DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 408 747 EC 305 618

AUTHOR Miles, M. TITLE Disability Care & Education in 19th Century India: Dates, Places & Documentation, with Some Additional Material on Mental Retardation and Physical Disabilities up to 1947. Revised Version. PUB DATE May 97 NOTE 68p. PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Citations (References); *Disabilities; *Educational History; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Institutionalized Persons; Mental Retardation; Physical Disabilities; Residential Care; Residential Institutions; *Special Education IDENTIFIERS *India; *Nineteenth Century

ABSTRACT This monograph uses brief excerpts from many sources to document the history of the education and care of individuals with disabilities in India, primarily in the 19th century. An introduction describes the author's methodology in compiling and annotating the excerpts, which are listed alphabetically by locality in India. Under each locality, excerpts are listed chronologically and typically describe individual children, the institutions they attended, services provided to them, and the children's responses. A separate section provides excerpts from documents about institutions and services for individuals with mental retardation and physical disabilities in the early 20th century (to 1965). An appendix provides excerpts from legal papers concerning the establishment of a specific asylum for the blind at Benares. (Contains approximately 300 references.) (DB)

******************************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * ******************************************************************************** DISABILITY CARE & EDUCATION IN 19TH CENTURY INDIA: Dates, Places & Documentation

with some additional material on mental retardation and physical disabilities up to 1947.

Revised version, May 1997.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as M. MILES received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to 4 Princethorpe Rd, improve reproduction quality.

Birmingham B29 5PX, UK. Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY rar.,fvas%fareaMilii tit Rim P- OCO B uur iiMBLADLiC

2 TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) DISABILITY CARE & EDUCATION IN 19TH CENTURY

Some Dates, Places & Documentation

INTRODUCTION who was herself blind. Miss Asho had Writers in the past fifty years, both Indian received her first education in a school for and foreign, have been poorly informed sighted children at Lahore in the 1870s, and about Indian special needs education and later gained vocational skills and an aptitude disability care in the 19th century - and for for teaching. The Amritsar hospital manager mental retardation and orthopaedic under whose authority the subsequent disabilities, the developments up to 1947. institution for blind people existed, wrote in Much inaccurate data has been copied from 1898 that, "Asho's coming really marks the secondary sources. For example, one of the date of the beginning of this school." few historical 'facts' given by most modern (HEWLETT, p.50). Sharp, who admitted to writers is that the first school for blind knowing almost nothing about teaching blind people in India was founded in the 1880s by people, acted as school manager among her Annie Sharp, a missionary at Amritsar (e.g. many missionary duties, and doubtless did so ROY, 1944, p.6; MAKHDUM, 1961, p.2; with great devotion. She herself noted AMESUR, 1961, p.330; PRASAD, 1961; (references below) that the first necessary BHATT, 1963, pp.25, 161, 217; MUKERJI, step in opening a school had been to find an 1964, p.408; KAOOSJI, 1967; VYAS, 1968; Indian blind teacher. TAYLOR & TAYLOR, 1970, p.155; GORE, 1978, p.660; MOHSINI & GANDHI, Before Annie Sharp set foot in India, 1982, p.9; CULSHAW, 1983, p.33; Charles LEUPOLT had already published NARASIMEAN & MUKHERJEE, 1986, his recollections (1884, pp.243-7) of p.2; ADVANI, 1987; MANI, 1988, pp.154-5; education for blind people at Benares 20 JOACHIM, 1990; AHUJA, 1990; years earlier, under the energetic hand of his CHAUHAN, 1990; RAWAT, 1991, p.28; wife, Jane Leupolt. This was based partly in PANDEY & ADVANI, 1995, p.70; and the Church Missionary Society orphan doubtless many more). This claim is partly school, partly in an asylum for blind people misleading and largely mistaken. Documents founded by Raja Kali Shanker Ghosal which excerpted below show that the Amritsar took in its first residents in January 1826 institution hardly began as a 'school', as (See Appendix 1 below). Educational work at understood in modern Indian or British the asylum was commended in government English; the role of Annie Sharp was reports at least as early as 1869 different from what is generally imagined; (Annual..Dispensaries.. 1869, pp.26A-27A). there was some teaching of blind people at It clearly started several years before that. Amritsar years before Miss Sharp arrived; Education for blind boys at a similar asylum and even that was by no means the first in Bareilly appeared around the same time effort to give blind Indians a regular (Annual..Dispensaries..1870, p.19), and schooling. Leupolt noted successful starts at several towns. The systematic training of blind To set the record straight does not maulvis also took place at Deoband in the detract from the useful work done by Miss 1870s (Leitner, 1882/1991, p.79). Sharp, as described by her contemporaries. Indeed, it seems all the more commendable Some 30 years earlier still, in 1838 or in the world of the 1990s that, on closer 1839, an agent of the Bengal Military examination, the educational work at Orphan Institution, Calcutta was enquiring Amritsar in the 1880s turns out to have about methods of teaching blind orphans, centred on an Indian teacher, Miss Asho, and by 1840 these orphans were learning to

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fr» read using the Lucas system of embossing, years. ... The hands of the missionaries supplied by the London Society for Teaching are visible in the founding of the the Blind to Read. The oprhanage ordered a majority of the existing schools, which further supply in 1844 (First now number sixteen. The movement Report...London Society, 1839, p.11; Third originally began with the establishment Report..., 1841, p.!!; Seventh Report..., of homes for the helpless blind, and the 1845, p.12). only attempt at education was to teach them to read the Bible in Moon. Later In 1853, an Indian army officer was on work was introduced in these using William Moon's system of embossed places..." type "..in preparing a Gospel in Hindustani for the multitudes of blind in India.." (Fifth Shah was unaware of the work using Annual, 1853, p.9). In 1861, an Indian Lucas's script at the Bengal Military Orphan woman at Amritsar called 'Blind Sarah' Asylum around 1840; and Leupolt's account received an unspecified chapter of the Bible of education for blind students clearly went in Moon's (Romanised) Urdu; she had beyond Bible-teaching. The Government was already learnt to read Moon in English in wary of missionaries' evangelistic aims; it the 1850s (Eighth Report, 1864, pp.9-10). would hardly have paid the teacher's salary By 1873, Moon's list of Bible portions had the curriculum not extended beyond published in England with embossed type `Bible'. Did Shah not know of the work included "the Gospel of St. Matthew in the Leupolt described? Can more be discovered Urdu language, for the use of the blind in in the 1990s about the start of special India" (MOON, 1873, p.56). In 1883, the list education in India, than was available in included four Bible portions in Hindustani, 1912 to the Governor of Bengal and his three in Bengali and one each in Malayalam advisors? Even in the late 1890s, Sarah and Tamil (MELDRUM, 1883, p.112). Moon Hewlett at Amritsar seems to have been wrote that by this date his type had been unaware of other services available for blind adapted also to Sanskrit, Telugu, Canarese people in northern India; and made no and Punjabi (RUTHERFURD, 1898, p.122). mention of schools for blind children in Such publications were clearly in use by Madras Presidency run by members of her people teaching blind Indians to read, own Church of England Zenana Mission whether individually, or in integrated (HEWLETT, 1898, p.!). classes, or in special schooling. Moon keenly advocated that blind children be taught in Documentary Basis schools with sighted children, and arranged The following quotations and notes aim to for this to be implemented both in Britain place future writings on a sounder and abroad (MOON, 1877, pp.165-7) documentary basis, to encourage critical reflection and re-examination of earlier Lord Carmichael, Governor of Bengal, sources, and to indicate where further complained in 1912 that he had "..found it research might be useful. This paper is very difficult to get information regarding far from an exhaustive survey. It represents institutions or societies for the education of several months' work in British libraries plus the blind in India..." (quoted by A.K. brief visits to Indian research libraries, and SHAH, 1914; date given by Amal SHAH, it is subject to any errors of transcription or 1941, p.8). Part of the problem might have selection bias inadvertently introduced by the been in distinguishing merely custodial compiler. More data is certainly available in asylums from institutions where educational Indian archives; such material remains to be or vocational work was undertaken. A.K. studied systematically. Not all the quotations SHAH (1914) believed that here mutually agree. Some discordances may "..the education of the blind in India shed light on the process by which special does not date back more than thirty schools came into being. Others may arise

4 from errors of transcription or typography. of the mentally retarded" the Taylors list For example, in VOHRA's modern list of the "Central Nursing Home at Ranchi schools for deaf pupils (1988) the established in 1934" (p.279). They admit that introduction states that an institution was "it is claimed that [a school] was started in opened at Bombay in 1883, and at Ranchi with about six children", but Palamcottah in 1896. The list, a few pages disparage it as "a very limited program" on, shows starting dates of 1885 and 1895 with a handful of pupils (p.280). The for these schools. An earlier writer, Taylors insist that "The first really serious PUMPHREY (1900) quotes extensively from effort to start an institution for mentally METCALFE (see Hoshangabad, below) but retarded children was made by the fails to indicate that she has edited and Children's Aid Society of Bombay.." (p.280), amended the texts quoted. when that Society made "..the earliest provision for mentally retarded children, In some cases a researcher has used started in September 1941... historical data but misunderstood it; or extracted an odd sentence giving a false Oddly enough, PRITCHARD (1963), impression, perhaps through failure to reviewing the start of education for disabled consult original texts. RIKHYE (1980, p.69) people in Britain, took a similar stance. He extracts"the classes for the training of mentioned "..in 1846, the first provision for patients in the three 'Rs' are still being idiots in England. A small, so-called school continued at the Mental Hospital at Calicut", for them was opened by the Misses White, at from what she calls the "Annual Reports of Rock Hall House, Bath.." (pp.54-55). Then, the Three Lunatic Asylums in the Madras on the strength of a late source, he dismissed Presidency, 1921-23. (Madras?: 1924?), p.2." the Bath effort as a small work where "Of Rikhye sees this as "The first record of a medical attention and educational instruction program for educating retarded youngsters". there appear to have been none". He placed Yet earlier and later reports note that these the "real" beginning at Park House, "three Rs" classes occupied a select number Highgate, in 1847. Yet an Edinburgh of "literary" patients, who memorised verses journalist visiting the Bath school found that in English and Malayalam. They ceased in "..although so lately set on foot, very 1924. (Triennial, 1921, p.3; Annual.. great progress had been made with the Mental..Madras..1924, p.2). In 1922, the pupils, among some of whom peculiar Calicut hospital reported a total of 1,287 difficulties had been successfully `lunatics' treated, among whom were 48 surmounted by the discretion and sincere `idiots and imbeciles' (Annual..Working.. earnestness.." (Editorial, 1847). Madras..1922, pp.14-15). It is thus hard to Further, J.W. Mylne and S. Gaskell, see the classes as a "program for educating Commissioners in Lunacy, visited the Misses retarded youngsters"; but doubtless this will Whites' "Idiot Institution, Bath" on the 7th be repeated by writers who read Rikhye February 1851, and reported in some detail without checking the sources. on the educational measures they saw at "the earliest institution of the kind in England In 1970, TAYLOR and TAYLOR wrote expressly devoted to the mental training of an account of disability services, with an idiots" (Lunacy, 1851, Appendix C, p.41). historical dimension, the first such account to be widely circulated and published In view of the dismissal of evidence in internationally. Their pre-1947 such accounts, more detail has been included documentation was poor, and their personal below of what was probably the first formal views about Indian history led them to school for mentally and physically dismiss even the limited data they acquired handicapped children in India, begun at about services for people with mental Kurseong in 1918. This school closed before handicap. Under "Institutions for the care Independence, and left no trace in later

- 3 - educational histories; yet it was highly for all non-disabled children. Government commended by successive Government efforts for disabled people continued to be inspectors, and had 28 pupils in 1938. Detail restricted mainly to grants-in-aid. also appears of educational work in a government institution at Madras from 1936 In 1936, the Central Advisory Board of which has disappeared from post-1947 Education asked Provincial Governments to accounts. (Formal care specifically for report on their provisions and urged them - mentally handicapped people began at without effect - not to neglect this field (Post- Madras around 1841- a little before it War, 1944, p.81). The Board seems to have began in England - with some occupational had little more idea of what had gone before, therapy, as shown below). Mentally retarded than did the Taylors 34 years later. After children are also glimpsed at school with more than a century of official reports, cited deaf pupils at Lucknow in the 1930s. below, noting disability in schools, charitable institutions, census data and grants-in-aid, It is a pity that Taylor & Taylor did not SARGENT (1968, p.100), who was education care to check the historical records of pre- advisor to Central Government 1938-48, Independence India. They assert (p.32) that believed that Chapter IX of the CABE "No government action concerning Report (Post-War, pp.76-82), with which he services for the disabled was taken until was closely involved, represented "the first India became independent; before this official attempt to analyse the problem [of time voluntary bodies had provided the educating handicapped children], estimate its only services available." extent and suggest ways of dealing with it." This is seriously misleading. There was no nationwide plan to provide disability Although most formal services were services; but the Presidency Governments indeed provided by voluntary bodies, the gave financial aid and other assistance to Institute for the Blind founded at Lahore in institutions serving people with disabilities, 1906 was run by the government from the early 19th century onwards, as (MAKHDUM, 1961, p.19), perhaps the first shown in the many official records cited such institution specifically founded by below. Without such help, the voluntary government (TAYLOR, 1908, p.183). Care effort could hardly have made progress. The for some people with mental handicap had Census of India included coverage of been given in government asylums much disabilities as early as 1868, which were earlier - Madras had a separate 'Idiot compared with those obtained in 1881 Asylum' for adults from 1841, though this (Report on the Census, 1883, pp.408-414). was reunited with the Lunatic Asylum in By 1901 the accumulated nationwide data on 1867. The assertion that "no government disabilities resulted in detailed discussions action was taken" is refuted by substantial (Census, 1903, pp.131-50), an inevitable contemporary documentation. BANERJI preliminary to any large-scale official action. (1949) also notes that in 1906 the Government offered to take over the The report of the British Royal Calcutta School for the Deaf, and "The Commission on education for, and conditions Committee was only too eager to accept the of, the blind, deaf and dumb, and other offer, but Principal Banerji [the author's people in special circumstances father] vehemently opposed it", apparently (Report..Royal, 1889) was forwarded to the from a desire to prove what could be done Government of India in 1889, and circulated by independent "native enterprise". to local governments (SETH, n.d., pp.285- 6). According to Seth - in a thesis where the BHATT (1963) also insists on a late, documentation is not clear - it was found post-Independence start of services for inappropriate for India, especially as it had civilians with orthopaedic disabilities (pp.25- not yet proved possible to provide schooling 6, 99, 161), playing down the few earlier

- 4 - efforts she mentions on pp. 204, 217, 219. in both India and Britain, and the authors Like Pritchard and the Taylors, Bhatt were neither impartial nor disinterested. decided that the real beginning was made They or their editors clearly did shape and "..in 1947, when the Children's Orthopaedic colour the material towards the tastes of Hospital was founded.." (p.217). Later, anticipated readers. Yet they could hardly "..the first special day school for crippled have sustained blatant misrepresentation of children started functioning at Bombay as the work they described. There were plenty late as June, 1960" (p.161), although Bhatt of critics and opponents ready to 'expose' admits (p.162) that some children with what they saw as the 'waste' and 'hypocrisy' orthopaedic problems attended ordinary of missionary activities. Much of the schools. A brief section on orthopaedic disability material written by missionaries disabilities appears below, after mental was embedded in religious discourse. From retardation. that it has here been to some extent disengaged where to do so did not seem to Reliability & Bias affect the facts pertinent to disability. The In the excerpts presented below, witnesses compiler intends neither to conceal the are not rigorously scrutinised for reliability; context from those who might find it but where possible some independent support unpalatable, nor to disparage the is shown from as early a date as possible. missionaries' motives and activities. It is Official reports were liable in their own time largely a question of space, and partly one of to several levels of scrutiny before topic. Arguments about missionary publication. Reporting officers had no wish proselytisation were carried on by many to risk censure by inventing non-existent people in the 19th century and later, but charitable works. Typographical errors were they are not the subject here. not uncommon, particularly of the sort seen below under 'Mental Retardation, 1918': For example, missionary women when data was presented annually in a arranged for some blind people to learn to standard tabular format, the compositors read. The reading matter comprised parts of sometimes omitted to put forward the year the Bible and other Christian literature. The date. There also was some risk of error when women believed their students would be officials made annual summaries across a doubly benefitted - but they had little choice large region, on the basis of hundreds of anyway, since at the time there was hardly reports. For example, in Education in India any other material available in Indian in 1933-34 (Delhi, 1936, p.75-6) a new versions of Moon, and later Braille. They institution is recorded for deaf-mutes, also arranged, in collaboration with Indian opening at Jhagram [sic] in Midnapore colleagues, for blind people to learn to make District, with 8 pupils. In the Decennial twine, baskets and mats to support Progress Review 1937-1947, there is also a themselves financially. They did not refuse `Bodhana Niketan' for deaf children located or omit to teach blind people these skills at Jhargram, Midnapore District. The 1933- merely because there was no overt 34 report cited below shows Bodhana `Christian' content in them; or because to do Niketan starting for "defective" children at so would make the blind person independent Jhargram; later (1939-40) it becomes clear of mission aid. On the contrary- they were that these were "mentally defective and keen to avoid any dependence by disabled imbecile" children - although by the time of people on slender mission funds. So it seems that report, the school had moved to reasonable to present here the documentary Belghoria, near Calcutta. There was ample evidence for caring, educational and opportunity for official confusion. vocational activities run by missionaries for disabled people, shorn of most of the Most of the missionary texts were accompanying religious remarks. Such published to a keenly interested readership remarks do appear, however, where their

5 removal would mean wrenching the disability These sort of remarks suggest that at least material entirely out of its context. For those some missionaries were well aware of bias who wish to probe further into missionary problems in reportage of their work; and activities and motivations, the original were ready to counteract it frankly. (See also documents are essential and indeed METCALFE, under Hoshangabad, who fascinating reading. makes no pretence that some of her children were not in a repulsive state when they WHATELY (1878), for example, exposes arrived; and BAUMANN, under Chupra, some of the romantic misconceptions about who frankly admits receiving "with heavy the care of orphans, often held by supporters heart" yet another jungle child). It is also in Britain. In the character of "Miss clear that the informal care and teaching of Thorn ley" she gives an account of 'a day in orphans with damaged intellectual abilities the life' of a missionary lady caring for was a familiar experience to women Indian orphans. Her audience wants to know missionaries more than forty years before why they do not receive lots of interesting the 'first' school for mentally retarded stories about the children's progress: children at Kurseong in 1918. "But I thought those Eastern children were always so forward and so Organising the Excerpts intelligent?" said Miss Jenkins, in her Data appears by place alphabetically, then softly emphatic tone. "More precocious, chronologically, apart from notes on mental I think they are," said Miss Thorn ley; retardation services, grouped near the end, "older, that is, for their age, when quite which begin in 1918; followed by notes on young; but that does not make them orthopaedic disability services. Year dates more really intelligent, even when they refer to the Christian calendar. A few pre- have had good care and nourishment 1800 excerpts are included, where they seem when young. But, then, the poor famine to be interesting and relevant. The data is orphans have not had such advantages; sometimes all that was found in the source they come to us often not only prostrated quoted; otherwise, it has been selected to in body but stupefied and crushed in show the nature of the educational or caring mind.""Yes", said Mrs. Weston, activity; by whom it was done; when started; "people don't always remember that and where. Some individual stories appear in starvation acts on the brain as well as on detail, where they seem to cast light beyond the outward frame. In romantic stories, the purely personal and illuminate some a half-starved child is always ready to aspect of the disability situation and gaze with an expressive look of gratitude potentials. For example, some thousands of and a sweet smile on its benefactor; but I orphans were cared for at Secundra, among suppose you did not see much of that?" whom hundreds had disabilities; but few "Oh, no, indeed," said Miss Thorn ley, case histories are available. By contrast, at with a sigh and a smile. "No one can Hoshangabad 28 orphan girls were cared for conceive, who has not seen it, in what an over seven years; and Rachel METCALFE utterly wretched state these poor little (1888) wrote short sketches of them, from ones are sometimes found - almost which it appears that at least six were idiotic, often, at first; gradually the mind substantially disabled. wakes up as the body gets stronger, but in the early days the care of them was Passing mention is made of care for often most trying; some of them were sufferers from leprosy and mental illness, really almost repulsive objects, so but this has lower priority here than diseased and neglected! One felt it was blindness, deafness and mental retardation. an effort not to shrink from them, Neither leprosy nor mental illness is though of course such a feeling would necessarily disabling, though both often are. never be yielded to." (WHATELY, 1878) Both have a history of care going back centuries - e.g. 1VIEERSMAN, 1971, notes a Mehsana). This is a mere handful of hospital for lepers at Goa in 1531, as well as references to formally constituted work. To regular budget of alms for crippled people at describe the activities of 250-300 million Diu in 1565 and Damaun in 1574; Indians, with and for their disabled members FERISHTA (transl. 1910, IV, p.214) records during 200 years, would fill a large library if provision for mental patients in a hospital at the facts were known. Mandu in Madhya Pradesh, established by Mahmood Khilji in 1445. Goitre does not How Representative? appear here directly, though its association It is hard to know how representative are with cretinism and consequent disabilities the items shown. Many are situated in towns was noted in the Himalayas at least as early and cities, rather than the villages where as 1783 (TURNER, 1806, pp.86-87) and most of the population lived. They are preventive efforts using iodine commenced in mostly in British-ruled India, involved 1825 (SCOTT, 1825). (See also MILES, expatriates collaborating with Indians, and forthcoming). are recorded in English. The collection is stronger on northern India, and on Some terms, e.g. 'idiots', `blindies' and Protestant missions. No claim is made that even 'mental retardation', have fallen out of this necessarily gives a fair picture of all that fashion or are now used abusively; but this is went on; but it does suggest the variety of unavoidable in quotation from historical work done throughout the 19th century in sources. The I.Q. results quoted may also many places. Much of it was pioneered by now be considered of debatable validity; but women - which may also partly account for clearly contributed to concepts of mental its absence from 'official' histories. Even at retardation in India from the 1920s onwards. some risk of selection bias, it seems Some use is made of the term 'orthopaedic preferable to collect and reissue these few disabilities', because in many Indian items as a start, rather than to continue the documents 'physical disability' (which would current neglect of disability services in 19th otherwise be used here) covers all disabilities century India. other than mental or behavioural. Progress may be made in the future towards a unified Some historians, seeking 'balance', might English-language vocabulary of disability, wish to see an equal number of excerpts but it can hardly apply retrospectively. Nor showing foreigners using their privileges to has the spelling of place names been updated abuse disabled Indians or to exert unfair or harmonised. influence on them. That too would need to be set against examples of professionals Reference is made to work or abusing disabled people in 19th century observations at Agra (& Secundra), Britain, and counter-balanced by post- Ahmedabad, Allahabad, Almora, Amraoti, Independence accounts of Indians being kind Bahraich, Bareilly, Benares (& Sigra), or cruel to their disabled compatriots. Yet Bombay, Calcutta (& Belghoria), Cawnpore, the present purpose is different. Few people Champaran, Colombo, Cuttack, Chupra would deny that abuses of power take place (near Dinapore), Dacca, Delhi, Deoband, in all times and places; but some writers Furruckabad, Futtehpore, Goa, Gujrat deny that positive service took place in 19th (Punjab), Hoshangabad, Hyderabad (Sindh), century India. This collection refutes that Indore, Jhargram (Midnapore), Kurseong, view. Lahore, Lucknow, Madras, Meerut, Ootacamund, Palamcotta, Palliport (nr. The exercise is not one of academic Cochin), Peshawar, Poona, Purnea District, interest alone. It has implications for current Ranchi, Rungpore, Rutnagherry, disability service developments in India and Serampore, Shahjehanpore, Saharanpur, neighbouring countries. Experiments with Sioni, Travancore, Ujjain, and Unava (nr. `integrated' educational services and

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5 Western plans for 'Community Based but because it is necessary for understanding Rehabilitation' are under way, premised the present and for planning the future. Blind partly on the mistaken view that, before Indians (and others) should know about the Independence, India had hardly any blind Indian woman who was a teacher at disability service experience; and that since Agra in 1880 and earlier, and about the 1947 the Indian experience has been of large, blind and sighted children who were being `inappropriate', medically-oriented educated together in Calcutta in the 1840s institutions. This view ignores the informal and in many places since then. Teachers of efforts of Indian families and the deaf are entitled to read the heart- neighbourhoods since antiquity to respond to warming comments Devanesam Ammal special needs and disabilities. It dismisses wrote about her first weeks of teaching at over 100 years' work and care in small the Swainson school, Palamcotta, in 1897. centres across India before Independence, in There is a single note about a school for the which some people with disabilities received deaf in Calcutta in 1836, half a century education and vocational training, years before Mr Walsh began teaching at individually, or in groups, or integrated with Bombay. Someone in Calcutta should be able able-bodied children and adults; and then to find further evidence... People working earned their living by their own skills and with deaf-blind children now should know determination. about the progress of deaf-blind Pyari in 1907. Those working to eradicate polio and The merits and problems of Community lathyrism should have the opportunity to Based Rehabilitation, in the various read case histories from 1867 and 1811.I meanings of the phrase, will not adequately have included some descriptions of how be explored in India merely by importing indigenous charitable efforts appeared to the experience from other countries. colonial observers. It is up to Indians to Experiments should be based on the actual agree or disagree, to challenge, amplify or and substantially varied historical correct these observations, using their own experiences of India itself. The data below historical sources in Tamil, Marathi, hints at how varied and substantial that Bengali, etc. experience was, up to 1900. From 1900 to 1947, the experience gained was much greater in quantity, though not necessarily NB Material within square brackets [1 much advanced in quality. Greatest of all consists of explanatory interpolations was, and still is, the normal at-home care by the present author. Sometimes it and family life of ordinary people with was necessary to piece together the special children - but of this, little has been jigsaw from several sources, a name recorded historically in India. here and a date there, using directories such as those of BADLEY (Anthropologists, as evidenced in the 1921- or CRAWFORD (1930), neither of 1985 Index of their major journal Man in which should be regarded as infallible. India, have almost entirely neglected the To label all such sources in detail disability field. Their interest in physical would make difficult reading. At the phenomena seems to be limited to papers beginning or end of a phrase, two dots such as that in 1980 reporting the obscure ..indicate that the phrase has been topic of "Distribution of Hairy Nose Tip excerpted from a sentence; but when Among Andhras"). used in a title, two dots indicate abbreviation. Three dots...between Indians and their neighbours, in the phrases indicate that material has been disability field, must rediscover their omitted, for reasons of space. disability history from original source material, not only for its intrinsic interest, *******************

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10 AGRA (and nearby Secundra) ailing; she is able to read fluently Barth's "Bible Stories;" she is painstaking, well- 1837-38 behaved, and of a quiet disposition....13. "This institution was founded during the Evelyn, twelve years old, has very weak eyes. famine of 1837- 38..... The poorhouse.. is She is a modest, obedient girl, but not known as the `Dhurmsala.'... On the 31st energetic. ... 15. Grace, ten years and a half December there were [in the poorhouse] old, is in the first class. A clever girl, her Blind {Men, 20) {Women, 17) (Total 37)." teachers are pleased with her. She behaves (Report..Charitable..1872, p.34) well on the whole, and is helping Miss Ellwanger in the teaching of the blind girls. 1847 ... 25. Mary, a blind girl. Since the 10th of [Report by Mr C.T. Hoernle, on the Orphan May she has been taught by Miss Ellwanger Boys Institution, Secundra. One boy had to read the books for the blind, and she has died during the year.] "The boy who died, read the Gospel of St. John several times. was blind; but made himself very useful in She is so happy and thankful for being able the baking room, preparing all the chapatees to read herself. She is very attentive during for the oven. He was a well behaved and Bible instruction, and is learning to knit.... shrewd boy. Before he commenced his work 26. Phoebe, a little girl of seven or eight in the above capacity, he used to attend at years old. She has only one eye, but is able School with an Urdu class of his age, and to read. She is a well-behaved girl. ... 27. tho' he could but sit there; yet, by hearing Regina, at present in the hospital on account the other boys read and repeat their lessons of bad eyes. She is rather a lazy girl at in the New Testament, he learnt, aided by an school. She is in the second class....40. extraordinary memory, the whole gospel of Victoria has lately suffered a great deal from Matthew and parts of the other gospels, and bad eyes, which kept her away from her was able to recite any chapter which he was lessons and from work....42. Gertrude, a asked." (Seventh Report, 1847) blind girl, has begun to learn to read and to knit; although quite blind she is able to help 1865 in the kitchen in preparing and baking the [Translated letter from one of the pupils at chuppaties (native bread)....52. Adelaide, a Secundra] "At one o'clock the bigger girls clever little girl, in the second class, diligent go to the Mem Sahib (Mrs Daeuble) to do and well-behaved; in her play-hours she is their knitting and sewing. The other girls go anxious to help the blind girls with their to Miss Babaji [Miss Ellwanger], and sew reading.... 53. Beata, a blind girl with small their own and the boys' clothes. There is a capacity, often unwell; it wants a great deal blind girl, Sarah, who teaches the little one of patience to manage her....56. Maria things to commit to memory, as Bible Augusta, a blind, well-behaved girl, able to history, hymns, and catechism. ..." read fluently in the books for the blind; she (Daeuble, 1865) is attentive during Bible instruction, and learns to knit....58. Blanche. Her teacher is 1866 pleased with her; she is the second in the [Sixty nine orphan girls are listed, with first class, and is diligent at her work too, comments after each. Among them four are although often prevented from it by weak blind, four have only one eye, and four more eyes. ... 62. Florence, a nice, bright, smiling have some visual impairment. Two girls are little girl, with only one eye; she is well- noted as helping with teaching the blind behaved: in the third class." (Mrs. Dauble, girls]."3. Anna is at present ill of fever; she 1866) has only one eye, and is not very bright, but behaves well, and does the work which falls 1867 to her charge with pleasure. ... 6. Bertha. [Reports of Indian children allegedly raised She sees only out of one eye, and is often by wolves appeared, from SLEEMAN (1858, Vol.1, pp.208-222) onwards (See also industrial department; we shall print the DACCA, c.1838). They mostly speculated Bible in raised characters for the blind. We about the wolf connection, which nowhere have now a class of blind girls who read very could be proved, rather than on subsequent nicely the books that have been prepared. In efforts to teach the children. Some found time we shall train some teachers only for children were given to missionaries at the blind; there are so many of these poor Secundra and Futtehpore to care for. people in this country, and for whom so little IRELAND (1874) and PRIDEAUX (1885) has been done." (Mrs Erhardt, 1871) wrote to the Superintendent of the Secundra Orphanage, and recorded replies from Mr 1880 (James) Erhardt and Mr (Henry) Lewis. [Among nine girls or young women listed, BALL (1880) both wrote and visited three have visual problems]. "No.3. Julia is a Secundra and met a so-called 'wolf-boy'. faithful teacher, and has enjoyed good ZINGG (1940) gives a bibliography on 'wolf- health. She loses one friend after another, all children', and notes that he received a copy departing to their own homes, but she being of the record of Dina Sanichar's admission blind can never have any other home than to the `Sikandra' orphanage]. Secundra, where she is happy, and beloved by all....No.5. Victoria, we grieve to say, [Dina Sanichar] "..was considered by Mr became blind during the past hot season. Erhardt to be about fifteen years of age, and Our doctor in Agra did what he could for had been then (1874) nearly nine years in the the poor girl; but without success.... No.8. orphanage. He is described as being of a Rosamund A. W - has enjoyed good health; happy temperament. He has acquired some her eyes remain a little weak, and on that knowledge of the locality and can go about account she may not try them with fine the grounds by himself, but could not do so needlework. in school she gets on nicely, when Mr Erhardt first took charge of the attending all the classes." (Mrs Erhardt, Orphanage. Without constant supervision it 1880) is found to be impossible to keep him to any work.... Regarding the boy which was ALLAHABAD brought to the orphanage on the 5 of March, 1872,...A strange bond of sympathy 1826 attached these two boys together, and the "Collections raised from among Europeans elder one first taught the younger to drink at Allahabad were given to Mackintosh who out of a cup." (BALL, 1880, pp.458-61) gathered weekly "about 250 of the lame, blind, aged and indigent" to whom he read [Sanichar, (= Saturday)] "..was received by the Bible before distributing "alms us in 1867. ... He cannot talk, and though according to their varied circumstances"." undoubtedly pagal (imbecile or idiotic), still (POTTS, 1967, p.69, quoting correspondence shows sign of reason, and sometimes actual by Mr. L. Mackintosh of the Baptist shrewdness." (LEWIS, 1885) Missionary Society).

1870 1872 [Miss Elizabeth R. Alexander] "..has a [Tabular "Statement showing the lepers, school of about forty boys and girls, varying blind and poor, benefited by the charities in in age from five to fifteen, and nearly all of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh for the poorest class. A few are quite blind, and the year 1872" includes:] "Allahabad. Blind these she teaches from Moon's raised types." Men, 242, Blind Women, 286." (Editorial, 1870, p.232) (Report..Charitable..1872, p.33, 35-36)

1871 1880 or earlier "We are going to open a new branch in our "The Rev. Francis Heyl of the American

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12 Presbyterian Mission entertained us.... Mr place would be in alms-houses, were there Heyl has charge of an important educational such institutions established, and failing establishment... and has also the care of the these, the producers of such monstrosities Blind Asylum in Allahabad." (NEWMAN, must be content to bear the burden." [This p.263) [Mr Newman visited India from apparently callous remark occurs during a December 1880 to early 1881]. lengthier, more humane argument about the balance of duty between public and private "Blind Asylum" [with 40 beneficiaries, with resources for treatment of lunatics. The a note that:] "Nine are Christians. writer believed that lunatics could be treated Evangelistic instruction is given by American and discharged, whereas idiots could not; so Presbyterian missionaries" [appears without the asylum should not progressively become date in a list of "Schools and Homes for the filled with the latter, to the detriment of the Blind and for Deaf Mutes".] (DENNIS, former. Aspects of this argument recur in 1902, p.225) other asylum reports] (Report..Amraoti, 1882, appended report by T. Hume, p.4) "Institutions for the Blind in Foreign Countries, so far as known to the Authors. AMRI'I'SAR ... India. Place: Allahabad. When Founded: - "[Sole entry under India.] (TURNER & 1861 and earlier HARRIS, 1884, pp.96-7) "..a young woman called "Blind Sarah" in the Punjaub. She was brought up with some ALMORA other orphans..[by]..Mrs. Fitzpatrick [Amritsar probably 1851-56; see Clark, 1875 1904, pp.73-74, 218], and latterly, Mrs. [Table headed "Statement showing the Strawbridge [Amritsar probably 1854-1863]; Lepers, Blind and Poor benefited by who, in addition to careful Christian charities in the N-W Provinces for the year training, taught her to read the only 1875" shows that at the end of the calendar embossed English book then within their year Almora Asylum had 2 blind and 72 reach. Afterwards, when ..[Rev. John lepers and 8 "poor" men and women. Matlock Brown].. entered upon the Remark in the margin, about these eight:] missionary field at Amritzar, he took out "Includes 3 idiots and 3 lame." with him from us a chapter in Urdu, which (Report..Charitable..1875, p.30) was hailed with great delight by Blind Sarah.... We rejoice in this first Hindoo [-= AMRAOTI (Hyderabad Assigned Districts) Indian] reader, as an earnest of the company of blind readers in the East.." (Eighth 1882 Report, 1864, pp.9-10). "The idiot boy alluded to [in a report by the Hospital Superintendent], which the visitors 1880 considered as being an unsuitable case for [Discussing future options for a blind young the asylum on account of his youth, has been woman: probably Miss Asho, the first removed and placed under the care of the teacher of blind people at Amritsar; see Hospital Assistant, Amraoti Charitable under LAHORE]. "I do trust that Miss Dispensary, who will look after him and find Tucker and Miss Wauton will be successful him employment about the dispensary." in establishing the Industrial Home they (Report..Amraoti, 1882, p.5) have spoken of in Umritsar." (FULLER, 1880) "This class [idiots] we must consider as precluded from being inmates of this asylum, "The year 1880 saw the opening of the because they are not actually cases which Hospital[St. Catherine's, Amritsar] with can benefit by treatment. ... Their proper six beds, and a few months later Miss [Sarah] Hewlett and her students took up preparing to work among the blind to some their abode there within the city walls. Miss extent. At the time you kindly took some Frances Sharp[sister of Annie Sharp] interest in my plans, and, indeed, helped me joined her in 1882." (CLARK, 1904, p.58) to see a few blind people being taught by sending one of your blind teachers two or "The [Female] Converts' Industrial Home. three times to escort me about the Stoke- One blind convert was knitting, and knitting Newington district....I believe you remarkably well. At Miss M. Smith's desire thought me a little foolish to propose she brought her Gospel in embossed [Moon] teaching the blind, when I had scarcely any letters, and her progress in reading does experience of what they might be made to great credit both to her own intelligence and do." (SHARP, 1890, p.221-2) perseverance, and those of her instructress, a blind native Christian." (TUCKER, 1881) 1886 "At last, in 1886, a small knitting class was [Tucker's knitter (above) was probably the established, and two or three blind women of inquirer 'A.' in what follows; and 'A.' was low caste were persuaded to join it, and they Miss Asho - see under LAHORE:] "A. was received a few pice a week as payment.... also an inquirer sent from Lahore. She Knitting did not commend itself to the minds remained in the Home three months, getting of the pupils, who had proved begging to be daily Bible instruction, and learning to read a far more lucrative occupation.." in the raised type. She has now returned to (HEWLETT, 1898, p.48) the Lahore Mission, and has been baptized." [Miss M. Smith's report from Amritsar, to "Although she carefully instructed her the end of 1880.] (SMITH, 1881) [Asho] in stocking-knitting, at which Asho is now remarkably handy, Miss Fuller [see 1882 LAHORE, 1876] did not fall into the mistake "We also hear of a convert now in the of acting as if knitted stockings were the only [Female Converts' Industrial] Home who is commodity which could be produced by rapidly becoming blind, and who is learning blind people; she taught her to make from a to read the raised [Moon] type that she kind of string manufactured in India from may be useful as a teacher of blind girls. She an indigenous rush, a stout useful door-mat, has already two pupils." (WAUTON, 1882) which has been, from the time of Asho's coming to us, a growingly important article 1883-85 (?) of manufacture and sale in our school. [The following idea must have occurred to Asho's coming really marks the date of the Sarah Hewlett and Frances Sharp some time beginning of this school." [A photograph of before they invited Annie Sharp to prepare Miss Asho, reading, is published in Hewlett's herself to work with blind people]."As the book, opp. p.48]. (HEWLETT, p.50) years went by it was frequently a cause of sadness to us that we had to send away "..we were told that Asho entered into this unrelieved so many cases of blindness; and effort [Zenana visiting, said to be with Mrs the idea began to take shape in our minds, Morrison, a missionary at Ferozepur] very and to find a large place in our prayers, that faithfully and well, and seemed exceedingly we might open a school for the blind..." happy in the work. It was at the time of Mrs (HEWLETT, 1898, p.45) Morrison's death [more probably Miss Fuller's death] that some ladies in the same 1885 Mission proposed sending Asho to St. [Annie Sharp writing from Amritsar to G. Catherine's Hospital, Amritsar.... At first Martin Tait, member of Committee for she began to try again on the poor hopeless Home Teaching of the Blind:]"I was at blindies whose class had not been kept up; `The Willows' [London] in 1885-86, and was and she soon begged us to set aside stocking-

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14 knitting for such, and to introduce the employments for the morning, and this, with coarse mat-making with its much larger a short Bible lesson, forms 'school.'... The possibilities of usefulness and sale." reading-books (Dr Moon's raised type, (HEWLETT, pp.52-3) adapted to Roman Urdu), and the materials for baskets and for knitting, are a continual "In the autumn of the year 1886, Miss Annie need." (SHARP, 1888, p.205-7) Sharp came out to work as a missionary in connection with our Hospital. The poor blind 1889 women in whom we had hoped to find a "You must understand that these[five nucleus for a school had been dispersed, and blind Christian women] live in the it was decided to try again; and as Miss Compound. Then every morning the Sharp had brought with her a knowledge of Mohammedan women are brought from basket-making, there was every their homes and remain four hours, when encouragement to believe that some they do knitting, reading, basket-making and industrial work might now be successfully mat-making.... The next event which I hope attempted." (HEWLETT, p.48) will take place this week [written in October, 1889]is the removal of the little "The first step was that we got a Christian school into another portion of the premises. blind teacher, which sounds a very good Hitherto we have managed in a large step, though she was sent to us chiefly verandah..." (SHARP, 1890, p.221) because other missionaries found her so difficult to manage." (SHARP, 1890, p.221) 1892 "The now growing needs of the Refuge and "The 'North India Industrial Home for the other "compound" work, as well as that of Blind' was founded in the year 1886, and its the Blind School, took away Miss Bartlett first pupils were poor Muhammadan women and Miss A. Sharp to some extent from and girls who came daily to be taught. At a zenana visiting, but some 1000 non-medical later date a department was opened for visits were accomplished in the year [1892]." resident Christian pupils, and the day school (CLARK, 1904, p.59) was discontinued owing to lack of funds." (Progress 1897-1902, p.396). 1894 "In the year 1894, the growth of the Blind 1887 School is brought before us, and in 1899 the "..the two new workers [Miss Bartlett and Blind Institute has almost to be regarded as Miss A. Sharp] were able to do zenana a separate department, its many needs visiting, keeping open houses which the calling for much sympathy and support." medical workers had not time to visit (CLARK, p.60) constantly; the School for the Blind was also opened, with a Christian blind woman as 1897 teacher, and two or three day pupils." "Miss Hewlett and Miss Capes spent the (CLARK, 1904, p.58) summer of 1897 in England, and when the late Miss A. Sharp [Clark footnotes: "Miss 1888 A.Sharp died in February, 1903"; but see "Three old women, two young girls, and a below.] returned with them in December it young widow are the Mohammedan was to find greater opportunities than ever members of the school.....The blind amongst the blind, and to give special Christian teacher is certainly growing [in attention to the re-arrangement of the evangelical Christian idiom, this would refer "Shirreff Urdu-Braille" alphabet, so that it to spiritual maturity, rather than physique]; may be used for most Sanscritic languages." and, though young, is helpful. Reading, (CLARK, p.60) basket-making, and knitting are the

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15 1898 convert woman to enter the [North India "The year 1898 tells of an ingathering of Industrial] Home [For the Blind] for famine orphans, boys and girls, many of training, is still at work as a Bible-woman in them blind, and of some adult baptisms." the C.E.Z.M.S. Mission Hospital at (CLARK, p.60) Amritsar." (GRIFFITH, 1927, p.30). [Griffith's account is not scholarly. If this "The Institute for blind men, women, and `Aisha' is`Asho', as seems almost certain, children, in connexion with St. Catherine's she is already here being removed from her Hospital, Amritsar, (Church of England actual role at the start of blind school as Zenana Mission) is, as far as I am aware, recorded by contemporaries. Griffith's note the only Asylum for the Blind in all India, is included only to indicate the length of combining a Christian home and direct Miss Asho's service]. missionary effort with a technical and industrial school, and reading...... Miss BAHRAICH Sharp, who has managed it from its beginning, and under whose care it has 1877 or a little earlier. developed into its present state of [Not listed in Report..Charitable..1872, usefulness;.." (HEWLETT, 1898, pp.1-2) whose author says (p.32) "I believe that no charitable institution which was in existence 1899 in these provinces during the past year, has "There is a school at Amritsar, under Miss been omitted from the record." Figures for Hewlett, in which twenty-seven blind pupils - persons benefited in an institution at all Christians - are under instruction." Bahraich, in Benares District, are totalled, (DENNIS, 1899, p.385). under category, from yearly statements:]

1903 BlindLeper Poor "Early in 1903, it was found necessary to 1877 721 52 remove the [Blind] Institute to Rajpur 1880 7 32 67 [Dehra Dun], in the United Provinces. 1882 1821 59 During the sixteen years it was open, ninety (Report..Charitable..Oudh.. for the years inmates were received, and cared for." 1877 (p.29), 1880 (p.29) and 1882 (p.35). (CLARK, 1904, p.60). "The Bhinga Raj Anthalaya is a non- "The Panjab lost...... Miss AnnieSharp sectarian asylum for the indigent maimed from Amritsar medical mission, the latter and blind, maintained in a handsome having just moved with her blind women to building erected and endowed by the Raja of Rajpur, where the institution, now Bhinga in Bahraich; it is managed [by 1909] superintended by Miss F. Sharp, still by a committee appointed in accordance with remains in affiliation with the C.E.Z.M.S." a scheme framed under the Charitable (A.D., The Story, [1912], p.'78) Endowments Act, 1890." [This was probably started, less formally, as the [Pasted slip on inside cover of register:] institution of which data appear immediately "..just a fortnight after the move had been above]. (Benares, 1909, p.181) accomplished, Miss Sharp was taken ill with Cholera and passed Home[i.e. is presumed BAREILLY to have gone to Heaven] in 1903." [p.61:] "Died of cholera at Rajpur 25 April 1903." 1865 (Roll of Missionaries, n.d., Vol.1) "Another institution of the same kind [see BENARES, 1824] was established at Bareilly 1927 in 1865, through the exertions of Hakim "One, named Aisha, the very first blind Inayat Husain." (SETH, n.d. [c.1936?],

- 14 - p.284) Ghosal, ten blind people were admitted provisionally on the 1st January 1826, 1870 pending final approval by the Governor "Two blind boys [at Bareilly] made some General in Council. Negotiations concerning progress in learning the letters, etc." the financing and responsibilities for the (Annual..Dispensaries..1870, p.19) proposed asylum occupy 145 pages of manuscript correspondence.] (India Office, BENARES (and nearby Sigra) 1827-28, p.115). [See Appendix 1]

1824 1841 "The first institution of its kind was founded "The last branch, and perhaps, next to in Benares district in 1824 by Raja Kali preaching, that of most importance, is our Shanker Ghosal for the reception of destitute [Church Missionary Society] Orphan and helpless persons of all nations, more Establishment. We have at present 121 boys, especially the blind." (SETH, p.284) divided into several classes. They all, with the exception of a few blind, dumb, idiot and 1825 sickly boys, read the gospel." (Proceedings, "..the Lunatic Asylum, established in 1812, 1841, p.67) sheltering one hundred and ten patients; the Blind and Leper Asylum, with one hundred 1856 and thirty inmates, founded, in 1825, by "On the 4th of September, 1856, the Raja Kali S'ankar Ghosal;.." (SHERRING, foundation stone was laid [of William 1868, p.338) Moon's new building in Brighton, UK. At the ceremony, those present..] .....were 1825 reminded of the progress of Mr. Moon's "..the Kali Shankar asylum; the latter is a System of Embossed Books by the fact, that charitable institution, consisting of a it was in great demand, not only amongst collection of small houses for the reception of our own people, but also in foreign lands. the blind, maimed and indigent, as well as Portions of the Scriptures had been orphans and lepers, and endowed by a embossed in eighteen languages. ... The head bequest of Rs.48,000 and the rent of a of the Benares Mission had taken some of house, left in 1825 by Raja Kali Shankar these books.." (FISON, 1859, pp.19-20) Ghosal, a prominent resident of Benares during the first half of the nineteenth 1861 century. It was at first managed by a "The wife [presumably Jane Leupolt] of a committee consisting of a judge of the court Missionary lately returned to Benares, tells of appeal, the magistrate, the chaplain, a us of a Blind native Christian woman who is representative of the Raja and the civil already useful in teaching. A chapter surgeon as secretary. Originally it was embossed in her own tongue is gone out, and housed in the mint [the old Mint Premises], she will probably soon learn to read it for which a rent of Rs.160 per mensem was herself and become a Teacher of her blind paid, as the equivalent of a Government countrywomen. She has a half-blind husband grant to the asylum. Later it was removed to who will perhaps be employed in the same a site near the city hospital, and the grant way, and we have promised to pay them, was reduced to Rs.100 monthly. In 1852, and any others who may become Teachers." however, the present building in Hukulganj (Fifth Report, 1861, pp.12-13) was erected from the designs of Major Kittoe." (Benares, 1909, p.178). 1864 "BENARES. - The poor inmates of the 1826 Female Blind Asylum have also the [On the insistence of Raja Kali Shanker advantage of regular instruction [from Mrs

- 15 - Fuchs, see next entry]...". (Thirtieth Annual for various aspects of their work. Charles Report, 1864, p.16). Leupolt left India finally in 1872 (p.206, and Preface). Jane left either with him or earlier "About seven years ago I proposed to send a (but not before March 1870, see below: Christian woman, under my care and SHAKESPEAR)] superintendence, to the blind asylum, to instruct the women there; but those in "Some years ago we had a number of blind authority declined. After my return from boys in our Orphan Institution.... [After Europe, I went there again, and asked the considering Moon's Gospel of St. John, inmates if they would like it if I would available only in his embossed adaptation of sometimes come and read to them. They at Urdu] Mrs. Leupolt set to work to form an once expressed their willingness; but, alas! alphabet adapted to the Hindi, which is also the place is very far from us, and I had not the Sanscrit alphabet.... The alphabet being health and strength to do my work at Sigra; completed, she next commenced printing the but now I am again able to work (praised be "First Hindi Reader" for the blind.... Raja the Lord for this kindness!). The authorities Kali Shunkar had established a blind asylum themselves pay a Christian teacher to at Benares, and, with the consent of its instruct the children, boys and girls, about superintendent, Mrs. Leupolt introduced her twenty in number, belonging to the asylum. teacher and books into the asylum.... A My husband and myself go there whenever number of boys and lads soon learnt to read we can. One blind man is waiting for fluently.... At last the Commissioner and baptism: a very nice woman, the heathen Director of Public Instruction visited the wife of a blind Christian, wished also to join boys to ascertain their progress. After this us, but was suddenly cut off by cholera, her visit of inspection Mrs. Leupolt had no husband offering up prayers as she expired. longer to defray the teacher's expenses; I felt the death of this loving creature very moreover, his Honour, the Lieut.-Governor, much; her only child, a little girl of three had the thanks of Government conveyed to years old, is with us. About twenty of my her for what she effected for the blind. From blind women were carried off by cholera..". this time the system was successfully (Fuchs, 1864) introduced in several stations....Another benefit accrued to the asylum from the blind 1866 and earlier. inmates having been taught to read; the [Exact dates of Mrs Jane C. Leupolt's work authorities thought they might also be taught with blind people are uncertain. Moon noted to labour, and an Industrial [workshop or that work on a Hindustani gospel had begun centre] was commenced. At the advice of in 1853 (Fifth Annual, p.9). Jane Leupolt friends, specimens of printing in this raised did no transcription to Hindi before that type were sent to the Agra Exhibition in appeared. As Miss Jane C. Jones, she was 1867, and a first-class Special Prize Medal one of the first women sent to India by the was awarded to this alphabet. ... On leaving Society for the Promotion of Female India, Mrs. Leupolt made over the books Education in the East, in 1835, and was a and printing materials to the Rev. J. trained infants teacher. (History of the Erhardt of the Secundra Orphanage, where Society, 1847, pp.51-52; RICHTER, 1908, the work is still being carried on under his p.339). The Leupolts had connections in superintendence." [See Secundra, 1871] Brighton, and presumably visited Dr Moon (LEUPOLT, 1884, pp.243-7) there (see 1856 entry above). Jane Leupolt went to England in April 1857 (LEUPOLT, 1868 1884, p.351) and her husband followed in "The progress made in teaching the blind to 1858. They returned to India in December read has been on the whole very satisfactory, 1860 (ibid. p.198). Between 1857 and 1860, considering the difficulties that have existed Jane Leupolt collected ideas and materials regarding a teacher. For the first six months

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18 there was none; then the man from[the (Report..Charitable..1876, p.26) Christian village at] Sigra, who originally in 1868 commenced the teaching, resumed the 1877 post and worked well as long as his health "The school for the blind is still kept up, and permitted, but in November he was five adults and two children received compelled again to resign, and died at the instruction during the year." end of the year. Mrs. Leupolt, who takes a (Report..Charitable.. Oudh..1877, p33) kind interest in the matter, and frequently comes down to look after the progress of the BOMBAY pupils, has had another man [presumably Mr Titus, see next entry] instructed as a 1820-1830 [How slow-learners fared in teacher, and he commenced his duties on the school:] 1st instant [March, 1870]. Notwithstanding "The total absence of printed books and the the above difficulties, six of the blind have very rare use of manuscripts left the scholars learned to read well, and one is so advanced free from the worry of reading lessons which that he is able to give great assistance in form today the staple of the school teaching others." (SHAKESPEAR et al, instruction. There was much learning by 1870) rote.. ... There were no 'classes', no marks, and no examinations to pass and no hurdles 1870 of standards to get over. Each went ahead "At the beginning of 1870 the first teacher according to his own pace and was free to died of consumption. An orphan lad, named leave the school as and when he liked.... A Titus[one of the earliest Indian special report from Ahmadnagar district states: teachers to be known by name], from the "The education of clever boys is completed in lower classes of the Normal School [Teacher 4 years between the ages of 8 and 12"." training establishment], having finished his [The citation from this report is later course of study, was selected for the work; continued (p.132): "Those of medium talents he was taught to read and write the raised in 6 years and the Dunces (if at all) in 8 characters, and he was installed as teacher. years."] (PARULEKAR, 1945, p.xxx) In the morning he taught the blind, and in the afternoons he taught the lame and 1845 decrepit who were not blind. He was "At the S.E. foot of the hill on which are the directed not only to teach the blind to read, Towers of Silence is an almshouse for but to tell them tales and anecdotes, and to decayed Parsis of both sexes. Over the door instruct them well in mental arithmetic. is written.- This Asylum, for the Reception Some of the lads took considerable interest of Blind and Disabled Poor Parsis, was in the latter, and entered heartily into it; it erected at the expense of the Sons of the late also gave them something to think about." Farthinji Sorabji Parak, Esq....A.C. (LEUPOLT, 1884, pp.243-7) 1845.." (EASTWICK, 1881, p.143)

1872 1847 "Of the blind eleven have been under "The General Dharmashala stands on instruction during the year; of these six left Bellasis road and was erected about 1847 by the [Raja Shunkur Ka lee Ghosal] asylum, Sir Jamsetji Jijibhoy [1783-1859]. It one died, and four remained, of whom two provides accommodation for about 300 can read well and two fairly." persons." [See under 1875] (Report..Charitable..1872, p.38) (Gazetteer..Bombay, 1910, p.338 footnote)

1876 1849 "...five blind adults and one blind girl "...to relieve the Asylum from its present attended the school kept up for them." crowded state, I think that Idiots and

- 17 - harmless Imbeciles (who have no relations to generally, and not for lepers especially -.. look after them) should be removed to some proved a blessing to thousands of the more suitable building* not far distant from afflicted.... About 120 [lepers] are lodged in an Hospital, where their wants could be it at the present moment, and they share its supplied, and their health attended to, by scanty accommodation with nearly an equal the medical man of the station; and I think number of the blind, the lame and the the Magistrates of Bombay should also be aged." (GEARY, 1875) informed that the Asylum was never meant for the reception of such patients, but only 1882 for those who were amenable to treatment, "In 1882, D. De Hearne wrote a letter to and for whom it would be dangerous to Lord Ripon requesting him to help him to society to have at large. [Footnote] * Might establish a school for the deaf in India. His not the vacant Hospital at Dapoolee be well Excellency advised him to apply to the suited for such a purpose?"[In April 1848, church in India to undertake such work. the Asylum held 46 idiots and imbeciles, Accordingly, De Hearne wrote to the among 76 patients, i.e. 60%. During the next Archbishop of Calcutta. While appreciating year, 106 patients were admitted, among his proposal, His Grace regretted that in the whom were 15 imbeciles; 39 patients were absence of proper personnel, the matter had discharged 'cured', among whom 3 to be postponed. De Hearne then contacted imbeciles; 17 were 'delivered to friends' (2 the Bishop Meuerin of Bombay with the idiots, 6 imbeciles); 13 died (1 idiot, 3 same object. His Lordship answered imbeciles). In April 1849 there were 46 idiots immediately asking for books and teachers. and imbeciles, among 109 patients (42%)]. A year later, De Hearne sent Mr. T.A. (ARBUCKLE, 1849) Walsh to Bombay where he succeeded admirably well." (MISHRA, 1950). 1863 "The idea of establishing the St. Vincent's "In India, largely through the efforts of the Home, for housing the poor of the Society, late M. de Haerne, some time Director of the was conceived by Fr. Meurin on seeing the Brussels Institution, the first school was wretchedness and misery of the poor he started by the Catholics at Bombay in 1884, visited in company with the members [of the under the direction of Mr. T.A. Walsh, who Society of St. Vincent de Paul, newly started introduced the oral system." (FARRAR, at Bombay], particularly of a negro woman, 1901, p.84) who was a cripple from paralysis, and who dwelt by herself for want of a better place in "..the Bombay, India, Institution, under the a miserable but in a cemetery." (COLACO, charge of Mr. T.A. Walsh, whom our 1891, p.VI) readers will remember as the author of some valuable papers in the Annals." (Editorial: 1866 School Items, 1887) "The Sir Cowasji Jehangir Ophthalmic Hospital adjoins the Jamsetji Jijibhoy "The Bombay Institution for Deaf-Mutes was Hospital and was built in 1866 at a cost of founded by Bishop Meurin in the year 1882 nearly one lakh, given by the late Sir by the aid of public subscriptions, the list of Cowasji Jehangir Readymoney." which includes several native princes, as well (Gazetteer..Bombay, 1910, p.189) as rich Hindus, Mahommedans and Parsis. ... The Government granted a subsidy of 1875 Rs.1,200 per year and the Municipality "...the Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy Dhurrumsala in Rs.1,800. At the time of its foundation it Byculla, at the junction of the Bellasis and was the only institution of its kind in India. the Duncan roads. That institution - founded What with endowments and donations, it is for the relief of the destitute and the sick more or less self-supporting. Originally it

- 18 - was started in the Fort, and [by] 1885 the He had been engaged in deaf-mute institute was in full working order.... [The instruction for over twenty years in Ireland pupils] ..go through an elaborate and and Belgium. he arrived in Bombay in ingenious training which to the outsider October, 1884, and has been in charge since. looks like attempting the impossible; namely, ... The head of the Institution had formerly to enable them to understand what is said by used the manual system, but upon coming to watching the lips of the speaker, and even to India adopted the oral." (CROSSETT, learn how to talk themselves by imitating the 1887) lip-movements of their teacher- sometimes touching his throat, then their own, in order "The school was founded by the Venerable to know what the sound feels like." (HULL, Dr. Leo Meurin, the then Roman Catholic 1913, p.309) Archbishop of Bombay, with the Rev. Father Goldsmith as its principal. The school has 1884 been managed ever since by the lay brothers "In 1883 His Lordship [Bishop John Gabriel of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul." Leon Meurin, Vicar Apostolic of Bombay] (BANERJI, 1949) went to Goa.. ...[various activities are listed, but the following refers to Bombay] 1885 ..and soon after provided his Vicariate with "I have also visited Bishop Meurin's two new institutions - the St.John of institution at Trombay... known as the Beverley's Institution for Deaf-mutes, the Eduljee Framjee Albless Lepers' Home.... only one of its kind in India, and the St. Altogether, I consider that the lepers in the Isabel's Association for Ladies, with the institution are exceptionally well cared for, especial object of taking care of female poor, and as a consequence their health is to which a third one was added by the exceptionally good." (BAILEY, c.1888, inauguration in 1885 of the Lepers' Home at p.179). Trombay." (COLACO, 1891, p.XI) 1900 "Another institution was started in Bombay "Among special educational institutions in the early part of the year 1884, by the recently founded are the American Mission Vicar Apostolic of Bombay, Bishop Meurin. school for the blind opened in 1900 and the This prelate met in the course of one of his Victoria Memorial school for the blind- a pastoral visitations two or three deaf and primary school with industrial classes- dumb boys, the children of Roman Catholic opened in 1902; [Footnote:] These and a christians, who were members of his flock, Deaf and Dumb institute opened in 1886 are and compassionating their melancholy classed as Primary aided school." resolved to establish a school for the training (Gazetteer..Bombay, 1910, p.121) of children similarly affected. He opened a class in his own house but in February 1886 CALCUTTA the classes were transferred to a building of its own on Grant Road."(SETH, n.d., 1794 p.284). "..the Hospital was opened [with private donations and Government aid, at "The large lettered sign, "Institution for Dharamtola,] for the reception of patients on Deaf-Mutes," in a great half-circle over a the 1st of September 1794.... The state of gate-way, caught our eyes as we walked the Funds in 1810, created an apprehension.. down Grant Road in Bombay....[Several ..how to avert the dreadful necessity of paragraphs follow, on activities witnessed in repulsing the maimed, and the sick from two classes of deaf boys.] Again on a those doors, which for a long course of Sunday afternoon I called, and this time saw years, had been indiscriminately opened for the European superintendent [T.A. Walsh]. the alleviation of the suffering Natives,.."

- 19 -

21 [happily, the Government and the wealthy world, so far as ascertained at at that time. public did supply more funds]. ...Asia has one school for the deaf and (LUSHINGTON, 1824, pp.295-298). [This dumb; (viz. at Calcutta;) or, at least, had in hospital for the native poor had made an 1836. Whether it is still in existence we earlier start in late 1792 or early 1793 on the cannot say." (Editorial, 1848) [No Chitpur Rd. The first Calcutta hospital for confirmation has been obtained for the Europeans was opened in 1707/1708]. existence of this school, though it is quite (CRAWFORD, 1914, vol.11, pp.418-427)] possible that it existed. Alternatively, see under '1839 and earlier'] 1812 and probably earlier. "A Leper Asylum was first established in 1838 Calcutta in 1818 [presumably a misprint, "..Dwarakanath Tagore made a startling perhaps for 1808 or 1811?] by J.H. announcement of a big donation of Harrington of the Civil Service.....On his Rs.100,000 to the [District Charitable] departure to Europe in 1812, Harrington Society in 1838.... The Europeans were made over the charge of the Asylum to the naturally stunned, and so were the Indians. Select Vestry, which continued in charge ... the amount was utilized by the Society, even after Harrington's return. The Asylum according to the wish of the donor, in continued till August, 1818, when an establishing the Twarakanath Fund for initiative was taken to establish an Asylum Poor Blind'." [A table then shows that in on a larger scale." (SANYAL, 1977) [John 1840, 214 blind people benefitted from this Herbert Harrington's service in India began Fund]. (SANYAL, 1977) in 1780. By 1812 he was Chief Judge of the Court of Sudder Dewanee and Nizamut 1839 and earlier. Adawlut, a very senior position]. "In further token of the success of Mrs. Wilson's system, we cannot but mention 1826 Gunga, a deaf and dumb girl, who, under "In December 1826, an examination of the peculiar circumstances, was admitted to the little girls [from Mrs. Wilson's school] institution [the Female Orphan Refuge], and took place at the Episcopal residence..... A has been an inmate for several years...... a poor blind girl exhibited considerable great favourite with her playmates: they interest; she had from listening to the other have taught her to converse with her fingers. children, got by heart many passages from ...In worsted work she particularly excels, the Gospels, and repeated very correctly the and several pieces done by her, have been greater part of the second chapter of St. sent to England." (CHAPMAN, 1839, Luke." (CHAPMAN, 1839, p.91). p.137)

1833 1838/39 "In the first document[Endnote: Calcutta "...the enquiries made by the agent of the Courier, Oct.14, 1833]..... It was said that Bengal Military Orphan Institution about one hundred and fifty aged, infirm [Calcutta] encourage the hope, that the and physically handicapped beggars had benefits of the [Lucas] system [of embossed been enlisted as the 'pensioners' of the print for blind readers] may be extended [District Charitable] Society. This had even to that distant land." (Annual resulted in reduction of beggars in the Report...London Society, 1839, p.!!) streets." (SANYAL, 1977) 1840/41 1836 "...a pleasing document which has lately "The Quatrieme Circulaire put forth by the been received from the Managers of the Paris Institution in 1836, contains a list of all Bengal Military Orphan Asylum, in which it the schools for the deaf and dumb in the is stated that the Blind Orphans in that

- 20 - 22 Institution were learning to read upon one of the founders of the Calcutta school]. Lucas's system, and their joy and satisfaction were great at acquiring such an 1892 important source of instruction." (Annual "The credit of devising Bengali Braille is Mr. Report...London Society, 1841, p.11) [Ramanda] Chatterjee's. In 1892, when Mr. Chatterjee devised his system, there 1844/45 were only two institutions for the blind in "The Bengal Military Orphan Asylum at India [at Amritsar and Palamcottah].. Calcutta, has also during the past year, Dasashram which was founded in Calcutta in ordered of the Society, a further supply of order to shelter and protect all types of embossed books, for the Blind Children of needy and handicapped persons, had a that Institution." (Annual Report...London monthly journal of its own, namely, Dasi, of Society, 1845, p.12) which Mr Chatterjee was the editor...... Mr Chatterjee devised his system at least 1891 two or three years before the one evolved by "A Government school for the deaf has been Mr [L.B.] Shah, and since Mr Shah's established in Calcutta, largely through the system differs very slightly from that of Mr efforts of Sahib Garindranath Bhose, a Chatterjee, it can be definitely established wealthy and benevolent resident of that that Mr Chatterjee is the originator of city." (School Items, 1891) Bengali Braille." (S.C. ROY, 1944, pp.234- 37). [Mr. J.N. Banerji's] "..attention had been called to the sad and neglected state of these 1893 sufferers by meeting a Hindu gentleman, "It was not until April 1893 that this who had two deaf and dumb sons, and was [Calcutta Deaf and Dumb] School was having them educated by a Mr. Sinha. started, and in the course of the first ten After some deliberation, Mr. Sinha and Mr. months of its existence it grew from a modest Banerji determined to form a class of and obscure Institution into an important children, and, another friend having joined and rapidly-growing philanthropic and them, they began in earnest to carry out educational establishment. ... The teaching their scheme." (Editorial, Indian Magazine, staff consists of Babus Jamini Nath Banerji 1896) (Principal), Srinath Sinha, and Mohini Mohan Mazumdar, all Hindu gentlemen. "..Girindra Nath Bhose.. was the That the school is entirely under native unfortunate father of four deaf-mute management, and that deaf-mute children of children and had been in correspondence Hindu, Mahomedan, European, and with England to bring out a teacher from Eurasian parents are admitted to the that country. He was a scion of the Institution should give India's well-wishers Pataldanga Bhose family of Calcutta.. ... great cause to rejoice."(Editorial, Indian Fortunately, however, the agreement finally Magazine, 1895, p.436) fell through to give room to the native enterprise. ... There was another man, 1894 Srinath Sinha, who had a deaf-mute brother "Jamininath who had been sent to Bombay whom he was anxious to help. Providence (all his expenses were borne by Girindranath brought these two men together. Srinath Bhose), returned with a determination to go Sinha was appointed by Girindranath as a to England. Bombay [presumably the school tutor of his children. Literatures on the for the deaf founded by Bishop Meurin - the education of the deaf which had been experienced teacher T.A. Walsh may not yet already brought from England, were given have arrived at the time of Jamininath's to Srinath." (S.N.BANERJI, 1949) [S.N. visit]failed to satisfy him." (BANERJI, Banerji was the son of Jamini Nath Banerji, 1949)

- 21 - 23 1895 this new Asylum, and shortly afterwards "Mr. J.N. Banerji, Principal of the were added two infant boys." (p.425) "This institution at Calcutta, has had the dear child's [Maria's] death may be advantage of being sent to the West to study accounted a desirable circumstance for the systems and practice of England and the herself, for she had suffered distressingly in United States; and, after a year [1894-95] in her constitution by her deformity." (p.433) London at Mr. Van Praagh's Training (SHERWOOD, 1854) School for the oral instruction of the deaf and dumb, he went to Washington to join 1834 the Gallaudet College." (Editorial, Indian "These ladies of Cawnpore established a Magazine, 1896, p.107) native female orphan asylum; "from October, 1834, to June, 1835, sixty-four "Let me then attempt to describe the Oral children were admitted; several of them were Method as practised sat at Mr Van Praagh's rescued from slavery; the nose of one had School, 11 Fitzroy Square, London... .. One been cut off, and another had almost entirely of the first lessons imparted is quite an lost the use of her limbs owing to long Indian one, learning to inhale and exhale the confinement; six of them were taken by the breath properly - a toy wind-mill with its magistrate from the house of a man of very little sails being used for the purpose." bad character"." (Story of the Cawnpore, (MACDONALD, 1897, p.63) [MacDonald 1923, p.19. No source of quotation is also writes briefly of the Calcutta deaf shown). school]. 1847 "Calcutta Deaf and Dumb School. [Founded] "Mr Perkins of Cawnpore: "..Bessy, a little 1893. Founder: Sri Nath Sinha. Pupils: Total blind girl of remarkably sweet and happy 23." [Listed in a "Statement of Schools for disposition.. ... Inoffensive and useful as her the deaf, December 1895"]. (International life had been, this could not satisfy her: but Reports, 1896. pp.6-7) shortly before her death, she summoned her school-fellows and besought them to forgive 1897 her if she might ever have grieved them"." "My own school at Calcutta [school for the (MULLINS, 1847, p.86) blind, founded by the writer's father, Lal Behari Shah] was established in 1897.." 1871 (SHAH, 1914) "Dr. Condon speaks strongly of the want of a poor-house [at Cawnpore] to relieve the CAWNPORE dispensary of a mass of homeless wanderers, who require good food and shelter (not 1818 medical treatment) to restore them to health. [Mrs Sherwood with others started an The examples of Allahabad and Bareilly orphanage. No date is given, but Mrs might be held up to the imitation of Sherwood wrote that it was at the time when Cawnpore; but there is small hope of a poor- she had finished her 'Indian Pilgrim'; that house being supported as long as the needs was published in 1818. Ten years on, Mrs of the dispensary are so completely ignored." Sherwood wrote one of the earliest of (Report..Charitable..1871, p.49). children's stories teaching a more positive attitude to mentally handicapped people: The CHAMPARAN Idiot Boy, 1828, Wellington, Salop: Houlston]. "Mary Parsons, who was 1907 growing a fine child, and an amiable, but, "Deaf-mutism is more prevalent than in any unhappily, deformed little girl called Maria other district in Bengal, the proportion of Clarke, were the two first children placed in deaf-mutes returned in the census of 1901

- 22 - 24 being 275 per 100,000 males and 173 per But at last we all began to see a great change 100,000 females....[Comments on goitrous working in Ellen, and after nine months she areas follow]. Many deaf-mutes are also could not have been recognised as the same cretins, and the number of the latter is jangli creature she had been on arrival. She remarkable. It is a common sight to see them now took a real pride in keeping her person going out with village children to tend cattle, and clothes tidy and clean, she sewed nicely, and sometimes deaf-mute idiots tend cattle and sometimes helped to cook. She would sit alone. ... [There are] ..popular proverbs quietly in the school during school-hours, regarding the Majhawa pargana, which is and tried her best to write neat copies, regarded as the home of the feeble minded, though she never excelled in writing." e.g., kahan ka Majhawa is a delicate way of (BAUMANN, 1886) insinuating to a man that he is an idiot." (Bengal..Champaran, 1907, pp.60-61). COLOMBO (Ceylon)

CHUPRA (nr. Dinapore) 1843 "The Pettah, or black town, as it is called in 1875 or earlier [Mr C Baumann, the Indian parlance, lies on the north side of the writer's father, died in 1878.] fort of Colombo... The town has a large and "After my mother's death the charge of the airy hospital, leper hospital, public library, orphan girls fell to me. ... We had already and several boys' and girls' schools..." three deaf and dumb children, two boys and (p.156). "The Ceylon Widows' and one girl, who were, besides being thus Orphans' Fund is under official management afflicted, idiots. These, we knew, would of and security.. ... Of charitable institutions, necessity be dependent, as long as they lived, there are - the Leper Hospital; Pettah on the Mission, and, being idiots, it was Hospital;...Colombo Friend-in-need difficult to teach them habits of tidiness and Society, (for the purpose of relieving the cleanliness, not to mention any useful trade. really necessitous, and for suppressing It was therefore with rather a heavy heart I mendicity).." (p.160) (BENNETT, 1843) heard the news that my father was bringing home another little deaf and dumb orphan. 1898 "Schools for the blind, deaf, and dumb have Her age might be nine or ten - we are never as yet not been established in the Colony. A sure, and have to guess by growth and movement, however, under the auspices of intelligence. Her hair stood out like a bush the Wesleyan Mission, has just been set on all round her head, her eyes were bright and foot to provide reading books for a school restless, and reminded one of a caged for the blind." [Report by Arthur Van animal.. ... Cuylenburg dated July 6, 1898] (Special There is no deaf and dumb language on the Reports, 1901, p.796) fingers in India, and so I had to learn to speak by gesture to Ellen, the name she 1908 afterwards received at baptism.. ... But as "Towards the close of 1908 Miss Swainson poor Ellen had lived a life little better than had to come home for much-needed rest, and that of a wild animal, I found it no easy task Miss M.F. Chapman took charge of the to teach her to sit still; as soon as my back work [the school for the deaf, Palamcottah] was turned on the schoolroom, off darted in her absence, thus gaining valuable Ellen to the kitchen or bedrooms until I experience which, as we shall see, eventually brought her back. She used to recklessly tear bore fruit in the establishment of a school on and burn, and stain her clothes, break plates similar lines in Ceylon." (SMITH, 1915, p.9) and dishes on purpose and fight with the junior girls, and many a time was she 1913 punished for her manifold offences. "We must now take a brief survey of the

-23- work in Ceylon, which was started in 1913 legally incapable, on account of being under the charge of Miss M.F. Chapman at extravagant, a convicted person, mentally or Dehiwala, near Colombo. According to the physically defective, or female. See also Census of 1911, there were then over 3,000 entries under RUNGPORE]. deaf mutes in the island, and the number of blind children was even greater. The school DACCA is open to these as well as to the deaf and dumb. The specially encouraging feature of 1838 the work here is the extraordinary interest [Among post mortem reports from Dacca. taken in it by the Ceylonese themselves." Lunatic Asylum]. "Bhote, so called [various (SMITH, 1915, p.13) words with this sound mean 'Stupid', `Idiot'], caste and occupation unknown, age CM-LACK 14 years, admitted into the Asylum on the 26th March 1842. The story with him was 1874 that four years ago [presumably meaning in "Poor little [Raja of] Dompara was a 1838], when he was 10 years old he was helpless fool, almost imbecile; unfortunately found in the jungles near to Nowgong in for himself not quite so. If he could have Assam. He could not speak any language been pronounced insane and locked up he when first found and brought into might perhaps have been cured in time, and Gowhattee, nor does he as yet, up to time of meanwhile his estate would have been admission into the Asylum, appear to have properly managed by the Collector. But as it learned any. The early notice of his case was, he was just foolish enough to do endless soon after his admission is to the effect that mischief, and not foolish enough to be put he is in a state of fatuity, uttering a few under restraint. He had fallen into the hands unintelligible sounds or words only, is quiet of a clever, wily, unscrupulous man whom and harmless - appears to be a weak lad. In he had appointed as his Dewan or Prime 1850.- The notice of him is that he will bite Minister. This man was oppressing the if he can, appears to be quite fatuitous, he tenantry, enriching himself and keeping the does not walk, eats, sleeps, he utters such Raja and his family miserably poor." sounds as ah' ooh' &c." [The young man (BEANIES, 1961/1984, pp.241-2) became ill in April 1852, and died]. (GREEN, 1856-57). [On p.135, Beames noted how the Court of Wards managed the estate of a minor or DELHI other legally incompetent person such as an imbecile: "This so-called court is really no 1876 court at all. The estate is managed, and the [Of a new patient in the Delhi Lunatic minor's maintenance and education provided Asylum] "She is a girl of about 8 years of for, by the Collector of the District acting age, and is said to have been found in the partly on his own authority and partly under jangle by a man when ploughing his fields, orders of the Commissioner of the Division, and was believed by him to be a "wolf- who in turn is subject to the general child"." (Annual..Lunatic..Punjab, 1876, supervision of the Board of Revenue in p.18). Calcutta." Beames deplored this "jumble of conflicting authorities", as a typically British 1877 piece of muddling. Annual reports were "The so-called "wolf-child," mentioned in my published of the Court of Wards' business. last report, and who had apparently then Its procedures were later formalised, e.g. in fallen into a more abject state than ever The Court of Wards Manual, United from repeated epileptic fits, soon afterwards Provinces. Allahabad. 1914. Provision was began to improve. ... She came to made for various categories to be deemed understand some things that were said to

- 24 -

2.E her, but never attempted to speak. She was child had no speech, though not dumb.. ... transferred to the Secundra Orphanage, The poor child was evidently a burden to the Agra, in June last, the Principal of that Padre, who knew not how to manage it. ... institution having kindly offered to take [All the child would say was "sag", = charge of her. In reply to recent inquiries spinach.]I recommended sag and rice as his regarding her, I was informed that she has diet; and strange to say, it succeeded, and had no return of the epileptic fits, that she opened further the floodgates of memory; for enjoys a game of ball with the lady in the words bap (father) and amma (mother) charge, but does not take to the other now recurred to him." [However, the child children in the institution. The pleasure she promptly died.] (ANON in Chambers, 1883) takes in play is stated to be the only gleam of intelligence she has given." GUJRAT (Punjab) (Annual..Lunatic..Punjab, 1877, p.18) 1857 DEOBAND [Earliest definite date for people with microcephaly - "Chuas of Shah Daulah" - 1875 (approx) brought to the Shrine of Shah Daulah at [From the educational history of a Panjabi Gujrat by families, and left there to be cared Maulvi] "On my way back home I found for. The shrine is mentioned c.1695, within good schools in Saharanpur, Deoband and 20 years of the saint's death (SARKAR, Rampur, and in Deoband I was struck by pp.98-100); people with microcephaly may seeing the blind students learning have been involved with the shrine long mathematics and drawing geometrical before 1857]."A return of those presented drawings on boards." (Quoted by LEITNER, between 1857 and 1866 shews that 14 boys 1882, reprint 1991, p.79) and 3 girls were brought to the shrine in that period." (BEG, abstracted by FURRUCKABAD FANSHAWE, 1879)

1872 1903 [Tabular "Statement showing the Lepers, "They can all feed themselves, and do not Blind, and Poor benefited by the Charities in display like other idiots revolting tendencies the North-Western Provinces for the year or appetites; ... ..they are capable of being 1872"]. "Furruckabad, Total Numbers taught simple employments. ... Formerly, Benefited, Blind Men: 40, Blind Women: there is not the slightest doubt, the infants 12.... Themunicipality maintains these were kept at the shrine, which was institutions [for lepers and blind people] practically an asylum for them where they entirely." (Report..Charitable..1872, p33, were tended and cared for until death; but 38) this is not so now for, whether from failing means, lax discipline or corrupt morals, it is FUTfEHPORE certain and admitted by all that from originally allowing some of them to only 1857 occasionally go out with the faqirs attached "The American Presbyterians had and have to the tomb into the district together alone, a Mission there, with Orphanage attached, the custom has spread, until at the present and this was in my charge as civil surgeon in day it is the invariable rule for them all to pre-mutiny days. The Mission and be actually leased out on a monthly payment Orphanage were presided over by the Rev. to these men, who carry them into all parts Gopinath Nandy.. ... To this Orphanage was of the Punjab, begging, and, it is asserted, brought by the police, early in 1857, a child, neglect and ill-treat them.. ... There is not which they declared had been found in a the same objection to their retention in the wolf's den.. ... Mr Nandy told me that the shrine itself where, being well known, and

- 25 - 2? its inmates always open to inspection, their right, and will do her best. She can cook a condition is comparatively safe." (EWENS, little and clean, and has all these things to 1903) [Ewens was the first trained observer do for herself now she is left alone." to examine and describe in detail the Chuas' (METCALFE, p.16) actual abilities and conditions of life. From his report, it is possible to make some 1883 estimate of the level of care and instruction "Maggie with her little sister Rahiman were that had been given to these disabled people. made over to us 2.8.1883. They came from See also MILES, 1996] Sohagpur, John H. Williams [India Secretary of the Friends' Foreign Missionary HOSIIANGABAD Association] with some difficulty having rescued them from some women of the town, 1881 who would probably have trained them to [Rachel Metcalfe, on arrival in India in 1866 dancing and their own bad life. Their story as the first missionary of the Friends' is a sad one, their father suffered the Foreign Mission Association, worked with extreme penalty of the law for killing his Jane Leupolt at Benares before moving to wife. He struck her down with an axe, Hoshangabad. Later she became severely Rahiman was in her arms at the time, and disabled and used a wheelchair.] "This poor babe she had always a startled terrified [orphan] work was commenced in 1881, in look, and never talked, though she lived till much weakness and not knowing what it she was about 4 yrs. of age. Both children would lead to. I was but in feeble health had been continually drugged with opium unable to walk, and with hands crippled by and were very ill for a long time." rheumatism;.." (METCALFE, 1888, p.4) (METCALFE, p.22)

"Topsy came to us 3/5/81. ... And truly she 1883 was the most repulsive child, I think I ever [From an unspecified account by Metcalfe:] saw; that no wonder many said, even the "Topsy heads the list of those now with me. Native Christians. Why take such a child, She will never make much at reading, but she would never be any good? She had she shows loving thoughtfulness for others, scarcely a rag on her, festering sores on her preparing their beds at night, and running head and her feet, with only one eye, and to bring in clothes when rain comes on - the other a running sore. The poor thing was homely work to which the others give little only half-witted and in many of her habits heed." (PUMPHREY, 1900, pp.65-71) more like an animal, than a child. She would get into violent passions tear all her clothing "This little thing [Noniya] was picked up by off and fairly foam at the mouth. Of course the police in the jungle. Her brother had now such scenes never occur, it took much cast her out, not caring what wild animal time and patient love to overcome them; but attacked her, for a thorn in her foot festered we have the reward, in a steady quiet girl, and the sore was full of worms, and the poor not bright but affectionate. She will never child unable to work was of no further use learn to read, and has great difficulty in to him." (METCALFE, 1888, p.29) committing texts to memory and more in repeating them, she has improved in talking 1887 but her speech is difficult. The blind eye has "Guliya came three days after Sara been removed, and the offensive discharge [Feb.1887], a very different child, half crazy checked, the other eye is rather weak, but probably through bad treatment, she has a she can see to sew tolerably well, She will nice face. The trouble we have had to break continue with me, as it is my intention to off her dirty ways cannot be described. She train her for an "Ayah" or waiting maid; it is much improved and behaves quietly in will take time, but she is desirous of doing school trying to learn." (METCALFE, p.32)

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2 HYDERABAD (Sindh) Administration, and placed in the charge of Dr. Hathaway, the Residency Surgeon, who 1865 was succeeded by Dr. Smith in 1852, and "..a small institution which was privately Dr. Scriven in 1870.1 donated by a Parsi Philanthropist of Karachi named Sir Cawasjee Jahangir who built it in 1872 or earlier. 1865." (HASAN, 1988) [This Mental ['Miss Fuller' worked since 1867 with the Hospital still functions. The donor, Sir Indian Female Normal School and Cowasjee Jehangir Readymoney, funded Instruction Society (IFNIS). A manuscript many other charitable institutions from a dated 1913, said to be by 'Mary FULLER', base in Bombay]. notes that the writer's sister - Miss Emma Fuller - joined her at Lahore in 1868 and did INDORE some teaching. HEWLETT wrote in 1898 that "Miss Fuller.. laboured constantly and 1899 diligently in Lahore until her death in 1880". "Institution for the Blind" [run by the BADLEY (1886) shows 'Miss Fuller' arriving Canadian Presbyterian Mission, appears in 1867 and dying in 1885. Both death dates with the date 1899, in an addendum to seem mistaken. Emma Fuller died November previous lists of philanthropic and 14th, 1884, according to an obituary in the reformatory data.] (DENNIS, 1902, p.232) journal of IFNSIS (C.G., 1885)].

LAHORE "Although Miss Fuller had no technical knowledge of work among the blind, it is 1849 certain that she made no difficulty of this, "When the Punjab was finally taken over in but readily and even eagerly received the May, 1849, [John Martin] Honigberger little Asho [then aged ten years old, who [who had been physician to Ranjit Singh, later became the first teacher in the then served the Sikh Darbar until 1846, then Amritsar institution for the blind] into her ran a hospital founded by Sir Henry school, and with loving ingenuity found Lawrence, until 1849] handed over the methods of imparting to her general twelve epileptics and idiots who remained in knowledge, as for instance facts in his charge to Dr. Smith, the first civil geography, etc., and very patiently she surgeon at Lahore, who also was a caused her to commit to memory many Bible humanitarian." (PATCH, 1939) [Patch stories and hymns." (HEWLETT, 1898, earlier (1931, p.7) wrote that the patients p.50) were placed under Dr Hathaway. Charles Hathaway was an Assistant Surgeon in 1843, 1880 was mentioned by Clark (1904, p.34) as "The third enquirer [about Christianity]is being at Lahore in Feb.1852, and was author a poor blind girl of about eighteen, not so of Panjab Jail Manual, 1858. Charles M. intelligent as these last, but one who has Smith was Assistant Surgeon in 1845, took been at school for many years.... If we take part in fighting in the Panjab 1848-49, and in the girl and support her, it will be of later became Superintendent of the Lahore course said that she was bribed to become a Lunatic Asylum. In his Annual Report of the Christian! and where is the money to come Asylum for 1868, Smith noted that he had from for her support? She has been taught been in charge for 15 years, i.e. since only to knit in school, and can do plain knitting c.1853. Hathaway was five years older than well, but it is difficult to know what to do Smith, and by 18 months his senior in the with a young native girl, especially with one medical service. LATIF, 1892, p.318, who on account of her infirmity will not be confirms that "The Lunatic Asylum was sought in marriage. How greatly we need a founded in 1849, under the Board of home of some kind for native women who

- 27 - have become converts and lost their own Oudh, and in...... 1831 A.D., established homes, our friends may judge. I do trust the Poorhouse and City Hospital, under the that Miss Tucker and Miss Wauton will be superintendence of Doctor Logan, the then successful in establishing the Industrial residency surgeon at Ismailgunj, and for the Home they have spoken of in Umritsar." support of these institutions invested large (FULLER, 1880) sums of money. ...This institution [the King's Poorhouse] was intended as a relief 1883 house for the blind, maimed, leprous, [A girl of about 16, admitted to the Lahore infirm, and the helpless from old age, &c., Asylum as a microcephalic idiot] "Her senses and chiefly to prevent begging in the streets. appear to be perfect, but her intelligence is Out-door relief was also to be afforded to a of the most rudimentary character, and is select few. There are at this day 148 inmates not, I think, equal to that of most children in the Poorhouse who receive food and of from 15 to 20 months old. She seems to clothing. The out-door charity list amounts recognise different people and to to 162 persons, who get monthly cash comprehend the simplest ideas. She makes payments averaging 2 rupees each."(F.M. known her wants by signs and sounds but NEWBERY, City Magistrate, Lucknow, does not articulate more than monosyllables. 1875; quoted in BAILEY, p.104) [However, Sometimes she will sit for a long time the sole Dr (John) Logan in Government swinging her body backwards and forwards, service in Bengal died either 1828 or 1829 as native children do at school, humming according to CRAWFORD (1930). The East two or three monotonous notes again and India Register and Directory for 1824 lists again; at other times she runs about the Surgeon George Bail lie as Personal Surgeon ward apparently content and happy, to the King of Oude, continuing to 1832. occasionally amusing herself by pinching and Assistant Surgeon Wm. Stevenson M.D. was slapping some of the other lunatics. She is in the King of Oude's service from 1829. clean in her habits." (Annual..Lunatic JAIN (1916) thought the Poorhouse was ..Punjab, 1884, pp.3-4). founded in 1833. SLEEMAN (1858, Vol.1, p310) noted that, during his ten year reign, 1888 Nusseer-od Deen Hyder ran through almost "1888. Shirreff Braille was invented by Mrs. all of the ten crore rupees that he inherited Shirreff, wife of Rev. F.A.P. Shirreff, M.A., in the reserved treasury of the State]. Fellow of the Punjab University. By a small alteration to ordinary Braille the Hindustani, 1858 Hindi, and Telugu languages could be "The beginning of the Girls' Orphanage was suitably embossed for the education of the made when the Government authorities in blind of India." (WAGG & THOMAS, 1932, Lucknow handed over to the Butlers pp.66-7) [American Methodist missionaries] a pock- marked and one-eyed girl, Elmira Blake, in 1891 1858." (SINGH, 1971) ."Mrs. F.A.P. Shirreff adapted Braille to Urdu in 1891, and now the British and 1881 Foreign Blind Association has accepted her "We will now visit another interesting house; adaptation as the one that has proved itself it is that of a Jewish family.... Mrs.Cohen practically the best." (CLARK, 1904, p.60) has an imbecile daughter nearly 17 years of age, and this is her greatest sorrow and LUCKNOW cross. Many a time has she weepingly confided to me how great a disappointment 1831 this afflicted daughter has been to herself "In the year...... 1827 A.D., king Naseer- and her husband." (BAUMANN, 1882) ood-deen Hyder ascended the throne of

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30 1899 or earlier 1793 "At Lucknow the American Methodists have [Valentine Conolly] "Founded Madras a school for the blind.." (DENNIS, 1899, Lunatic Asylum, 1793" [VC was then p.385). Assistant Surgeon. See below: 1841]. (CRAWFORD, 1930) LUDHIANA (District) c.1800-1876 1852 [William Cruickshanks] "..was born at (Quoted from Ludhiana Settlement Report, Vellore, in Madras [Presidency];... ..he was 1852, p.30) The charitable institutions.. ... still very young when his father came back ..they are all called Dharmasalas. Two or to Ireland and left him behind at the three religious mendicants are usually met Military Orphan Asylum at Madras. When with, a reader of the Grunth... and a menial William was about twelve years old he began to prepare the food...in Hans, of pergunna to suffer from weak eyesight, and it was not Jugraon, where the reader of the Grunth long before this infirmity increased to total was a most diminutive dwarf, ..." blindness. ...[William asked another orphan (LEITNER, 1882/1991, p.159) to read the Bible to him; he paraphrased and recounted it back to the other boy]... MADRAS Mr Cruickshanks appears to have received little of regular education at any time, but 1696 with the help of a memory strengthened by "In 1696 another fund [the first being for constant exercise, and an unwearied Europeans and Eurasians only] was diligence in the use of all means of acquiring established for the relief of the native poor, knowledge that lay within his reach, he who had hitherto been allowed to beg in the overcame the hindrances...... and early in Fort. This fund was placed in the hands of life he made teaching his vocation.... He the Mayor and Aldermen, who were ordered started on his career as a tutor in private to distribute it at the Choultry, just outside families, but in 1838 he was appointed Head the Choultry gate, every Monday morning." Master of the Native Education Society's (PENNY, 1904, p.216, citing Fort St George School at Madras, which numbered 100 Consultation Book, 2 Nov.1696) pupils. In 1841 he became Head Master of the Madras Military Orphan Asylum.... 1764 The missionaries at Palamcotta felt that "In the year 1764 the Vestry [here meaning there was an urgent need for an English the charity committee of St Mary's Church] school for natives in that town...... the agreed to entrust the collection of the double services of Mr Cruickshanks were gladly Sunday boat hire to the Master Attendant; it accepted.... Mr Cruickshanks continued for was also agreed that he should defray from twenty-six years Head Master of the Anglo- the fund the cost of healing those boatmen Vernacular School at Palamcotta.... When who were injured or disabled in the exercise he drew near to his seventieth year, he of their calling.." (PENNY, 1904, p.385-389, resigned the heavy duties.....Once more in citing original Vestry documents). [The 1875..... He was asked to superintend the double Sunday boat hire was in the nature of opening of a new school at Poonamallee, a fine - those who obliged boatmen to work near Madras, and he cheerfully undertook on the Sabbath were obliged to contribute to the task." [He died in 1876]. (`T.', Church the community poor fund (ibid. pp.313-314, Missionary Gleaner, 1879) 351). Penny outlined a lengthy argument about the use of this money. However, it is 1805 the earliest instance found in the present "Institutional services which we understand study of a regular fund benefiting disabled to-day as providers of social welfare services, people, lasting over three decades.] were not there in pre-British India. The

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3L [earliest?] institution, which the After-Care sickness, they are again admitted into the Committee appointed by the Central Social infirmary for treatment, and when violent or Welfare Board in 1955 could contact and unmanageable, they are transferred to the reach [? could find], was the one established Lunatic asylum. Many of the inmates are by Rev. Loveless, in Madras, in the year employed in drawing water, gardening, and 1805 for women and children." (WADIA, similar domestic employment about the 1968) [Rev. W.C. Loveless arrived in choultry, infirmary, and Leper hospital, Madras in 1806, and at first ran the Male under the serveillance [sic] of peons, and Orphan Asylum, which had been founded with much advantage to their health." many years earlier (BROCKWAY, 1949, (Selections..Madras, 1857, pp.10-11). pp.25-26, 32-34). It was not intended for disabled boys, but some were there - see 1857 entry above on Mr Cruickshanks. PENNY, "Idiot Asylum. ... Twenty-four patients have 1904, pp.167-79, detailed the start of St. been discharged cured. The Medical Officer Mary's Charity School, Madras, in 1715, for [Dr John W. Mudge] observes that the cold orphan boys and girls. Some social welfare douche is used in those cases where no provisions were certainly made by the contra-indication of its use exists, and it is Portuguese in 'pre-British' India]. considered to have been beneficial." (Selections..Madras, 1858, p.10). 1841 "From 1841 to 1867 harmless idiots were 1859 kept in the Monegar Choultry, to avoid "Idiot Hospital. Up to the end of the year overcrowding the [Lunatic] Asylum". nothing had been done in the way of (CRAWFORD, 1914, Vol.II, p.417). [Penny carrying out the Order of Government noted (1904, p.430) gave some background of the in the margin [Public Department No.1476 Monegar Choultry, which had been used by of 24th Sept.1859], for increasing the the Native Poor Fund Committee as a famine accommodation of this Institution. It has asylum in 1782. This does not seem to be the been over crowded throughout the year, but same choultry as mentioned above, 1696]. fortunately no epidemic appeared among the inmates. The average strength for the year 1853 was 92. There were 121 admissions into "In the Idiot asylum the average number Hospital and 30 deaths. The mortality [of] males and females, has been 49. Their amongst Idiots is considerably higher than general health is reported to have been very that of Insane Patients treated in the Lunatic good, 4 casualties however occurred from Asylum." (Selections..Madras, 1861, p.9) cholera, and another from repeated attacks of epilepsy; about 25 are employed in light 1863 occupation daily for a couple of hours in "Surgeon W.J. VanSomeren, M.D., reports cleaning rice, sweeping the compound, as follows:- "... Foundling Hospital. ... A assisting the cooks, and in drawing water." few of the inmates of the Hospital are Idiots, (Selections..Madras, 1855, p.8) and the neighbouring [Idiot] Asylum would be a more suitable place for them, were the 1856 attendance there fitted as respects both "In the Idiot Asylum attached to the Native quality and quantity for imbecile children so Infirmary, 163 individuals have been young and helpless."" (Selections..Madras, accommodated, 114 males and 49 females;.. 1864, pp.67-70) ... The admissions intothe Idiot asylum take place through the Native infirmary, where "Lunatic Asylum. Honorary Assistant the patients are kept for a few days under Surgeon S. Mason, reports as follows:- "... observation, till the nature of their cases is ..the facilities for transferring harmless fully ascertained; when attacked with Insanes to the Idiot's Asylum being now

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32 limited in consequence of the crowded state PALAMCOTTAH of that Institution, the numerous applications received during the year could only in part 1884 be complied with." (Selections..Madras, "..a blind woman [Miss Marial] about 1864, pp.64-65) twenty-two years old.. ... I asked her history, and it seems she was taught by the 1867 Bible-woman for some time.. ... [ Marial "Extract from Medical Report by Surgeon- became] a most earnest and consistent Major W.J. VanSomeren. ...Idiot Asylum. Christian, though much persecuted by her "On the 11th of May the insanes of the parents and relatives. ... So she took refuge former (so-called) Idiot Asylum were in the Bible-woman's house..... She did removed to the Lunatic Asylum, and ceased what she could to help by fetching water, to be under my medical charge." cleaning the house, and beating rice, but still (SelectionsMadras, 1869, pp.93-95) she felt she was a burden.... Ifound out that besides household duties she had gone MEERUT out with the Bible-woman teaching and singing to the people, and that they listened 1864 most attentively to her, and especially the "In the city of Meerut a poorhouse was little ones liked her to teach them;...She is established in 1864..... As funds became an active,intelligent, and independent available, the scope of the charity was woman, a happy exception to the generally extended; - a house was purchased, a helpless, ignorant and incapable blind people European put in charge on a small salary, of this country." (ASKWITH, 1884) and a leper asylum and home for the blind and destitute organized." 1890 or earlier (Report..Charitable..1872, p.39) [Miss Askwith] "..began by taking six or seven blind children into her bungalow and NORTH-WEST PROVINCES & OUDH teaching them to weave and to help in the garden...... she also invented the first 1882 braille script in Tamil and transcribed into it "The above [tabulated] statement indicates the Bible, the Prayer Book and The Pilgrim's that while the blind poor cared for in Progress." (BROCKWAY, 1949, p.104) asylums fell off in numbers from 1,450 to 1,358, the lepers increased from 960 to 1890 1,105; the destitute poor provided for in "We have now a class for little blind girls. both years were almost identical in numbers, Each has her Akka (big sister), and is well 8,333 to 8334.It must be at once apparent and lovingly cared for. As each one is that these numbers do not affect more than brought in here, she is very shy and the outer fringes of destitution, which hangs unhappy at first, all is so strange; but in two round a population of 44 millions." or three days love conquers, and they (ReportCharitableOudh-1882, p.35) chatter and laugh, and enjoy their lessons with their raised type for reading, and ball- OOTACAMUND frames for counting, and their little musical boxes.." (ASKWITH, 1890) 1891 "One of the grown-up blind workers from "It is now [1901] eleven years since we began the Sarah Tucker Institution has become a our schools for the blind in Palamcotta in teacher at Ootacamund, and when the last connexion with the Sarah Tucker Institution. Report reached us had five pupils." (Annual We have used Moon's type..... Besides Report..CEZMS, 1892, p.53) reading and arithmetic, other subjects are also taught, and the schools for the blind are

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33 examined by the Government Inspector and at once arose - what was to be done with Inspectress just like our other schools.... them?" (The Zenana School, 1900) Almost every year some have confessed Christ..... they becometeachers too. They 1896 are allowed to stay at school till they pass "Just previous to the commencement of the the Primary Board Examination, and then year 1897 a small class for deaf-mutes was they must take up work and make room for opened in connection with the "Sarah Tucker others. When they leave school we give them College" at Palamcotta in the Tinnevelly a copy of every book we have in raised type, District (Madras Presidency) by Miss an arithmetic frame, a few clothes, and a Swainson, a missionary of the Church of certificate of conduct, and thus equipped England, Tenana [= Zenana] Mission. The they go forth to earn their own living. ... We report of the school is very interesting. It ourselves employ twelve or more young men says: "In their own homes these poor as teachers and monitors in some of the children are regarded as having no Mission schools for boys, and we receive intelligence, and are sadly neglected, and yet very good reports of their work. ... The it is wonderful how their minds and hearts blind girls, generally about twelve in number opened during the short time since the class at a time, have a room in the Sarah Tucker was formed." (BANERJI, 1898) Institution itself and live with the other girls, though they have their studies separately, "About the year 1897 a little girl was with their own teachers. Besides their brought by her father to our Industrial lessons, the same as those of the boys, they School at the Sarah Tucker College, he told learn knitting and needlework, and we are us he was a catechist and had lately been now training three of them as teachers. ... sent to work in a village where there were no They are very happy with the other girls, Christians, all were devil-worshippers. He who are very good to them; and it is very also said, 'No one will listen to me, all tell sweet to see the "sighted" girls leading them me to cast the devil out of my own child about and talking gently to them. Visitors before coming to teach them.' The supposed, are much struck with the happy faces of the `Devil', was deafness, the poor little deaf and blind children and with their sweet singing, dumb child must leave her father's home both in Tamil and English." (ASKWITH, before he could try and teach the people. 1901) This was the first time the thought of the Deaf of India had come before me. The child 1891 learned to sew and settled happily in the [Miss Askwith, in her report] "..refers also class. A similar case was soon brought and to the work carried on by Miss Swainson [a also taken in, and then, a little deaf orphan trained nurse] among the blind." girl sent to our Industrial Class by an S.P.G. (Annual..CEZMS, 1891, p.54) Missionary brought them more closely before us. We found two of our college girls also "As early in its history as 1891, the pupils, had little deaf relatives. One day while the ten of whom were girls, were ready to hearing girls were having their Bible class, undergo a Government examination, which one of the deaf children put down her work greatly pleased and surprised the inspector, and began watching the lips of the teacher, who had never examined a blind school and then the thought flashed through our before." (BARNES, 1899, p.156) minds, - Should these children only learn to sew? Why should not they too be educated!" 1893 [?] (SWAINSON, undated [1915/16?], p.2) "About seven years ago, three deaf and dumb girls were brought in close succession "From different parts of India we heard of to the industrial class in connection with the deaf children in orphanages, and directly we [Sarah Tucker] Institution, and the question opened the little class we had many

- 32 - 34 applications - children came from all parts. of the oral method of teaching the deaf,we We found out that there was a small school adapted Tamil with its 240 letters to a finger in Calcutta worked by the Brahmo Samaj, alphabet, and with the help of pictures and but they took no girls and no poor children." signs with which all the people of India are (SWAINSON, n.d. [1915/16?], p.3) familiar, we soon reached the children's minds and began our class. As we look back "what a devoted and loyal band of Indian the method seems very crude and teachers we have.... My Head Mistress unorthodox, but it answered its purpose and [presumably Devanesam Ammal, see, next until we knew of something better was all we entry]... who has been with me almost from could do." (SWAINSON, n.d. [1915/16?], the beginning of the work and has been such pp.4-5) a blessing among the children.." (SWAINSON, n.d. [1915/16?], p.12) "Connected with this [industrial] class is a little School for Deaf and Dumb girls. "I "extract from a letter written in 1909, by have nine children," says Miss Swainson, Devanesam Ammal, the head mistress of the "and have taught two of our trained girls to School.. "When I first came," she writes, teach them reading, writing and arithmetic, "there were only six girls and no boys. I and to talk on their fingers; but it is not so shall never forget my first week's adventures easy in the Tamil language, with its 247 in teaching the deaf - the whole week we letters in the alphabet, as in English! Still, used to teach them one Scripture lesson, we have adapted it.."." (BARNES, 1899, going over and over it, and Miss Swainson pp.155-6) examined it on Sundays. I tried to teach about the Creation the first week. Had we 1900 understood the children as we do now, we "..the school, which now includes nineteen should never have taken that lesson first. I boys, both Christian and Hindu, out of a tried my best to explain it to them in signs. total of about forty pupils. ...The method of On Sunday, when they came before Miss teaching had practically to be discovered by Swainson, they were not able to say Miss Swainson for herself, and imparted by anything, and I was so ashamed and her to her native assistant teachers. No discouraged, and thought I should never be attempt was made to teach the children to able to teach them, but God has wonderfully speak or read the lips; their number, made me fit for my work. The children were environment, and the time and funds at so naughty and tiresome; they would not disposal utterly forbade it." (The Zenana look at us, but shut their eyes if we talked to School, 1900) them. Imagine how we could deal with them, if they would not look when they could not 1902 hear! We could not punish them, for they "The school work is admirably done, the would run away for any little thing, and we children receiving "Excellent" from the had to run after them. Now we see a great [Government] Inspectress, who expects them change in them"." (SMITH, 1915, p.5) to do similar work to that done by the hearing. And they do it, with the exception of 1897-98 [?] reading - the school authorities have "Much as I should have liked to stay in sanctioned a special reader for them, or England to be properly trained for the work, rather course of readers, which Miss that was impossible - I was needed in India - Swainson herslef compiled.... There are 71 so all I could do was to go about telling the deaf and dumb; and 35 Industrial Girls who need and pleading for help. At the end of a are boarders. ... There are, in the deaf nad few months I returned with £1,000, and with dumb department, seven teachers who are the permission of my Committee to devote all certified, and are Indians. They are very myself to the Deaf. ...Not knowing anything good teachers, and look most picturesque in

-33- 35 their native costumes." (CAMPBELL, 1902) "..our very happy intelligent deaf, dumb and blind little girl busy with her lessons and 1904 brimming over with fun.." (SWAINSON, "In November 1904, how happily I started n.d. [1915/16?], pp.9-10) back to India with not only one, but two new workers; Miss Hart, a certificated Teacher, 1912 or 1913 who had had some training in the oral "Since Miss McDowell joined us three years system of teaching the deaf, and Miss Allen, ago, oral classes were properly started and a deaf lady who had also had some less manual work done, but our Palamcottah experience of school work." [Sadly, within School can never be totally oral, for many weeks of her arrival, Miss Hart died of a come there too old to begin speech and in the fever, while Miss Allen was unable to bear short time they are with us we must teach the heat, and returned to England]. them as much as possible. If we can hope to (SWAINSON, 1906, p.1) keep the children some years we then put them into the oral classes, and I am glad to 1905 say that many of our children can now "During the past year we have made special follow the lips of people and can speak fairly efforts in teaching speech, and the books well to the surprise of visitors who can kindly given to me by the Head Master of hardly believe the children are really deaf." the Glasgow School, with the method used [By 1912 there were 130 children at the there, have been carefully studied and used school.] (SWAINSON, n.d. [1915/16 ?], pp.6- here, with very happy results. Classes are 7) held both in Tamil and English..... We have tried this year the plan of half-day lessons 1920 and half-day Industrial work, with good [Miss Hull reported a letter from an English results. The children seem to enjoy both teacher who spent six years at Palamcottah, better, and did quite as well at their Annual after teaching deaf people in England for ten Government Examination as when studying years. This teacher had expected to find all day." (SWAINSON, 1906, p3) much lower standards in India. Instead, she found:] "A school of 130 children, 40 of "Our services for the Deaf are chiefly in the whom had passed through the school and sign language, in which all can join alike, were working at industrial work. There were whether learning Tamil, as those do who about 15 classes. What struck one as one belong to the Madras Presidency, or English, entered the school for the first time was that which is taught to those coming from other it was more like a school for hearing parts. [p.9]... Now that so many of our children, and conducted more on those lines. elder deaf girls are in the Industrial class, The teachers spoke very naturally to the we hardly look upon it as a separate school. children, and the lip-reading was excellent, We have 50 speaking girls in it, living with though the speech was very poor and still is. us, and always a number of names down on But, as to knowledge, their language, our books waiting for admission. [p.12]" history, geography and nature-study (which (SWAINSON, 1906) is better than any I have ever seen in an English school) simply surprised me. The 1907 lessons were conducted mainly by lip-reading "The next year [1907] was memorable in the and writing, but through it all what annals of the school, as it witnessed the surprised me was the result." (HULL, 1920) advent of little [deaf and] blind Pyari.. She has responded in a marked degree to the PALLIPORT (nr. Cochin) training bestowed on her, and bids fair to be another Helen Keller." (SMITH, 1915, p.'7) 1861 "Assistant Surgeon F. DAY, reports as

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31E follows:- "During the past year forty lepers bears. ...The Poona Municipality have been in-patients in the Lazaretto at contributes £10 (Rs.100) a month to the Palliport..... The present Lazaretto is old. I asylum. The spacious site of the building was formerly gave the date of its erection as given free by Government. ... A medical 1728, which date I copied from the stone attendant looks after the health of the over the gateway. I have now examined all inmates, the diseased being kept in different the old people, heard all their traditions wards to avoid contagion. Of the (1883) respecting it, and also found that in Xavier's sixty-five inmates, seventeen men and eleven time (1543) or thereabouts, the Portuguese women are unable to earn a living from old had a leper hospital somewhere near Cochin, age; six men and five women are blind; and and I am inclined to think, this building was twenty men and six women are lepers." erected by that nation, and not their Dutch (Gazetteer, 1885, pp.342-343). successors."" (Selections..Madras, 1862, pp66-67) 1897 "When the Pandita [Ramabai] was bringing PESHAWAR widows from the Central Provinces [to her refuge and school at Poona]a deaf and 1864 dumb [widow] woman insisted on coming. "A Poor-house in Mackeson Gung, The Pandita refused to bring her. She came Peshawur, has been completed." [This, and sat in the train. They made her among many other constructions, was put up understand that she could not learn in in the early days of British administration. It school, hence could not be taken. She told very likely had some blind inmates.] them by signs that she would grind, cook, (General Report, 1864, p.34) wash clothes, scrub, etc. She literally refused to leave the train, and at the last 1879 minute the Pandita laughed and bought her "Light for the Blind amongst the Afghans. a ticket." (SAWDAY, 1898. Quoted also in Dr. Moon, of Brighton, has recently DYER, 1906, p.6'7, who attributes the arranged the Pushto alphabet for the Blind account to Ramabai's colleague, Minnie F. according to his improved system, and the Abrams). Lord's Prayer under Mr. Hughes' direction is being compiled in embossed reading for 1899 the blind Afghan." (Editorial, Church "The deaf and dumb woman [known to the Missionary Gleaner, 1879, vol. VI, p.8) other widows as `Mookie] was in charge of [Rev. T.P. Hughes was a missionary at the [dairy] churning department, and Peshawar, which was at that time considered eagerly displayed to us the superiority of the part of Afghanistan]. new churns over the previously employed native methods." (DYER, 1906, p.'78) POONA 1899 or earlier 1865 "At Poona the Church of Scotland Mission "THE SASSOON ASYLUM, or Poor House, has a special department in its orphanage for in Narayan ward on the river Mutha above sightless girls." (DENNIS, 1899, p.385) the Lakdi bridge, is a home for the aged, infirm, and diseased poor of all classes. It "Class for the Blind", [run by the C.S.M., has at present (1883) about sixty-five appears without date in a list of "Schools inmates. The asylum was established in 1865 and Homes for the Blind and for Deaf from funds raised by a public subscription Mutes".] (DENNIS, 1902, p.225) amounting to £10,717 (Rs. 1,07170), the greater part of which was given by the late 1900 Mr. David Sassoon whose name the asylum "Kedgaon, Poona. Home for the Blind.

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3? M.M. [= Mukti Mission, associated with syphilitics, and all kinds of people suffering Pandita Ramabai]. Year when founded: from loathsome and incurable diseases." 1900. No. of Inmates: Male - Female 25." (HAHN, 1890) (INGLIS, 1921, p.191). 1893 "One of the smaller girls rescued from "Among the blind in Chhota Nagpur, of starvation in the last famine is taking charge whom there are some thousands, a class was of a few of our blind girls. Miss Abrams started at Ranchi about 1893 with the object very kindly taught her to read the blind of assisting first the Christians and next the characters. The girl herself is studying hard heathen to do something towards supporting while engaged in teaching the blind girls to themselves and to read for their own read the Scriptures. Besides reading the edification. A class of blind mendicants was Scriptures she teaches them tables, mental formed, who were taught orally once a week, arithmetic, and geography, in her spare and out of this grew a small daily school, hours. She sees to their bathing, taking founded by Mrs. O'Connor. The pupils, meals at proper times, and can be seen going mostly adults, have made good progress in about her work with her family of the blind religious knowledge, in reading and writing and feeble-minded girls." (DYER, p.88; the "Braille" type, in reading "Moon" type, quoting a report written by Ramabai in and in the art of making bamboo chairs, and May, 1900) in 1898 the female pupils began to learn knitting. The work was carried on by Miss PURNEA (District) Whitley in the Rev. W. O'Connor's house until the increase in numbers made it 1809 necessary to erect a separate building, which "Beggars and Charity. The number of was opened on July 26, 1899." (PASCOE, common beggars that were estimated to be in p.500 f-g) the whole district amounts to 7140, of which by far the greater part are real objects of 1895 charity, although in some parts it was "In 1895, a Blind School was started at alleged that there were among them many Ranchi in connection with the English lazy fellows who were able enough to work. Mission [under the auspices of the Society ...Besides there are many lame, blind or for Propagation of the Gospel] by Mrs. other infirm persons belonging to poor O'Connor. In this school blind men are families, that cannot give them food but who trained in industrial work in cane and give them accommodation and such bamboo, and blind women are taught mat- assistance as is within their power, especially making. Reading and writing are also taught in sickness." (BUCHANAN, ed. Jackson on the Braille system." (ROY, 1912, pp.264- 1928, p.165) 65).

RANCH' "Not long after her arrival [1892] in Ranchi, Mrs. O'Connor who had received 1885 or 1886 special training as a nurse, was struck by the "Besides opening a Leper House (1884), and number of blind persons whom she met. Epileptic House (1885), an Incurables' Home After talking over the matter with the at Lohardaga was also started." (MAHTO, Bishop, [Rt Rev. J.C. Whitley, First Bishop 1971, p.103) of Chhota Nagpur]it was determined to start something in the nature of a blind "In 1886 I was further enabled through the school...[Mrs. O'Connor] found time to help of Dr. Scibert, of New York, and the teach some of these much-afflicted people to readers of the Deutscher Volksfreund, to read in the Braille type, and basket-work. establish another asylum for epileptics, Some time after, Miss Whitley... also

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3 perfected herself in the Braille system for the RUTNAGHERRY purpose of assisting in this work." (CHATTERTON, 1901, p.124, 137-8) 1857/1858 "Rutnagherry, in the Southern Concan, is "The Blind School at Ranchi was started by 160 miles South of Bombay... The poor the Rev. and Mrs. O'Connor in 1905 have no provision. They beg their way from [presumably 1895 is intended] with a grant door to door, receiving charity in kind, of Rs.20/- per month. Blindmen who had no mostly cooked grain. Many are Brahmin other alternative but to beg in the streets widows. The lame, the blind, and the were taught the useful craft of bamboo and deformed receive allowances from a cane chair-making. From the 26th July, 1897 charitable fund supported by the European onwards, some blind women were also community. ... Children are kept at the admitted in it. [Footnote reference here, to breast often till they are three and four years ROY, The Mundas, p.264; which does of age, with a view to prevent pregnancy;... mention blind women - see above - but does They are frequently drugged with opium to not give the date of 26th July, 1897, nor keep them quiet." (de CRESPIGNY, anything like it. See, however, PASCOE, 1857/58) above].Miss Whitley had learnt Braille type, and she took over charge of the school SERAMPORE in the year 1900." (MAHTO, 1971, p.147) 1803 "Originally started in St. Magaret's "Mrs. [Ann] Grant in a letter to her friend [Margaret's] Girls' High School premises, [Miss Fenn] in 1803 described a scene, when [the Blind School] shifted to its new about thirty-four persons, some of them buildings in the year 1924.." (MAHTO, blind, many suffering from leprosy, came for p.200) relief [from the Baptist missionaries] at Serampore. She wrote "Many of them RUNGPORE receive two pence a week"." (SEN GUPTA, 1971, p.136, quoting manuscript 1780s (and earlier) correspondence in Baptist Missionary Society "One of the zemindars, Rajah Bhagawan, archives) being an idiot, his dewan, who held the same name, took advantage of this fact, and by SHAHJEHANPORE judicious management obtained a grant of the zemindary from the Dacca Soubah, and 1863 a long contest which ensued resulted in the "At Shahjehanpore a mixed poorhouse and division above noted, the usurper retaining leper asylum is supported by the the 7 annas share, that of Dinagepore." [The municipality. I have not seen the building `nine annas' portion was Edrakpore] but am informed that the lepers have (GLAZIER, 1872, p.26) separate quarters from the poor and blind. ... TheShahjehanpore poorhouse has been 1791 in existence since 1863. [pp.39-40]. Blind: "The one Mahommedan sharer in Cazeerhat Men 10, Women 2. [p.33]." was reported on by Mr Lumsden in 1791, as (Report..Charitable..1872). not so decidedly an idiot as to necessitate that the management of his zemindary 1877 should be taken from him." (GLAZIER, "Shahjahanpur: Total number benefited 1872, p.19) [See 'Court of Wards' discussion during the year 1877: Blind: Men 106 under CUTTACK] Women 49 Children 27.[Footnote:] The figures against Shahjahanpur include the number benefited in poorhouses other than

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3 that at the sudder station, viz., those in the tongues of the fifty old women I saw would villages of the district." be no trifling ordeal." (PUMPHREY, 1900, (Report..Charitable..Oudh..1877, p.29) p.109; quoting John Lampard of Balaghat, no reference given). SAHARANPUR (near Nasik) TRAVANCORE 1865-67 "During the past two years, thirty-one cases 1893 of functional paralysis in children have been "I shall be glad to make known a method by treated in the Saharunpore dispensary.. ... means of which they [blind people in India] One, if not the chief, of these [common can be easily and inexpensively taught to problems] is want of faith in the treatment read and write in their own vernacular. employed, which leads the patient, or in the They may by the same method be taught case of children, the relatives, to seek other arithmetic and music....The method is not aid if there is no immediate and marked a new thing but an adaptation to the Indian benefit; another is the fact that a very large vernaculars of the Braille system which has proportion of the patients come from a proved so successful in France, England and distance, and cannot, or will not, spare time America.... The scheme covers any and all to remain in the station for treatment. Some Indian languages, and most eastern also merely bring their children once, during languages. It has also been applied with flying visits made to the city on business." success to Chinese." (KNOWLES, 1893). (GARDEN, 1867) [Garden's paper is the first listed by H.V. Wyatt in his "Much painstaking work [for blind people] `Bibliography of Poliomyelitis in India' had previously been done by Mr. L. (forthcoming)]. Garthwaite, formerly Government Inspector of Schools, and also by the Rev. Joshua 1885 Knowles, of Travancore [and of the London [Rev. Frederick Graham Macartney reports, Missionary Society]." (DENNIS, 1899, of 16 persons in the Poor Asylum:] "The list p.385). of inmates includes three blind, three paralytic, one epileptic and a leper." UJJAIN (MACARTNEY, 1885) 1896 SIONI "Class for the Blind", [run by the Canadian Presbyterian Mission, appears with the date 1890s [precise date unspecified] 1896, in a list of "Schools and Homes for "The Friends at Sioni deal with the the Blind and for Deaf Mutes".] (DENNIS, difficulties of how to avoid giving to the 1902, p.225) undeserving.. ... They give to beggars once a week only, on Sunday. On arriving home UNAVA, nr. MEHSANA (100 km. north of after the morning service, a crowd of halt Ahmedabad) and maimed and blind folks, principally women, and mostly old, are found sitting on 1883 and earlier the ground, patiently awaiting the arrival of "..the Mira Data Dargah [shrine] has the Mem-Sahib.. ... As only a fixed sum is specialized in helping people who are given each month, and as this is known to afflicted with 'madness'...More precisely, it the recipients, they themselves voluntarily has a reputation for healing those striken by arrange the matter of keeping out the a bhut [spirit]. Already in the last century undeserving. I pity the man who being able Mira Data Dargah was listed in the District to work for his living sought a share of the Gazetteer [1883] as an institution being weekly gifts; to raise the ire and start the `visited by many suffering from epilepsy'..."

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0 (PFLEIDERER, 1981) [Shrine treatment for Presidency for the year 1918":] "Schools for epilepsy contrasts with CHUCKERBUTTY's Defective Children: Name of school: The remark, 1864, that in Bengal "Infants Children's House, Kurseong. afflicted with convulsions they exposed in Management: Private. Nature of School: wicker-baskets suspended from some lofty Aided. Class of school: Mixed. Number of tree, and there left to perish of hunger and scholars on March 31st 1917 [*]: 4. Lay cold, under the mistaken idea they were teachers, Female: 4."[* First page of the possessed and that it was unsafe for the table has "March 31st 1918", and "1917" is household to keep them any longer. It was a clearly an error. The Report is dated 6th most revolting spectacle, to witness these November 1918] (Annual..European..1917- wretched creatures screaming and writhing 18, Appendix p.ii) for want of food, and grown-up men and women coldly looking on without daring to "The first school for deficient and defective approach them".] children in India was opened by Miss Silvia de Laplace at the Children's House, Kurseong. This institution trains those MENTAL RETARDATION: 20TH children who through physical and mental CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS defects are unable to profit by the (See earlier entries e.g. under instruction given in an ordinary school. It is Agra/Secundra, Amraoti, Bombay, Gujrat, now universally recognised that defective Hoshangabad, Lahore, Madras etc, for less children can be educated chiefly by means of formal or less educational care). special apparatus, exercises and discipline. Already remarkable results have been 1910 achieved at the Children's House by special "Cretin Radho, aged 30 years. Hindu. Was methods of sense training. The institution born at Faizabad in Oudh. ..she had two has now been formally recognised by brothers and a sister, who were in every way Government and receives a monthly grant- normal.. ... He mother states that the patient in-aid of Rs.150. During the year under was normal in size at birth, she grew slower review the institution received a capital grant than other children and ceased to grow of Rs.30,000 for the acquisition of the altogether at the age of 16. There are no property known as Meek's estate." other dwarfs in the family and no history of (Annual..European..1918-19, p.5) goitre among the relations was obtained. The [Miss de la Place (or De Laplace, De La patient is an idiot and quite unable to talk. Place) did not appear in standard missionary She makes a few sounds which only her lists. The name was not a common one. mother can interpret....Her height is 2 feet Thacker's Directory, 1892, lists E.S. De 111 /2 inches and her weight 2 stone 11 lbs. Laplace. The India Office biographical index She is under treatment with thyroid extract shows a burial at Calcutta in 1900, of in the poor-house, and the Superintendent Henrietta Jessina De La Place, widow of reports that she seems to be better Etienne. So `E.S.' may have been Etienne; intellectually, but at her age any very great perhaps of French, Swiss or Belgian origin. improvement is hardly to be expected." If so, they could have been Silvia's parents - (JAMES, 1910) [Part of an early Indian case the dates are appropriate for Silvia to be in history of sporadic cretinism, with her thirties or forties by 1917, when a characteristic photograph, among five case headmistress in Howrah, and maybe to have histories of dwarfism in Patiala State]. retired or died by 1944.]

1918 "Directory of Institutions for the Mentally [Appendix has tabular data for "Revised List Handicapped Persons in India....Central of Recognised Government, Aided and Institute of Psychiatry, Kanke, Ranchi. Date Unaided European Schools in the Bengal of Establishment: May 1, 1918. Type of the

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41 Institution: Day-care. Age range of persons 1924 admitted: Up to 14 years. Nature of services [Reviews some experiments in mental testing offered: Medical, Psychological." (REDDY, in India, pp.199-218, and comments:] "The p.24) [When mentally handicapped children vexation of retardation is with us as well as were first received or taught here is unclear. with educationalists in the West....It would Dhunjibhoy, in charge of the Kanke be most useful if somebody would take the hospital, noted matter up for investigation in this Presidency (Annual..Working..Ranchi..1936, p.'7) that [Madras]." (WOODBURNE, 1924, p.201) "The number of mentally defective children is steadily going up and in the absence of a 1927 separate children's ward it is becoming "In 1927, Manry published the first increasingly difficult for the administration intelligence test in English, Hindi and Urdu to house and treat such children. ... A and was closely followed in 1929 by Rice's mental hospital is not a fit place for Hindustani Binet.... Undoubtedly head and treatment of certified mentally defective shoulders above the pioneers of the 1930's is children.. "] the intrepid Dr. V.V. Kamat with his Marathi and Kannada versions of the 1916 1921 Standford-Binet [sic] which has been recently "The Children's House, Kurseong, the first revised from the 1936 version." (MALIN, school in Bengal for physically and mentally 1968) [Refs. MANRY, 1927; RICE, 1929] defective children, was opened in the year 1918 by Miss De La Place, formerly 1927-28 headmistress of St. Thomas' School, "In every crowded thoroughfare of the city Howrah....There were 9 pupils on 31st [Calcutta] we find specimens of degenerate March 1921."[St. Thomas's, was in 1916 humanity suffering from loathsome and an Aided, Mixed, Elementary school with contagious diseases - the lepers, the insane, attendance of 37 scholars, 5 female the idiotic, the feeble-minded - men of teachers]. (Annual..European..1920-21, p.4) abnormal deformities of body and mind. We pass by quite unconcerned or toss off an "In India up to the year 1921 only a few occasional pice with an emotion which is as isolated experiments with intelligence tests transitory as the mental images of the had been conducted by missionaries engaged kaleidoscopic sights of a great city." in educational work, amongst whom may be (GANGULY, 1927-28) mentioned the Rev. E.L. King of Narsinghpur and the Revg. D.S. Herrick of 1929 Bangalore. At the meeting of the Central "The first scientific approach to the problem Advisory Borad of Education held in of mental retardation in India was a 1929 October of that year it was resolved that Bombay survey.. [By Dr Kamat, while experiments on a large scale should be standardising the Binet test for Kannada conducted with a view to devising a series of speakers]... Findings in the schools of mental intelligence tests suitable for children Dharwar [1,074 children, from a rural town, attending Indian schools." [Copies of the c.30,000 population] indicated an incidence Stanford revision of Binet-Simon tests were of 4% retarded in the school population." forwarded to Principals of Training Colleges, (TAYLOR & TAYLOR, 1970, p.279).[Cf. to try them with the children in their model UK data: "Even by 1926 the Mental schools] "This work they readily undertook Deficiency Committee reported that of and the most interesting reports of their 105,000 defective children aged between 7 experiments were received from Miss and 16 in their survey, 77% were in Gordon of Saidapet, Mr. West of Dacca, ordinary schools". (GABBAY & WEBSTER, Mr. Spence of Jubbulpore and Mr. Wyatt of 1983)] Lahore." (RICHEY, 1924, Preface)

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42 "As very few of the imbeciles and none of Jhargram in the district of Midnapore but the idiots are sent to school by their parents was later shifted to Belghoria near Calcutta. it is very difficult to say from such a study ... In 1936-37, it had on its rolls 15 pupils; of school children as this [at Dharwar] what the total cost of the institution was Rs.9,081 percentage of imbeciles and idiots there is in of which only Rs.480 came from the the general population of children. The 10 provincial revenues." (Ninth morons or feeble-minded in this study form Quinquennial..Bengal..1932-1937, 1939, one per cent of the total population ... Of p.130) the 34 border line cases 14 were boys and 20 girls. Only 3 of them were in the lowest 1934 standard of the secondary schools and 30 in "List of Institutions for the Mental primary schools and one belonged to the pre- Retardates and Particulars of their school period. On an average they were Services... The Central Nursing Home for retarded about 3 years in school studies." Mental Invalids, Ranchi. Year of (KAMAT, 1951, pp.84-85; see also KAMAT, establishment: 1934. [Status: Private]. 1934) Eligibility: Above 5 years. Nature of Activities: Academic education." [Data 1932 provided by the organisation itself] "..I have been on the look-out for an Indian (VOHRA, 1987, p.114) Mongol, and have inquired from many doctors whether they have heard of or come "The number of families worried over the across one in their practice in India. The problem of rearing up mentally deficient result of my searches and inquiries has until children is not insignificant in this country. recently been negative. The condition is, ... But practically nothing has been done so therefore, evidently extremely rare in India." far in our country to ameliorate their lot.* (CHAND, 1932) [Probably the first (Footnote: * An institution for feeble-minded published case of Down Syndrome. It is now children has been started at Jhargram well represented in special schools] sometimes back.) It has, no doubt, to be admitted that very little can be done for 1933-34 high-grade 'morons' or physical misfits, "A school for defective children was started beyond segregating them in a well regulated during the period at Jhargram in the district institution and so making the environment of Midnapore by the Bodhan Samity, a more congenial to them. But in cases of registered association, which had 8 pupils certain types of defectives, where ordinary including a girl. The cost of maintenance system of schooling is of no avail, training by was Rs. 3,098, which was met entirely from modern psychological methods proves private sources." [See below, 1939-40] efficacious. It may be noted in this (Report..Public..Bengal..1933-34, p.34) connection that often educable cases are confused with non-educable ones, and for "The most important event during the period want of proper discrimination between the under review was the establishment of a two, the education of the former suffers by school for mentally defective Indian children default." [There follows a review of the called Bodhana Niketan. The school owes its education of a mentally retarded Calcutta inception to the enthusiasm of Mr. Girija boy, first examined in 1934]. (SINHA, 1936). Prasanna Mukherjee, an Advocate of the Calcutta High Court, who gave to the school 1936 freely of his time, money and energy; he "There are only two schools - the Children's found encouragement and active help from Home, Kurseong, where special methods are Mr. R.H. Parker, I.C.S., but little financial adopted for the training of mentally and assistance from the public or the physically defective European children, and Government. The school was first located at the Bodhana Niketan at Belghoria near

- 41 - Calcutta which is intended for the education philanthropic spirit." (CHATURVEDI, 1949, of mentally defective Indian children. The p.22'7) former had on its rolls 26 pupils in 1936-37, and the latter 15 pupils." (Progress..1932-37, [Advice to Provincial Governments of India:] p.262) "To sort out all grades of [mentally] defective children from existing schools by "Training of Mentally Defective Children. - the help of the School Medical Officers and It is satisfactory to note that a beginning has establish special schools for them." been made by the Superintendent, Mental (Annual..Working..Ranchi..1937, p.8) Hospital, Madras, in this direction, with over a dozen young patients who are capable 1939 of receiving training to a certain extent. An "Education of subnormal children...... [The educated and trained attendant is put in Children's House, Kurseong] had 26 pupils charge of patients."[The Superintendent, on the 31st March 1939 as against 28 pupils Dr HS Hensman, retired in October 1936, in the previous year. ... The institution is after campaigning for 12 years to start inspected by a Board of Visitors appointed classes for mentally retarded children] by Government for the purpose." (Report.. (Annual..Working..Madras..1936, p.4) Public..Bengal..1938-39, 1940, p.26)

1937 1939-40 "Training of Mentally Defective Children. - "In Bodhana Niketan at Jhargram in the A suitable programme of practical object district of Midnapore mentally defective and demonstration, story telling, picture cutting, imbecile pupils are educated with a view to drawing, sense attention and habit training, making them useful to society." (Report.. etc., was adopted in the Mental Hospital, Public..Bengal..1939-40, 1942, p.32) Madras. Physical drill, play of various types, singing and dancing were also practiced. A 1941 swing see saw and a cycle added to their "There are only two institutions doing this enjoyment. Training in handicrafts such as work and both of them are of recent origin. mat and rope making carpentry and The first of these is the Home for Mentally spinning was given." Deficient Children, Mankhurd, Bombay. This (Annual..Working..Madras..1937, p.4) was established in 1941 and it admits only court-committed children. The second "List of Institutions for the Mental institution is the School for Children in Need Retardates and Particulars of their Services of Special Care, Bombay, established by ...Children's Department, Kilpauk, Madras Shrimati Vakil in 1944." (Review of [presumably refers to the above entry, Education, 1958, p.455) Mental Hospital, Madras]. Year of establishment: 1937. Eligibility: 5-17 years. 1943 Nature of Activities: Academic education." [After listing several educational institutions [Data provided by the organisation itself] at Kurseong:] "Miss S. de la Place has a (VOHRA, 1987, p.111) Home for Mentally Deficient Children at Jim's Lodge." (BHANJA, 1943, p.69) 1938 "The two schools [for deaf children] in the 1944 Province are at Allahabad and Lucknow and "Once I suggested to the basic school both of them were started in 1938. The authorities [at Brindaban, Distt. Lucknow School has also a class for the Champaran, Bihar] to admit one or two Blind and another class for the feeble- cretins to their schools and see what they minded. Both schools are voluntary could do to reform them, as I thought, these enterprises managed by persons with "activity" schools should provide the most

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4.4 suitable environment for the special residential school for the mentally deficient education they needed. This year i.e. in 1944 children directed by the Juvenile Court for I was glad to find that at least two such custodial purposes. ... In the decade from children were receiving their education 1950 to 1960, eleven institutions were started there, and from the teachers' report I and another 35 were started between 1960- gathered that they were making marvellous 1966." (JOACHIM, 1990). improvement in their habits and behaviour." (CHATTERJEE, 1951) 1949 [Study of 250 Parsi children of poor families, "It is not desirable for psychological or other aged 8-11 years, using Gujarati adaptation reasons to segregate the subnormal or of Binet-Simon tests]. "Out of these 250 backward children in schools...... since they children tested, 20 i.e. 8% is between 50 °- will have to learn to live in a world with 69° I.Q. ... The study of these 250 children people of all grades of abilities, it is essential showed that 7 i.e., 2.8% fell in the category that throughout the school life they should of mentally defective which after making have opportunities of mingling freely with allowance for all errors was taken between their brighter fellows and of sharing with 50° and 59°. Their mean I.Q. was 56.2°." them such work and pleasures as all children (BATLIWALLA, B.M., 1949) enjoy. The mentally handicapped children who are educable should, therefore, remain 1953 within the general educational system, "Generally, it was found[in DAMLE's though special provisions will have to be study of the home background of 45 children made for their particular requirements. at Bombay]that parents discovered the Special schools may have to be provided for mental deficiency of their children rather the "feeble minded" at a later stage." (Post- late, which was due mostly to their ignorance War, 1944, p.'7'7) of its symptoms. When they actually did discover it, they sought the help of [Study using a Hindustani verbal intelligence astrologers or saints or some other quacks. test, of 1,419 children aged 11+ in Classes ... These mentally slowchildren were VI and above, in Government schools of the admitted to the same schools and at the same United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]. age as normal children. Due to their mental "Gifted children and mentally-defective deficiency, they were not able to keep pace children. (Footnote: "It should be with others in their class. This naturally remembered that "children of 11+ in Class made their parents anxious about their V and below were left out," so that only studies at school. In a few cases, the children of I.Q. below 70 who had disappointment was very great because the nevertheless been promoted are here parents had very high expectations of their included.") Those with I.Q. below 70 children. It could be seen that all this was formed 1.62 per cent of the whole [= 23 due to the original mistake of treating the children]." (LAL, 1944) retarded on a par with normal children and admitting them to the same schools and "The Children's Home [= House] at classes as the latter. It was not generally Kurseong which catered only for Anglo- recognized that retarded children need Indian and European children was closed in special care and treatment, and, therefore, 1944." (Progress..1937-47, [1948] p.158) had to be sent to schools specially designed and run for them." (DAMLE, 1953) 1947 "..in 1947, there were only three institutions 1955 for the care of mentally retarded; Central "Mentally retarded people have always been Nursing Home at Ranchi (1934) and two in with us. Words like `sthuladhih', jadadhih', Bombay (1941-42). The first one was a `nirbuddhih"balishah', etc., used in ancient

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45 Indian literature are indicative of the 1962 existence then of the mentally retarded in "Out of 21,540 children in school in the our midst. ... There are a number of Chidambaram area [...there were 285 with children in this country who are not suitable visual impairments (p.21); 122 with hearing for academic education; but it is not impairments (p.38); 147 "crippled" children desirable to put them in a separate category (p.48); 373 with speech problems (p.62); 249 and make them attend E.S.N. [Educationally with mental disabilities, of whom 225 were Sub Normal] schools. What we need is a mentally retarded, 2 "lunacy", 22 loss of wide variety of training centres for children memory" (p.71)]." ..."To send educable run by voluntary organisations, defectives to ordinary schools would mean municipalities and state governments - some waste of energy, effort and money on the for general education and some for arts and part of the children, the teachers and the crafts...... in a country like India, Home parents. The teachers who are blissfully Training Schemes for mentally defective unaware of the principles, methods and children would be valuable. Teachers for techniques of modern education seldom mental defectives can visit the home of the attribute their backwardness in study to defective child about twice a week, teach him defective mental development. Thus poor for about an hour or so and give guidance to children become the victims of their taunting relatives in the matter of following up that and all sorts of punishments. [However]... teaching and helping the child in his social It is a fact that stigma is attached to the adjustment." (BANERJEE, 1955) handicaped when we put them in special institutions. hence parents prefer them to be 1956 in ordinary schools, even though they cannot "At the Indian Conference of Social Work make any headway there [pp.73-75]." held at Bangalore in 1956 it was suggested (RAMANUJACHARI, 1962) that we should have for villages mobile vans carrying trained persons, who would educate 1965 parents in the training of mental defectives "Before the organization of the first All and make them aware of the types of India Seminar on mentally handicapped services available in the cities for the children held in Chandigarh in 1965, even training and rehabilitation of mental the institutions for the mentally retarded defectives. The suggestion encouraged others knew nothing about each other." (TAYLOR to ask, "where is the trained personnel?.." A & TAYLOR, 1970, p.296). social worker pointed out that it would be much better if the mental defective was allowed to be adequately rehabilitated in the ON PHYSICAL (ORTHOPAEDIC) & village setting only. ... In the village a OTHER DISABILITY mental defective is considered as part and Some of these also appear above. Blindness parcel not only of the family but also of the and deafness were often noted as such, but whole community. He has a sense of much physical or orthopaedic disability was belonging, resulting from his being accepted either not reported or was reported as by the community for what he is." `other' disability. In the following, leprosy- (MARFATIA, 1961, p.3'78) linked disabilities are omitted.

1961 1811 "There is not a single institute for the "There is a species of lameness, called kungja mentally deficient in the whole of India. in [Sanskrit] ... It atacks [sic] all ages and When such institutions are built, they should both sexes, and after continuing a year or be constructed and planned on Colony two is considered incurable; ... It seems to System as in the U.K." (MARFATIA, 1961) consist in a weakness and irregular motion of the muscles moving the knees, which are

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4_ bent and moved with a tremulous irregular 1852, p.53) motion, somewhat as in chorea, but not so violent. When the disease has lasted some 1845 time, and has become confirmed, the legs "This Asylum [at Bombay], for the suffer emaciation. ... It is attributed by some Reception of Blind and Disabled Poor Parsis, to eating khesari (lathyrus-sativus), but this was erected at the expense of the Sons of the seems fanciful.." (BUCHANAN, n.d., late Fardunji Sorabji Parak, Esq. ... A.C. p.2'74). [Buchanan also noted lathyrism in 1845.." (EASTWICK, 1881, p.143) his report on Shahabad, (edn. 1934). It was later described by SLEEMAN (1833) and 1856 IRVING (1856), see below and Appendix]. "In October 1856, Mr Court, the Collector of Allahabad, when in Pergunnah Barra, on 1827 the right bank of the Jumna, was very "The Garrows have no diversity of castes, forcibly struck by the number of lame nor have they any regular priesthood; persons whom he met in all directions. On although there is, in most villages, a lame or enquiry he found, in village after village, blind person, incapacitated from other work, that there were several cripples in each. he who invokes the deities, and offers sacrifices was also informed that the disease which for the recovery of sick persons." (SCOTT, gave rise to this lameness was of recent 1827) [p.138 The Garrows were partly origin, [but see 1811 above] and that it was subject to the British Government, partly attributed by some of the people to thier independent in villages with territory of 10 living on bread made from kessaree dal.. ... to 20 square miles] Several cases of paralysis of the lower limbs were sent from Barra, to the Government 1833 Charitable Dispensary at Allahabad, for "In 1833 the sad effects of this food [kesari medical treatment. ... [At Barra]..all the dal] began to manifest themselves. The lame people from surrounding villages were younger part of the population of this and mustered for my inspection on the morning the surrounding villages [near Sagan], from of the 6th February 1857. About fifty men the age of thirty downwards, began to be were present, all more or less lame in both deprived of the use of their limbs below the legs, some so much disabled as to be hardly waist by paralytic strokes, in all cases capable of motion, while others were only sudden, but in some cases more severe than slightly affected." (IRVING, 1859) [Irving in others. About half the youth of this village was Civil Surgeon of Allahabad. See also of both sexes became affected during the 1880, below]. years 1833 and 1834, and many of them have lost the use of their lower limbs 1858 entirely, and are unable to move." "Finally, the wretched schoolmaster was (SLEEMAN, 1893 edn., p.127-128) wretchedly paid, and was generally making desperate efforts to find other employment. 1830s [?] The profession was, for the most part, "I attended, at Wuzeerabad, the governor of recruited from the disabled members of that province, General Avitabile, who, society." (MITCHELL /Nesbit, 1858, pp.71-2) having sprained his ancle, had called in the native surgeons, barbers and bunglers, and "Deformities produced by cicatrices from they had so assiduously applied irritating burns. - It is impossible to enumerate the poultices and embrocations, that the leg amount of deformity arising from this cause became inflamed, and was approaching that is met with in the Province, in the mortification. Under my treatment, the majority a trifling operation would have to a patient recovered, and the leg was restored great extent removed it;..." (SHORTT, 1858, to its former functions." (HONIGBERGER, p.507)

- 45 - 47 1864 Benares].. ..was installed as teacher. In "[The Yousafzais, in the N.W. Frontier] are the morning he taught the blind, and in the governed by their own maliks, who in turn afternoons he taught the lame and decrepit are subordinate to the tribal chief, or khan. who were not blind. (LEUPOLT, pp.243-7) Both these offices are hereditary, except in the case of manifest incapacity from mental 1870-1875 imbecility or physical deformity, or from "Cases of malformation of the hands and some objectionable quality of temper or feet come but seldom under the notice of the general conduct... The distribution of alms is Surgeon in this country, either because they very generally observed by all classes are irremediable, or that they cause so little according to their means. The priesthood inconvenience as to render surgical [i.e. maulvis], widows, orphans, maimed, interference unnecessary, or on account of blind, aged, &c., are the recipients." the reluctance, shown by natives, to any (BELLEW, 1864, p.203, p.208) interference with what is. Nine cases have come under my notice during the past six 1865 years, but of these only three came for "Apart from the establishment of the David treatment...... the remainder were seen Sassoon Infirm Asylum in 1865 and similar amongst patients seeking aid for other other institutions in the country, which complaints." (GARDEN, 1875). [Garden provided shelter to the infirm and the was Civil Surgeon at Mussooree] crippled, there were no voluntary organizations specifically meant for crippled 1880 children or adults." (BHATT, 1963, p.217) [Tabular "Statement showing the lepers, blind and poor, benefited by the charities in "During the past two years, thirty-one cases the North-Western Provinces and Oudh for of functional paralysis in children have been the year 1880" includes:]"Mejah cripples' treated in the Saharunpore dispensary..." asylum (Allahabad)." (Report..Charitable [Some of these cases were probably ..Oudh..1880, p.29) [The Tehseeldaree of poliomyelitis]. (GARDEN, 1867) Pergunnah Khyraghur, in Zillah Allahabad, was at Mejah. Lathyrism was prevalent in 1867 Khyraghur. The Mejah cripples' asylum was "The fact of a European Doctor being in the probably founded to cope with people having neighbourhood soon spread through the this condition. See IRVING (1860)]. [Himalayan] villages, and my tent was daily beseiged by the maimed, the halt, and the 1882 blind. mostly all the sick were old worn out [Quoted from Miss W.N. Greenfield, on men or women and young children." schools in the Punjab] "...the type of all (FLEMING, 1867). class-books should be clear and large.... I should think that fully 50 per cent. of the 1869 adult population have defective sight.. ... "Out of an average of 131 inmates during Home preparation for all the higher classes the year [at Raja Kali Shanker Ghosal's must be pursued at night, and the flickering Asylum], 40 have been industrially light of an ordinary 'diva' is ruining to the employed, the remainder being physically students' eyes. It is therefore most important unfit for any work on account of infirmity that no additional strain should be put on from old age, chronic disease, &c." the eyes by the school-books being printed in (SHAKESPEAR, 1870) a fine or defective type." (LEITNER, 1882/1991, P.112) 1870 "An orphan lad, named Titus, from the "Of the total number [of teachers at lower classes of the Normal School [at indigenous schools in the Punjab] shown in

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48 the returns 4,430 are unable to read a 1899 printed book, 4,791 are unable to write, and "At Calcutta a medical mission home and 6,199 are unacquainted with elementary orphanage for blind, crippled, and destitute arithmetic. A larger number are blind or children has just been established, under the otherwise disabled." (Report..State of direction of Mr. and Mrs. J. Norman." Education, 1883, p.8) (DENNIS, 1899, p.385)

1886 1901 "In 1886 I was further enabled...... to [Summary and discussion of a study of the establish another asylum for epileptics, eyesight of over 4,343 schoolboys and college syphilitics, and all kinds of people suffering students in different parts of India, in which from loathsome and incurable diseases." 48% were found to have abnormal vision; (HAHN, 1890) whereas among 306 children not attending school, 18% had abnormal vision]. 1887 and earlier (IYENGAR, 1901) "Throughout my service on the frontier of India, I have never known a time when the 1917 halt, the lame, and the blind have not "The Queen Mary's Technical School for flocked into our cantonments or into our Indian Disabled Soldiers at Kirkee, Poona, camps in search of relief from suffering; was started in 1917. This institution has up and, however distasteful may have been the to now successfully trained over 3,000 sight of our soldiers, or however galling the disabled ex-servicemen.. ..in useful idea of subjection to British rule, the people technical trades.." (BHATT, 1963, p.204) have come with confidence from far and wide to seek medical aid." 1913 (CHAMBERLAIN, 1887) "If a man issues forth into the open when he is in a great sweat after fever, like enough 1895 the wind will strike him, and cripple him of "Hare-lip in young children has rarely come a limb or even of one whole side of his body. before me; but I have done a good many Then we lay him in a warm bed... And forth cases in boys and girls of from 10 to 20 years goes one to shoot as many wild pigeons as he olds, or even in adults of some age. I do not may. For until the sick is cured of his think the defect is so common here as in sickness, one pigeon a day must he eat, Europe. It is known as "Ravan Kanda," whether roast or boiled. Seven at the least he because the face of Ravan (Ravanna, the will surely need. ... And a woman sometimes Demon King of Lanka, or Ceylon) was quits her bed after childbirth lamed by the mutilated in this way by Rama Chandra." wind of one leg. Poor thing! she is crippled (HENDLEY, 1895, p.57) for such a weary while, that her kin in despair drug her with many drugs, which in 1898 the end ease her of her pain by easing her of "It is absolutely certain that this disease her life." [Rural treatment in Baluchistan] [locomotor ataxy] occurs in typical form (BRAY, 1913, p.109) amongst native of India. ... Again, I do not believe that spinal-cord cases are particularly 1923 rare in India. I have had cases of infantile "..the Ida Rieu School for blind, deaf, dumb paralysis, pseudo-hypertropic paralysis, and other defective children at Karachi was progressive muscular atrophy, and various registered during the year, and given a small muscular distrophies, lateral sclerosis, grant." (Report..Public..Bombay, 1925, myelitis, multiple sclerosis, &c., and all p.91) kinds of cerebral and peripheral nervous affections." (GRANT, 1898)

- 47 - 1926 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS "I discovered nothing of orthopaedics [in Library and archival resources of the India] until just before I left; then I was Universities of Birmingham, Bristol, London told a ward had been opened at a big (Heythrop College and the School of Oriental hospital in Bombay, which was in charge of & African Studies) and Manchester, the an Indian surgeon who had been to many of Indian Institute Library of Oxford University, the best-known orthopaedic centres of Birmingham City Libraries and Inter-Library Europe. (Baschurch Pupil, 1927) Loan Service, the British Library, the Church Missionary Society, the Religious Society of 1927 Friends, the Royal National Institutes for the [Description and discussion of various Blind and for the Deaf, the Selly Oak walking caliper splints and their Colleges, the Wellcome Institute for the modifications, as used at Calcutta] History of Medicine, the Royal Society of (HARNETT, 1927) Medicine, and the Tata Institute for Social Science, Bombay, made possible the 1930-31 compilation of this collection. Use of these "In an area (Lahore city) where late rickets resources is cordially acknowledged.I am and osteomalacia among girls and women also grateful to Dr Maya Thomas, formerly bring about deformities especially of the director of ActionAid Disability Division, lower extremities and of the bony pelvis India, who imaginatively took the which have serious consequences at opportunity of disseminating earlier versions childbirth, a high incidence of rickets, 607 of this material in a privately circulated cases, were found on examination among newsletter. 1,482 school girls." (WILSON, 1930-31)

1943 "Another local association known as T.K. Polio Clinic and Physiotherapy Institute has been functioning in Ahmedabad since 1943." (BHATT, 1963, p.219)

1942-43 to 46-47 "A useful experiment was made at Kalimpong for the vocational rehabilitation of lame and blind children of age-group 5-18 of the families of ex-officers and hillmen. This school had an enrolment of 19 pupils of whom 13 resided in the attached hostel. In addition to academic instruction in the Braille system, the lame and blind children are also given training in productive arts and crafts." (Quinquennial Review, 1951, p.76)

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The Zenana School for the Deaf & Dumb. Reprinted from "Home Magazine" of 24th February 1900, for the Central Foreign Fund of The British Deaf and Dumb Association.

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62 APPENDIX Kolly Shunker, very honorably, secured to the Society in perpetuity the monthly Raja Kali Shanker Ghosal's Asylum payment assigned by his father." He had a survey made of blind people- This Asylum for the Blind at Benares is the perhaps the earliest Indian survey of earliest Indian institution found in the which a report survives. Inmates were present study, devoted to disabled people admitted in Jan. 1826, before the final (apart from leper asylums, and brief grant of Government sanction. So some mentions of disability asylums in antiquity of chroniclers would record 1824 as the functioning of which almost nothing is Foundation year; others 1825, or 1826. known). Correspondence at the start of Raja 2.There were fears - after experiences with Kali Shanker Ghosal's Asylum gives some a leper asylum at Calcutta - that to points relevant to other, later, efforts: make any institutional provision could result in large numbers of disabled 1. The long gap between conception of the people arriving from elsewhere, creating Asylum and reception of the first a disturbance and overtaxing the inmates; and consequent indefiniteness of charitable resources. the 'Foundation' date. The Chaplain 3.The counter argument, based on a introduced the Raja's idea to the practical survey, was that disabled government by letter dated 13 Jan. 1824. people could earn more by begging in The Raja must have thought of founding public, and would be reluctant to enter an asylum during 1823 or earlier; maybe an Asylum if they had to forfeit the from the date when he came to Benares, option of street begging. or even earlier. His father, Jai Narain 4.A mixture of motives for the foundation Ghosal, was a well known philanthropist appears - there was some pity for the who had made substantial donations to plight of blind and otherwise disabled the Church Missionary Society for people; mixed with a dislike for being educational purposes and who had, pestered by beggars in the street, and for according to the son, embraced the the attendant disorderliness; and a Christian faith privately (HOUGH, 1860, feeling that 'something should be done'. vol.V, pp.319-323). Raja Kali Shanker 5.Cooperation between Government and Ghosal effected a property transfer to wealthy individuals is evident. C.M.S. at Calcutta in 1818, on behalf of 6.There was an understandable reluctance, Jai Narain in Benares. Jai Narain died in in both private donors and the 1821. Hough noted that Government, to be committed to an "Kolly Shunker himself trode in his open-ended, ongoing expense. father's steps...... after urging, as Jay 7.The Trust began under a committee of Narain had done, the establishment of a British officials of impeccable printing press at Benares, he adds - trustworthiness - yet in fact one of them - "Now, I wish to reside some time in this the Surgeon, Thomas Yeld - killed part, and to effect the increase of himself in 1829 after being caught Christian knowledge among the people." fiddling the accounts of the Mint, of The sincerity of these expressions were which he had become Master. [sic] soon put to the test. It appeared (CRAWFORD, 1914, p.318). that the legal transfer of the property, mentioned above to have been assigned In square brackets 0 are explanatory by Jay Narain to the support of these interpolations or suggestions of words or schools, was not finally effected; but punctuation possibly omitted by copyists; or

- 61 - summaries of letters (some of which repeated furnish a further report which might the same matter in forwarding it to a higher enable us to determine on the mode and authority). The first document (Margin No.s extent in which the aid of Government 48-57) is a summary review. That is followed should be granted to the proposed by copies of the relevant correspondence. Institution. The orthographic variations, e.g. on the 52. A Committee was subsequently name of Raja Kali Shanker Ghosal, and appointed to investigate and report on syntactical peculiarities as in MacLeod's certain points relative to the plan which letter, are given as they were recorded by required elucidation, and it was then the Board's copyists. intimated that further consideration has suggested doubts of the expediency of ***************** establishing an asylum for the permanent reception of individuals labouring under blindness. It was to be India Office Library: BOARDS apprehended that the knowledge of the COLLECTIONS Vol. F/4/955 Section existence of such an establishment 27109-27118 would tend to promote a Congregation at Benares of blind persons to such an Bengal Public Dept. No. 4. 1827/8 27109. extent as would be in many respects Letter dated 27th May 1827 [sic]. 48 @ 57 inconvenient and render the Establishment of an Asylum by Rajah Ka lee accommodation of them all in the Shunkur Ghosaul for the Blind and destitute Institution impracticable. at Benares. Disappointment to many unfortunate objects would be the consequence and Extract Public Letter from Bengal Dated Benares and its vicinity would be 27th May, 1826 [sic]. crowded with applicants for admission 48.Early in the year 1824, the Magistrate on the occurrence of vacancies. It was of Benares submitted to Government on therefore stated to the Committee that the part of Rajah Ka lee Shunkur perhaps the interests of humanity would Ghosaul, a plan for the establishment at be better consulted and Ka lee Shunkur the City of an Asylum for the relief of Ghosaul's benevolent views more Persons deprived of Sight. satisfactorily fulfilled were an Infirmary 49. The Rajah proposed to contribute substituted for an Asylum for the 10,000 Rupees towards the erection of a purpose of affording Medical treatment suitable building for the Institution and and comfortable temporary 200 Rs. pr. Mensem for the support of accommodation to those patients who the persons to be received in it. might not appear to be in a hopeless 50.In reply, we caused it to be intimated to stage of blindness. It was also hinted the Magistrate that we highly approved that were the above plan adopted the the liberal intention of the Ka lee benefits of the Establishment might Shunkur Ghosaul and that we were possibly be extended to Lepers whose disposed, by the support and cases might exhibit a prospect of cure. countenance of Government, to promote 53. The Committee having in their reply the accomplishment of his benevolent expressed themselves satisfied that the project. Establishment of an Asylum would not 51. The Magistrate was desired to aid Ka lee draw an inconvenient number of blind Shunkur Ghosaul, in the compilation of persons to the City, we sanctioned the Rules for the Establishment and to Institution as proposed by Ka lee

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6'i Shunkur Ghosaul and engaged that Fraser dated the 13th Inst. with the Government should defray the Monthly plan to which it refers, projected by expense of an establishment Ka lee Sunker Ghossal for the commensurate with extent of the Establishment of an asylum for the proposed Charity [,] the disbursement relief of persons deprived of sight. on account of the diet and clothing of 2 Of the nature of the proposed the Patients and other necessary charges Institution no explanation appears for their maintenance being left to the requisite beyond what the statement of liberality of Ka lee Shunkur Ghosaul. the plan itself contains, though I may 54.In consequence of a wish subsequently venture to add my testimony to the expressed by Ka lee Shunkur Ghosaul, accuracy of the Estimate, which we have consented that the Foundation calculates the number of Blind persons be recognized as an Asylum for the now in Benares as certainly falling short Destitute generally of all classes and of 225. Nations but more especially the Blind. 3 In concurrence with the sentiments of 55. Ka lee Shunkur Ghosaul has paid into Mr Brooke with whom I have conferred the hands of the Collector of Benares upon the subject, I presume to the sum of 48,000 Furruckabad Rupees recommend the project of Ka lee Sunker for which Government have engaged to which reflects so highly on that guarantee to the Asylum 200 Rs. pr. individuals humanity to the patronage Mensem being an interest of 5 pr.Cent. and aid of the British Government the Accountant General has been independently of the general grounds instructed to adopt measures for upon which such a recommendation securing unalienably to the Trustees of must be naturally supposed to be the Asylum the above financial Sum and founded, it has appeared to us that in the Monthly payment of the interest on giving it's direct support and it. countenance to the projected Institution 56. Among the papers quoted in the Margin to such extent as might be deemed at of para 54, your Hon"ble Court will once suitable to its own character and perceive the Code of Regulations for the to the claims with which misfortune has Asylum which has been approved by us. invested those whom is it proposed to 57. The amount of the Establishment relieve the Government would afford a required for the Institution has not yet valuable example calculated to incite been reported to us. many of the opulent native members of the community to contribute cordially and effectually to the success of the Extract Bengal Public Consultations 12th undertaking and thus allot a portion of February 1824. their wealth to an alleviation of the From Norman MacLeod Esqr. Magistrate at miseries of their suffering fellow Benares creatures and the exercise and No.68 To W.B. Bayley Esqr., Chief expansion of their own feelings of Secretary to Government in the Judicial humanity and benevolence.I have etc Department. 31st January 1824. (signed) N. MacLeod Magistrate. Magistrates office, City of Benares, 31st Sir,I have the honor to transmit to you, to Jany. 1824. be laid before the Right Hon"ble the Governor General in Council, a copy of a letter from the Reverend William No.69 From William Fraser Esqr., Chaplain

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S5 at Benares 100 appear to be born Blind and 125 to have To Norman Mac Leod Esqr. lost their sight by casualties, among the Magistrate, 13th January 1824 number 50 are supposed to be curable. the Expenses to be incurred in purchasing a spot Sir, I am requested by the Baboo Colley of ground and erecting a House thereupon Sunker Gossaul to forward to you the for the comfortable accommodation of these accompanying plan for a proposed Blind men are conjectured at 10,000 Rupees Institution at Benares for the relief of persons deprived of sight; It will be seen on Repairs of the House per month 10 his estimate of the necessary expenses of Their diet, Expenditure such an Institution that he is willing to at 3 Rupees each 675 contribute Rupees 10,000 towards the Servants wages pr. month 30 erection of a suitable building and the Rupees pr. month 715 monthly sum of Rupees 200 towards the support of the persons who shall be received Of the amount I beg leave to offer on into it. He thinks that there are in the City my own part 200 Rupees pr. mensem, of Benares two hundred and twenty five besides the sum above mentioned for ground blind people depending upon alms for their and building which I also engage to tender. subsistence. I may I trust venture to say, The sum then remains to be raised by that whether this computation be strictly charitable contributions is only 515, to aid accurate or not, their numbers as well as the institution, therefore it is humbly their wretched appearance cannot fail to requested that the agent of the Governor strike every person who visits the city.I General at Benares will if the plan is Have etc. (signed) Wm. Fraser Chaplain at approveable to him, be pleased to convene a Benares. Benares Jany. 13th: 1824 meeting at his house of the Gentlemen and wealthy natives of this place for the above No.70 Enclosure[with No.69] A purpose[;] should the subscriptions which Scheme of Charitable they are pleased to make be still left Contribution insufficient to make up. Mr Brook will be On my arrival at Benares I experienced good enough to procure the deficiency from many Blind men to labour under an extreme Government which from various examples of distress for want of food and raiment, which its liberality to the poor in general, I am can no other way be made than by beggary; encouraged to hope will not be deemed as and for which purpose, their circuitous walk matter of objection for a compliance. tho' ever so troublesome through the narrow The following rules are proposed for the streets of the city appeared every year to protection and management of the subject some of them to fatal consequence, Institution.[rules etc. pp.19-27] Signed although it is not in my power alone to Colly Sunker Gossaul aleviate [sic] the pains of those poor, yet moved by pity to their helpless condition, all Charles Lushington, Secretary to the I can do to serve them, is by calling for the Government, Fort William 12th Feb 1824 indulgence of humane and liberal men whose To N. MacLeod [- Governor General kind assistance on the occasion will it is favourably inclined; but asks MacLeod's hoped forward the scheme to successful opinion on the Rules drawn up by Raja conclusion and of course rewarded by the KSG.] love of God. At present 225 Blind men, of every cast [Various enquiries, opinions, arguments; a are estimated to consist in the City of which misaddressed letter from Lushington

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66 provokes an outburst of injured dignity by expressed their disinclination to reside in the the acting magistrate to whom it should have Asylum, and we are fully persuaded that been sent. Problem raised again of attracting many of the others will come to the same large numbers of blind people; this was said determination, and merely those who are to have happened when a Leper Asylum entirely destitute will have recourse to the opened at Calcutta; suggestion that Raja Asylum. These are exactly the individuals KSG should endow an infirmary instead; whom it is most desirable to receive, since it countered with the argument that the Native would appear impracticable to relieve all.In Hospital can perfectly well deal with all corroboration of this view of the subject we curable cases of blindness] wish to notise the public Hospitals now established in many parts of this Country, open for the reception of all who are p.66-71 (two paragraphs extracted from afflicted with illness or disease, and to letter) remark how few comparatively, have 7. 'The extreme attachment of the Natives recourse to them, and the difficulty of to their houses and families and their inducing many who can have no other hopes reluctance to a permanent residence in any of relief to take refuge in them. Numbers place of public charity, coupled with the had rather perish than reside in them, Regulations which it would be indispensable although every attention and liberal to establish (constant residence within the accommodation be provided. walls being one of the most important) 8. In conclusion we beg to submit it as our afford strong grounds for belief that none mature opinion, that the possible but those in a state of the utmost distress inconveniences which might arise (but which and abandonment would accept of the relief for the reasons above stated, we do not which this Asylum could bestow. In the case anticipate) would bear no manner of of the lepers these impediments did not exist. proportion to the positive good which would The Lepers, alas' are outcasts, they have ensue from the establishment of a charitable neither home nor family, but on the contrary institution such as is now proposed. It is are dreaded and shunned by their however clear that the project cannot be connections, consequently are ready to resort carried into execution without the benevolent to any place where they may hope for an pecuniary assistance of Government. The alleviation of their dreadful calamities, and sum which Colleeshunker ghosal proposes to to these causes we are disposed to attribute appropriate for this purpose though liberal their thronging in such numbers to the as the donation of an individual bears but a Calcutta Leprous Asylum. The blind on the small proportion to the whole expense which contrary are not outcasts, their domesticks must be incurred if the proposition be [query pencilled above: 'domestic ties?'] are adopted.' not dissolved, and so far are we from [They propose the Old Mint Premises for the anticipating an influx of blind persons into Asylum, to save the cost of a new building; this City on account of this Asylum, that we the money saved could go for running costs. are decidedly of opinion that out of the Another idea was to set up a pension fund present number of blind objects in the City for blind or other distressed people - at at least one half would decline admittance. greater risk of attracting crowds of In point of fact, Col lee Shunker Ghosal applicants]Benares, 30th July 1825 H.M. having with considerable difficulty and Pigou, Acting Judge.T. Ye ld, Civil expense, procured a Statement of the Surgeon number of blind residents, out of the total of 336 persons, one hundred and forty at once

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67 Extract from Lushington to Pigou and Yeld, [Correspondence on finances. The Raja 18 Aug. 1825: produced two promissory notes, which did not deliver. In March 1826, he produced 2 `..the Governor General in Council is cash. The promissory notes were returned to pleased to sanction the Institution for that him]. purpose proposed by Colleeshunker Ghosal. ******************************* 3 His Lordship in Council has been pleased to determine that the old Mint Premises at Benares, shall be appropriated for the purposes of the Asylum and Government will defray the Monthly expense of an Establishment commensurate with the extent of the proposed Charity; the disbursements on account of the diet and cloathing of the patients and other necessary charges for their maintenance, being left to the liberality of Colleeshunker Ghosal and other private Benefactors.' [Also appointed the Committee, as desired by Raja KSG, to superintend the Asylum: The Senior Judge of the Provincial Court of Appeal and Circuit. The Acting Magistrate. The Chaplain. The Civil Surgeon at Benares.]

[Correspondence by this Committee, on putting up a building, drawing up rules, and coopting Dr Watson; and by Lushington arranging to enact the Trust]

From the Committee to Lushington, 4th January 1826 (extract)

`The anxiety evinced by the Founder for the Establishment of the Asylum on the first of this year, induced the Committee to comply with his earnest solicitation of admitting 10 persons on the proposed Institution explaining to them and also to the Rajah that it was not to be considered as permanent until the sanction of the Right Honorable the Governor General in Council had been obtained, and that all expenses devolved upon himself.' W.A. Brooke, R.N.C. Hamilton, T. Yeld

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