimantan village by de Jong was the participatory personal interview method. With this method interviews were conducted with single informants, but in the presence of a group of villagers. The interviews were held in the house of the village head, using a prepared questionnaire. Inquiries concerned forest product collection, but also the household’s land use and other economic activities. Although these interviews referred to individual households, the method allowed for interventions of the entire group. This approach often generated extensive discussions or comments from bystanders. In all the interviews conducted it was felt that the group contributions were positively received by the informant, but sometimes also ignored if he or she disagreed with somebody’s opinion. There appeared to be little pressure on the informants to provide certain answers. In some cases the informants were corrected, and the corrections were accepted. On other occasions the informants were guided by inputs from the group when they did not know an answer.

It was felt that this participatory personal interviewing method was considerably more effective than independent interviews without the presence of non-household members. The method needs a social setting, however, that may not be available everywhere. It needs a rather homogenous group of people, without any political stratification, or overly influential individuals. It also needs a setting where personal privacy is not considered very important, as is the case among most Dayak groups, or even in Indonesia as a whole. Where these conditions are met, this method may significantly increase the accuracy of the information that is sought for.

6.3 The agro-extractive cycle

The various studies concerning peoples’ livelihoods have made it clear that the extraction of NTFPs is seldom sufficient to provide a living, and that it is often combined with other activities, such as

22 agriculture. It is the combination of activities of a production unit which determines to a large extent what is the ecological impact of extraction. In his study on Brazil nut exploitation in the Amazon region, Assies (1997) employs the concept of the agro-extractive cycle to examine the relations and possible trade-offs between different types of extractive and agricultural activities. According to this concept, Brazil nut gathering can be viewed as a component of an annual agro-extractive cycle which also includes rubber tapping and which may include agriculture. Rubber tapping is carried out during eight months a year and traditionally was the cornerstone of the cycle, while Brazil nut gathering and agriculture play a complementary role.

In employing the concept, one faces the question of the relevant unit of analysis. Although it is often assumed that extraction is an affair of forest-dwelling households, it was certainly not so in southwestern Amazonia at the end of the 19th century. At that time, the extractive economy was organized in an estate system in which the workforce was set to work under debt-patronage relationships. They were prohibited to perform agricultural activities, thus enforcing greater dependence on the company store. It was specifically this feature of the extractive economy which contributed to its much cited sustainability. From the 1920s onwards, Brazil nut harvesting and agriculture expanded in the wake of declining rubber prices. Only in the post-war period, independent rubber tappers emerged, who combine extraction with agriculture in a household-based livelihood strategy.

The concept of an agro-extractive cycle enables to distinguish situations in which NTFP extraction can provide a livelihood and situations in which it is a complementary activity. The concept may also serve to appraise possible trade-offs between activities and shed light on the possible impact of policy interventions. The concept can be extended to include the gender and generational division of labour. Trade-offs between gender and generationally assigned tasks can be assessed and it can be shown who is likely to carry the burden and who is likely to reap the benefits with the introduction of alternatives.

23 7. METHODOLOGIES FOR PARTICIPATORY PLANNING

Whereas in all studies the local population is involved as a source of information, in the Tropenbos- Colombia programme this involvement has been taken further in the direction of participatory research and planning of natural resource use. The indigenous communities have a long history of successful management of their territories, but the involvement in the market economy and the influence of 'western' society has lead to changes in their relationship with the environment and to a loss in their esteem of their traditional way of life. In the past, the basic unit of interaction with the natural environment was the maloca or roundhouse under a sole authority and with clear norms about resource use. The norms included that the settlement would be abandoned after a certain period (usually after some 15 years). Nowadays, the basis of social organization tends towards more or less independent family units, who settle in population nuclei under more diffuse expressions of authority, living in the same area during much longer periods. This has generated a major pressure on certain areas and resources. Small-scale commercialization of certain resources also augmented the pressure.

These developments are discussed with community elders and in workshops with the community as a whole. Together with the community elders, traditional knowledge of the natural environment and information about traditional norms concerning its use is compiled. This compilation or community research covers a whole range of topics, including information on ethnic history (territorial occupation and migratory patterns in particular), their own notions of the forest, animals and plants, classification systems and management norms. The information is also discussed during community workshops with a broad participation of men and women, in order to socialize the information, to complement it and to check it with possible other versions. Special meetings are held with each family unit to discuss the data of the daily registration of forest use. Community workshops are held on a regular base to check the data collected, to homologize names of places and species, to bring the information into maps and to discuss the results. The use of thematic maps (hunting, fishing, agriculture, etc.) has proven to be a very powerful instrument as it permits to visualize the actual pressure exerted on certain species by individual families and the community as a whole. This has opened the way to define rules or norms concerning restricted use of certain species.

Special attention is given to the question of why traditional norms regarding forest use are or are not being applied, what is the impact of commercial activities and what is the role of increasing permanency and settlement of the community. In this way important discussions are generated on the history and traditional mechanisms of resource use and forest management, as well as on present forest use. The possibilities for exploitation of certain resources, including exploitation for commercial purposes, are debated at community level. Recovering traditional indigenous knowledge and norms for resource use and integrating them into present-day management models, allows for new forms of participatory planning of natural resource management.

24 8. CONCLUSIONS

Several studies on NTFPs have been and are being carried out under the umbrella of the Tropenbos programme. To bring more coherence in these studies, a research strategy was formulated, providing an analytical framework for site-specific studies. The strategy aims at identifying the key conditions for successful and sustainable commercial NTFP extraction, to bring these together in a checklist, and to develop a methodology to apply this checklist in land-use planning and community development.

Among the key elements of sustainable commercial NTFP extraction are the availability of natural resources, the sustainability of harvesting levels, the compatibility of extractive activities with peoples' livelihood strategies, access to markets, and participatory planning. Several methodologies have been applied to gain more insight into these elements.

The methodology which is used to assess the availability of natural resources is determined in the first place by the aim and the scale of the study. The land-ecological approach applied by Joost Duivenvoorden et al. gives a first impression of plant resource availability at the level of land units. As this methodology can be used for mapping and be integrated with geographical information systems, it can be a useful instrument in land-use planning. To determine the availability of NTFP resources at a more detailed level, the nested sampling method is often preferred. With this method 1 ha plots are inventoried, involving not only trees, but also shrubs, vines and herbs. In cases where only primary forest is subject of study and where smaller plants are hardly exploited for NTFPs (e.g. in East Kalimantan where rattan and fruit trees are the main NTFP species) a standard vegetation analysis can be carried out. With this method the relative importance of trees with a dbh  10 cm can be determined, as well as the influence of a-biotic factors, such as relief, on the occurrence of NTFPs.

An interesting effort to establish sustainable harvesting levels has been undertaken with large catfish in Colombia. Through the use of a participatory method it was possible to develop a management plan for sustainable fishery which was agreed upon by all the actors involved. The experience with establishing sustainable harvesting levels for plant products is hitherto confined to rattan, for which a harvesting experiment was undertaken in Indonesia. No experience has been obtained so far with methodologies which take population dynamics into account.

Market surveys are part of most NTFP studies in the Tropenbos programme. These surveys provide insight into the commercial potential and marketing aspects of NTFPs. These surveys are also taken as a starting point to trace the provenance of NTFPs.

It has become clear that the direct participation of the actors in data collection is of crucial importance in NTFP research. Local people not only play a role as a source of information on names and (potential) uses of NTFPs, but they may actively participate in data collection through, for instance, the daily registering of forest use. Through diaries or special forms, insight can be obtained into the role of extraction in peoples' livelihood strategies. When data need to cover a longer period of time, personal interviews seem to be more appropriate.

Several participatory methods have been applied in the Tropenbos programme, such as participatory personal interviews and community workshops. These methods have proven to be useful for a cross- check and complementation of the information provided, for the recovery and socialization of traditional knowledge and norms concerning forest use, and for particpatory planning of forest use.

The overview of methodologies used makes it clear that the specific objectives and context of the studies generate their own methodological choices. It is the overall research strategy which provides the framework for the integration of site-specific results. In this way it is strived to make clear under what conditions commercial NTFP extraction can serve as a strategy for conservation and wise forest use.

26 REFERENCES

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28 APPENDIX 1

LIST OF AUTHORS

Tinde van Andel PhD researcher at Utrecht University, Herbarium P.O. Box 80102, 3508 TC Utrecht, the Netherlands

Willem Assies Senior scientist at the University of Amsterdam, Centre for Latin America Research and Documentation (CEDLA) Keizersgracht 395-397, 1016 EK Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Johanna W.F. van Dijk Researcher in the Tropenbos-Cameroon programme B.P. 219, Kribi, Cameroon

Joost F. Duivenvoorden Research coordinator at the University of Amsterdam Hugo de Vries Laboratory, Dept. of Palynology Kruislaan 318, 1098 SM Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Maria Clara van der Hammen Researcher in the Tropenbos-Colombia programme Apartado Aéreo 036062, Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia

Wil de Jong Senior scientist at the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) P.O. Box 6596, JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia

Marileen Reinders PhD researcher at Utrecht University Institute for Cultural Anthropology Bolognalaan 32, 3584 CJ Utrecht

Carlos A. Fernández Rodríguez Programme team leader in the Tropenbos-Colombia programme Apartado Aéreo 036062, Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia

Mirjam A.F. Ros-Tonen NTFP Officer at the Tropenbos Foundation P.O. Box 232, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands

Johan L.C.H. van Valkenburg Plant taxonomy officer at the Plant Resources of South-East Asia Foundation (PROSEA) P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen