UNLV Retrospective Theses & Dissertations

1-1-1989

Hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry of the Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nevada

Ronald Lee Hershey University of Nevada, Las Vegas

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Repository Citation Hershey, Ronald Lee, "Hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry of the Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nevada" (1989). UNLV Retrospective Theses & Dissertations. 66. http://dx.doi.org/10.25669/6jjj-tod5

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Hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry of the Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nevada

Hershey, Ronald Lee, M.S.

University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 1989

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

HYDROGEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY

OF THE SPRING MOUNTAINS,

CLARK COUNTY, NEVADA

by

Ronald Lee Hershey

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

in

Geoscience

Department of Geoscience University of Nevada, Las Vegas December, 1989 The thesis of Ronald Lee Hershey for the degree of Master of Science Geosciences is approved.

Chairpere em, Dr. John W. Hess

Examining Committee Member, Dr. Richard H. French

Examining Committee Member, Dr. Frederick W. Bachuber

Graduate Faculty Representative, Dr. Boyd Earl

Graduate Dean, Dr. Ronald W. Smith

University of Nevada Las Vegas, Nevada December, 1989 ABSTRACT

The Spring Mountains are the largest ground-water recharge area in southern Nevada and supply a significant amount of ground water to the Las Vegas, Pahrump, and Indian Springs Valleys. The mountain range, composed predominantly of highly fractured and faulted carbonate rock, is considered part of a regional carbonate aquifer system found in eastern Nevada. Because of the Spring Mountains recharge potential, their proximity to Las Vegas, and their interaction with the regional aquifer system, an understanding of the hydrogeology of the mountain range is vital. Isotopic and chemical analyses from 116 springs and wells in the mountain range and associated valleys indicate that ground water is generally of good quality, warm weather precipitation is recharging the ground-water system at higher elevations, and mixing of several ground-water masses including older regional water is occurring in the northern Las Vegas Valley. The high quality of ground water in the study area is controlled by the predominance of carbonate rock in the central portion of the mountain block. Water quality decreases as lithologies change to quartzite and shale in the north and to clastic and evaporite rocks in the south. Comparisons of average 8 D and 8 180 of ground water, snow, and rain in the study area suggest that a mixture of 40 percent rain and 60 percent snow is needed to derive ground water. A detailed study of 8D and 8 180 of precipitation and ground water at Deer Creek Spring #1 also suggest some summer precipitation is recharging the ground water system. 813C of high elevation springs suggest large amounts of recharge at higher elevations. Modeling of 8 t3C in ground water suggest low Pco2 anc^ enriched 8 13C in soil, and open system conditions at high elevations. Analysis of 14C in ground water and geochemical modeling of ground water using PHREEQE and BALANCE suggest that ground water from the Spring Mountain bedrock aquifer and alluvial-fan aquifers are mixing with water from the regional aquifer in the Las Vegas shear zone. Modeling also suggests mixing of 90 percent Las Vegas shear zone water with 10 percent water from the western portion of the Las Vegas Valley in the Las Vegas well field. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT...... iii LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... xi INTRODUCTION...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Objectives ...... 1 Approach ...... 2 Previous work ...... 3 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING ...... 6 Geography ...... 6 Climate ...... 9 Vegetation ...... 12 Geology ...... 13 Hydrogeology ...... 19 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL THEORY ...... 24 Geochemistry ...... 24 Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 and Deuterium/Hydrogen ...... 27 Carbon-14 ...... 29 Carbon-13/Carbon-12 ...... 32 METHODS AND PROCEDURES ...... 40 Introduction ...... 40 Ground-Water Sampling ...... 40 Snow Collection ...... 41 Time Series Data Collection ...... 42 Chemical Analyses ...... 44 Isotopic Analyses ...... 45 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 46 Major Ion Geochemistry ...... 46 Stable Isotopes of Precipitation and Ground W ater ...... 61 Carbon-14 in Ground Water ...... 75 Carbon-13/Carbon-12 in Ground Water ...... 78

iv Geochemical Modeling ...... 93 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 108 FURTHER RESEARCH ...... I l l BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 114 APPENDICES ...... 123 A. Field Data ...... 123 B. Geographical Data ...... 141 C. Chemical D a ta ...... 148 D. Isotopic Data ...... 157 E. Statistics ...... 163 F. Laboratory Chemical Analysis Methods ...... 166 G. Geochemical Modeling ...... 168

v LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1 Location of Spring Mountain study area in southern 7 Nevada.

Figure 2 Topographic map of Spring Mountains and associated 8 valleys in southern Nevada.

Figure 3 Precipitation patterns in southern Nevada. 11

Figure 4 Stratigraphic section from Frenchman Mountain to 15 northwest Spring Mountains, southern Nevada.

Figure 5 Generalized geologic map of Spring Mountains study 18 area, southern Nevada.

Figure 6 Carbonate rock terrain in Nevada where 80 percent of 20 measured sections are greater than 50 percent car­ bonate rock.

Figure 7 Location of Deer Creek Spring #1, Cold Creek Spring, 43 and Indian Spring, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 8 Location of ground-water sampling points in the 47 Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 9 Generalized potentiometric map of the Spring Moun- 48 tains and associated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 10 Trilinear diagram of ground-water chemical analyses 49 of the Spring Mountains and associated valleys, south­ ern Nevada. P = Paleozoic, M = Mesozoic, C = Pre- cambrian.

Figure 11 Computer generated contour map of TDS in ground 51 water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, south­ ern Nevada.

Figure 12 Computer generated contour map of Na+ + K+ con- 52 centrations in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada.

vi Figure 13 Computer generated contour map of SO2- concentra- 53 tions in ground water, Spring Mountains and associ­ ated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 14 Computer generated contour map of Ca2+ concentra- 54 tions in ground water, Spring Mountains and associ­ ated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 15 Computer generated contour map of Mg2+ concentra- 55 tions in ground water, Spring Mountains and associ­ ated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 16 Computer generated contour map of HC03_ concentra- 56 tions in ground water, Spring Mountains and associ­ ated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 17 Computer generated contour map of log Pco2 °f 57 ground water, Spring Mountains and associated val­ leys, southern Nevada.

Figure 18 Computer generated contour map of log SI calcite of 58 ground water, Spring Mountains and associated val­ leys, southern Nevada.

Figure 19 Computer generated contour map of Ca2+/Mg2+ ratio 59 of ground water, Spring Mountains and associated val­ leys, southern Nevada.

Figure 20 8 18 O vs. 5D plot of springs and wells in the Spring 62 Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 21 Computer generated contour map of <5D (°/oo) of 63 ground water, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 22 8 lsO vs. 8 D plot of precipitation (1987-1988) in the 65 Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 23 Linear regression lines for 8 lsO and 8 D of rain and 67 snow, 1987-1988, Spring Mountains study area, south­ ern Nevada.

Figure 24 8 lsO vs. 5D plot of ground water and precipitation, 68 (1987-1988) in the Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 25 Discharge and precipitation vs. time for Deer Creek 71 Spring #1 (1987 and 1988) in the Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

vii Figure 26 Percent modern carbon of ground water in the Spring 76 Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 27 Hand contour of 8 13C values of ground water in the 79 Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada.

Figure 28 8 13C and log Pco2 values of ground water along Kyle 80 Canyon flow path, Spring Mountains, southern Nevada.

Figure 29 Variation of pmc and tritium in ground water with 84 elevation along Kyle Canyon flow path, Spring Moun­ tains, southern Nevada.

Figure 30 Modeled ground-water flow paths in Indian Springs, 95 Pahrump, and west Las Vegas Valleys, Spring Moun­ tains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 31 Isotopic traverse of ground-water flow path, from 96 McFarland Spring to Indian Spring, Indian Springs Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 32 Chemical traverse of ground-water flow path, from 97 McFarland Spring to Indian Spring, Indian Springs Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 33 Isotopic traverse of ground-water flow path, from 100 Trout Spring to Manse well, Pahrump Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 34 Chemical traverse of ground-water flow path, from 101 Trout Spring to Manse well, Pahrump Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 35 Isotopic traverse of ground-water flow path, from Pine 103 Creek Spring to LW W D#lla well, west Las Vegas Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

Figure 36 Chemical traverse of ground-water flow path, from 104 Pine Creek Spring to LW W D#lla well, west Las Vegas Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada.

viii LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1 Annual average precipitation of stations located in 10 Spring Mountains study area.

Table 2 Biotic communities of the Spring Mountains study 12 area, southern Nevada.

Table 3 Worldwide abundances of selected isotopes. 28

Table 4 Worldwide abundances of carbon isotopes. 30

Table 5 Weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation at Deer 72 Creek Spring #1.

Table 6 Weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation 73 at Deer Creek Spring #1.

Table 7 Weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation exclud- 74 ing warm season precipitation events of less than 1.5 centimeters at Deer Creek Spring #1.

Table 8 List of 8 13C values and fractionation factors used to 88 model carbon-13 in ground water.

Table 9 Results of carbon-13 modeling, Kyle Canyon. 90

Table 10 Results of chemical modeling, Indian Springs Valley 98 flow path.

Table 11 Results of chemical modeling, Pahrump Valley flow 102 path.

Table 12 Results of chemical modeling, west Las Vegas Valley 105 flow path.

ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Millimeters mm

Centimeters cm

Meters m

Kilometers km

Square Meters m2

Square Kilometers km2

Milliliters ml

Centimeters per Year cm /yr

Square Meters per Day m2/day

Liters per Second 1/s

Liters per Minute 1/m

Cubic Meters per Year m3/y r

Equivalents per Million EPM

Milligrams per Liter mg/1

Micromhos per Centimeter //mhos/cm

Per Mil O // oo

Percent Modern Carbon pmc

Percent % Degrees, Minutes dm

x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This manuscript is the culmination of many hours of field, laboratory, and office work contributed not only by myself but many other individuals as well.

My sincere thanks and appreciation are given to Dr. John W. Hess who acted as my thesis committee chairman and provided many ideas, suggestions and guidance. Thanks also to the rest of my committee, Dr. Richard H. French, Dr.

Fred W. Bachhuber, and Dr. Boyd Earl.

A special thanks goes to Bradly F. Lyles who spent many long hours with me in the field trying to keep our spring monitoring equipment in operation. Brad also contributed countless hours helping me with computer graphics, geochemical modeling, statistics, isotope hydrology and hydrogeochemistry. I am grateful to him on both a professional and a personal level. His input has increased the quality of this research greatly.

Thanks to the numerous people who helped collect samples and haul hundreds of pounds of equipment up to Deer Creek Spring #1. Thanks also to

Craig Shadel and Jim Heidker of the Desert Research Institute’s environmental isotope lab and the water chemistry lab, respectively. Thanks to all of the graduate students working at DRI for their help in various hydrologic concepts, computer techniques, class work and most of all their companionship. A special thanks to Sonya, my wife, for her love and support. Thanks also to Bruce Gungle and Neil Ingraham for their efforts reviewing this manuscript. This research was funded by the State of Nevada’s Carbonate Aquifers Study Program and the

Water Resources Center, Desert Research Institute. INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Las Vegas, Nevada is one of the driest metropolitan areas in the United

States. Located in the southern Great Basin Desert, Las Vegas is experiencing

rapid population growth which is putting severe demands on a limited water supply. With finite quantities of water available from the Colorado River, and with ground-water supplies within the Las Vegas Valley decreasing rapidly, the search for other sources of water is in progress. In association with the Las Vegas

Valley Water District, the United States Geological Survey, and the United States

Bureau of Reclamation, the Water Resources Center of the Desert Research

Institute is investigating the regional carbonate aquifer system of eastern Nevada

as a potential source of ground water. The Spring Mountains constitute the largest recharge area in southern Nevada and are considered part of this regional ground-water system. Because of their recharge potential and their proximity to

Las Vegas, an in-depth study to characterize the geochemical and isotopic behavior of recharge and ground water in the Spring Mountains has been undertaken.

Objectives

The primary objective of this research is to document the geochemical and isotopic characteristics of ground water in the mountain range and the associated valleys. Specifically, the objectives include: 2

1. Delineation of zones of varying water quality. 2. Examination of precipitation to determine the period of recharge. 3. Characterization of general flow relationships between bedrock, alluvial fan, and alluvial valley-fill aquifers. 4. Modeling of the geochemical evolution of ground water along several flow paths.

Because of the limited amount of past hydrologic research performed in the Spring

Mountains, this research will increase the understanding of the hydrogeology of the mountain range and help determine the contribution of recharging waters to the associated valleys.

Approach

The approach to accomplish the proposed objectives was to compile a data base of existing data, expand the data base by collecting ground-water samples for chemical and isotopic analysis, collect precipitation samples for isotopic analysis, monitor discharge of three springs at different elevations, and finally, interpret the data using hydrologic and geochemical techniques. Analytical and computer models were also used to help interpret geochemical data.

A comprehensive literature review of previous geologic and hydrologic publications was conducted to compile a data base of existing chemical and isotopic analyses. The computerized data base consisted of geographic, geologic, hydrologic, geochemical and isotopic information of ground water from wells and springs in the mountain block, alluvial apron, and associated valleys. Chemical analyses with greater than 10 percent error in EPM balance of cations and anions were not retained.

Following a geographic evaluation of the available data, a ground-water sampling program was designed to supplement the existing data base. Water samples from springs and wells were collected for gross chemical analysis and trace 3

element analysis of iron, lithium, and strontium. Field- measurements of pH, temperature, bicarbonate concentration, and electrical conductivity were conducted. Water samples were also collected for isotopic analysis of deuterium, tritium, oxygen-18, carbon-13, and where possible carbon-14.

Precipitation sampling for isotopic analysis was conducted to determine input signals of recharging waters. Isotopic analyses of deuterium and oxygen-18 have been used successfully as tracers in hydrologic systems (Fontes and Zuppi, 1976;

Fritz et al., 1976). Continuous year round sampling of snow and rain was conducted to determine the proportions of each in ground water and to identify source areas of ground-water recharge.

Three springs at different elevations were selected for time-series analysis of various hydrologic parameters. The springs were selected on the basis of location, elevation, and representation of different flow systems (local, intermediate, and regional). Continuous monitoring of discharge, water temperature, electrical conductivity, air temperature, and precipitation at each spring was conducted to determine the relationship between each parameter and each spring.

Because of the large volume of data generated by the study, many computer techniques were used to interpret the data. Computer generated graphics, contouring programs, statistical packages, and chemical computer models

(BALANCE, WATEQDR, PHREEQE) were applied. Proposed flow paths were chemically and isotopically modeled to check their validity.

Previous Work

Previous hydrologic investigations have primarily been concerned with regional overviews of southern Nevada, hydrologic influences in relation to the

Nevada Test Site, and site specific water supply problems. Authors such as Naff 4

et al. (1974), Winograd and Friedman (1972), Rush (1971), and Mifflin (1968) have used various hydrologic and chemical data of ground water from the Spring

Mountains along with data from other areas to delineate regional ground-water systems in southern Nevada. Lyles et al. (1987) examined the chemistry of ground waters in southern Nevada. Most of the water to the north and west of Las

Vegas is of good quality and Ca - Mg - HC03 in nature. Water to the south and east is of lower quality and Na - K - S04 in nature. In Winograd and Thordarson

(1975), chemical data from springs in the Spring Mountains were used to describe the chemical nature of water in the "lower carbonate aquifer" on the Nevada Test

Site. Comprehensive hydrologic investigations of the Las Vegas Valley were produced by Harrill (1976), Malmberg (1965), and Maxey and Jameson (1948).

These reports used precipitation data to calculate volumes of water recharging Las

Vegas Valley from the Spring Mountains.

Noack (1988) delineated two water masses of separate origin in the principal aquifers of the Las Vegas Valley. An isotopically heavier water mass

(5 180 = — 12.3°/oo, 5 D = —88°/oo) with a Ca - Mg - S04 chemistry is located in the western portion of the valley. The isotopes are indicative of precipitation and recharge under warmer conditions and lower elevations. An isotopically lighter water mass (5 180 = — 14.0°/oo, <$D = — 100°/oo) with a Ca - Mg - H C 03 chemistry exists in the northern portion of the Las Vegas Valley. The isotopically lighter water indicates recharge of precipitation from higher elevations and/or colder climates. Mixing of these water masses occurs in the vicinity of the Las

Vegas Valley well field due to induced gradients caused by extensive ground-water withdrawal.

Lyles and Hess (1988) constructed geochemical traverses parallel and perpendicular to the Las Vegas shear zone in the northern portion of the Las 5

Yegas Valley. Geochemical modeling suggested incongruent dissolution of

dolomite accompanied by gypsum dissolution occurs along flow path from the

Spring Mountains down the Kyle Canyon alluvial fan. An abrupt change in

carbon-14 ages from 2,500 years old to 12,500 years old at the toe of the Kyle

Canyon alluvial fan suggested mixing of younger Spring Mountain waters with

older regional carbonate waters in the Las Vegas shear zone. Geochemical

computer modeling suggested a mixture of 90 percent regional water and 10

percent mountain recharge water in the Las Vegas shear zone.

Harrill (1986) investigated the effects of ground-water withdrawal in the

Pahrump Valley. Harrill concluded the ground-water system in the Pahrump

Valley consists of a valley-fill reservoir and an underlying consolidated carbonate

rock reservoir that extends beyond the Pahrump Valley. Subsurface ground-water

flow in the consolidated carbonate rock aquifer discharges to the southwest out of

the Pahrump Valley into the Amargosa River flood plain between the towns of

Shoshone and Tecopa, California. Recharge to the Pahrump Valley from the

Spring Mountains ranges from 46 X 107 to 32 X 107 m3/yr. Discharge of

22 X 107 m3/y r leaves the valley as subsurface flow.

Several studies that specifically addressed the Spring Mountains included

Hughes’ (1966) chemical and hydrologic evaluation of springs which was used to

understand the mountain hydrology and its relation to the Pahrump Valley.

Other studies included Plume (1985) and Westphal et al. (1975) who evaluated the

ground-water resources of Kyle and Lee Canyons, and the Red Rock Recreational

Area, respectively. 6

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

Geography

The study area consists of the Spring Mountains, Las Vegas Valley, Pahrump

Valley, and the Indian Springs Valley of Clark and Nye Counties, in southern

Nevada, and covers approximately 1700 km2 (Figure 1). The area lies between

115° 05’ and 116° 10’ west longitude and 35° 45’ and 36° 35’ north latitude. The

Spring Mountains and associated valleys are found within the Basin and Range physiographic province and have an elevation differential greater than 3000 m between Las Vegas Valley and Mt. Charleston (elevation 3632.6 m). The study area can be divided into three local physiographic structures consisting of the mountain, the alluvial apron, and the basin lowlands.

The Spring Mountains (Figure 2) are a northwest trending, elongate, structural high with a maximum width of approximately 40 km, and a length of approximately 70 km. The general topography of the mountain range is characterized by peaks and ridges with steep slopes and overall rugged terrain. A large portion of the mountain range consists of a central ridge which has over 30 km2 above 3000 m elevation. Large canyons cut high into the mountain block, perpendicular to its northwest trend, and open onto the flanking alluvial apron.

Alluvial fans, originating from the mountain canyons, coalesce to form the alluvial apron. The boundary between the mountain block and the alluvial apron is marked by an abrupt change in slope. The alluvial apron dips away from the mountain block at angles of 12° to 18° (Maxey and Jameson, 1948). Further away from the mountain block the alluvial apron slopes between 4 ° to 60 and 7

NEVADA

Study Area CALIFORNIA Las Vegas

Los Angeles

200 400 Kilometers

Figure 1. Location of Spring Mountain study area in southern Nevada. 8

116° 10’ 115° 10’ 36 ° 45 ’

MERCUR L—j. /N

•INDIAN SPRINGS

c 95

1200 ' o -1501

LAS VEGAS PAHRUMP

115

100.0

r/xJEAN \ 35 ° 45 ’ 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 300 Meters

Figure 2. Topographic map of Spring Mountains and associated valleys in southern Nevada. 9

has broad surfaces with less topographic relief. The alluvial fans and apron are

composed of eroded material from the mountain block which is deposited on the

mountain flanks and valleys. Remnants of older alluvial deposits are found at

elevations as high as 2900 m.

The boundary between the alluvial apron and the valley sediments is not well

defined as changes in slope are gradual and changes in alluvial material size are

highly variable. The valleys are structural and topographic basins usually

bounded by mountains. The valley surfaces are generally level with surface

elevations of 550, 790, and 970 m for Las Vegas, Pahrump, and Indian Springs

Valleys, respectively. Pahrump Valley and Indian Springs Valley have internal

drainage while Las Vegas Valley drains southeasterly to the Colorado River via

the Las Vegas Wash.

Climate

Southern Nevada is arid and exhibits the typical characteristics of a strongly

continental climate; large daily temperature ranges, infrequent precipitation, and

strong prevailing winds (Houghton et al., 1975). Locally, there are large

variations in relief between the valleys and Mt. Charleston which results in a

great climatic diversity ranging from lowland deserts to alpine tundra.

Circulation of air masses has a seasonal pattern which determines the timing and

amount of precipitation that falls in the area.

The relief of the area has a profound effect on the climate. The valleys surrounding the Spring Mountains have hot, dry desert climates. Precipitation increases with elevation while temperatures decrease with elevation. The upper portion of the mountains have a subhumid continental climate with cold winters and moderate amounts of precipitation. Las Vegas (659 m) has a mean annual 10

temperature of 19.7 ° C. while at the Kyle Canyon Ranger Station (2184 m) the

mean annual temperature is approximately 10.4 ° C. Table 1 lists data for 8

precipitation stations within the study area (French, 1983).

TABLE 1. ANNUAL AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OF STATIONS LOCATED IN SPRING MOUNTAINS STUDY AREA (after French, 1983).

Site Name Lat. Long. Elev. Record Precip. Standard Deviation (dm) (dm) (meters) (years) (cm/yr) (cm/yr)

Lee Canyon 36 18 115 41 2804 8 55.75 21.72 Kyle Canyon 36 16 115 37 2184 4 54.41 19.48 Red Rock Summit 36 08 115 32 1981 8 26.97 10.24 Roberts Ranch 36 10 115 35 1859 8 35.43 13.41 Cold Creek 36 25 115 44 1829 7 21.31 8.56 Indian Springs 36 35 115 40 956 25 11.61 25.36 Pahrump 36 13 116 00 823 17 12.50 7.01 L. V. Airport 36 05 115 10 659 49 10.11 4.52

Variations in the types of air masses that pass over the Spring Mountains

have a definite seasonal pattern (Figure 3). In the winter months, air masses from

the Pacific ocean are driven eastward by the prevailing westerly winds and are

depleted of moisture by the Sierra Nevada. Most air masses during the summer

months originate from the south and southeast. As a result of these

topographical and meteorological features, southern Nevada (south of latitude

38.5 °) can be divided into three zones of precipitation based on annual average

precipitation (French, 1983). The Spring Mountains lie within the precipitation

excess zone and receive precipitation during both the winter and summer. Winter storms in the Spring Mountains study area bring snow to the higher elevations

that accumulates through the winter, and also bring rain to the valleys. Summer

weather is clear and dry with summer precipitation coming in the form of

convective storms which may be of high intensity and short duration. 11

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Vegetation

Much of the following discussion is derived from Bradley and Deacon (1967).

The type of vegetation present in the Spring Mountains study area is dependent on elevation, and can be grouped into vegetation zones. These zones form a basis

for naming and recognizing natural biotic communities within the study area

(Table 2).

TABLE 2. BIOTIC COMMUNITIES OF THE SPRING MOUNTAINS STUDY AREA, SOUTHERN NEVADA.

Zonal Community Types

Vegetation Type Community Elevation (meters)

Desert shrub Creosote bush 600 - 1200

Blackbrush 1200 - 1800

Woodland Juniper-pinyon 1800 - 2200

Coniferous forest Fir-pine 2200 - 2700

Bristlecone 2700 - 3500

Alpine tundra Pseudo-alpine >3500

The creosote bush community which exists between 600 and 1200 m is dominated by creosote bush ( Larrea divaricata), burro bush ( Franseria dumosa), and yuccas such as the mojave yucca ( Yucca schidigera ). Prickley pears, chollas

(Opuntia sp.), and barrel cactus (Ferocactus acanthodes ) are also common. Large exposures of barren ground and desert pavement are found within the creosote bush community as the plants are widely spaced.

The blackbrush community found between elevations of 1200 and 1800 m is predominantly closely-spaced blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima ) and joshua tree 13

( Yucca brevifolia). The blackbrush community is also composed of banana yucca

(Yucca baccata), shrubs, and grasses.

The juniper-pinyon community is found between elevations of 1800 and 2200

m. The vegetation consists of a coniferous woodland of juniper ( Juniperus

osteosperma) and pinyon pine ( Pinus monophylla). The understory is dominated

by sagebrush ( Artemesia tridentata ) and other assorted shrubs and small trees.

The fir-pine community exists between 2200 and 2700 m and is

predominantly white fir ( Abies concolor) and yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa).

Quaking aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) along with an understory of sagebrush, shrubs, and grasses are also found.

The bristlecone pine community extends from 2700 m to timberline which is

at about 3500 m. Limber pine ( Pinus flexilus) is abundant at lower elevations in

association with white fir and bristlecone pine ( Pinus aristata). At higher

elevations the bristlecone pine is more abundant and above 3000 m the bristlecone

pine is found almost exclusively. Shrubs are almost absent and grasses are much

less abundant than in the fir-pine community.

Finally above timberline a pseudo-alpine community exists. The vegetation

consists of a small number of shrubs and herbs. This community is very localized

and covers approximately 4 km2.

Geology

The geology of the Spring Mountains study area consists exclusively of sedimentary rocks, ranging from Precambrian to Quaternary in age.

Stratigraphically, the late Precambrian and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks of southern Nevada exhibit a transition from a cratonal sequence to a miogeoclinal sequence from east to west. Structurally, the area has experienced two episodes of 14

tectonism, the Mesozoic Sevier orogeny which produced large thrust faults and the

Tertiary extensional orogeny which produced the present day topography of the

Basin and Range province. Cenozoic geomorphic processes have produced alluvial fans and alluvial fill in basins.

The stratigraphic section exposed in the Spring Mountains is part of a miogeoclinal sequence that increases in thickness from east to west (detailed descriptions of the lithologic units may be found in Longwell et ai, 1965).

Frenchman Mountain, on the east side of the Las Vegas Valley, is the western most cratonal section in the Basin and Range province (Rowland, 1987) and marks the western edge of the craton and the eastern margin of the miogeocline.

The entire section of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks lying on Precambrian basement rocks is exposed at Frenchman Mountain with the

Precambrian and Paleozoic sedimentary section having 2660 m of thickness. The section increases to approximately 9000 m in the western portion of the Spring

Mountains by thickening of formations and exposure of other formations at unconformities not present at Frenchman Mountain (Figure 4).

The oldest rocks exposed in the Spring Mountains are found in the northwest portion and consist of a non-marine and/or shallow-marine terrigenous sequence ranging in age from late Precambrian to early Cambrian. The sequence consists of predominantly quartzite with interbedded shale, siltstone, sandstone, and minor limestone and dolomite beds. This sequence becomes more calcareous in the

Carrara Formation and grades upward into a thick sequence of shallow-water carbonate rocks that range from middle Cambrian to early Permian in age. The carbonate formations in this sequence consist of a monotonous section of limestone and dolomite with minor beds of quartzite, shale, and chert suggesting deposition in shallow marine or marginal marine environments. 15

M ETERS 9000

North West Spring Mountains

Bird Spring F orm ation Callville Monte Cristo Limestone Form ation yniestone «ogers§pHng Limestone 6 S ultan Muddy Pea Sultan Limestone Limestone Limestone

6000 086947^137

Frenchm an Mountain

for^0 C entral Spring Mountains 3000 Canyotl

QuarWi^e

jotvnme formQUon

Ba m Not Expoaed

Figure 4. Stratigraphic section from Frenchman Mountain to northwest Spring Mountains, southern Nevada (after Burchfiel et al, 1974). 16

The central portion of the Spring Mountains is made up of this large

Paleozoic carbonate sequence which increases in thickness by two different

processes. Several formations show large increases in thickness due to increased

deposition which occurred in the heart of the miogeocline. For example, the Bird

Springs Formation increases in thickness by approximately 1500 m from

Frenchman Mountain (Callville Limestone) to Mt. Charleston (Burchfiel et al.,

1974). The sequence also thickens by the presence of other formations found at

unconformities not exposed at Frenchman Mountain. Approximately 1400 m of thickening occurs by the presence of these formations. For example, the unconformity within Ordovician strata at Frenchman Mountain is filled by the

Ninemile Formation, Antelope Valley Limestone, and the Eureka Quartzite in the central portion of the Spring Mountains.

Overlying the Paleozoic carbonate section is a stratigraphic section of mostly terrigenous rocks ranging in age from early Permian to at least early Jurassic. In the east portion of the Spring Mountains, lower Permian red beds conformably overlie the Bird Springs Formation which grade upward into marine limestone and evaporite beds. Mesozoic clastic rocks lie unconformably above these beds and grade upward from red beds to the conspicuous cliffs of the Jurassic Aztec

Sandstone. The top of the Aztec Sandstone is cut by channels filled with red sandstone and conglomerates that are the youngest rocks found in the Spring

Mountains.

Structurally, the Spring Mountains study area has experienced two major episodes of tectonism, one compressional, the other extensional. The first major episode of tectonism occurred in the Mesozoic during the Sevier orogeny which was compressional in nature and moved sedimentary rocks from west to east. The compression has produced three major thrust faults and several minor thrust 17

faults in the Spring Mountains. From Las Vegas to the northwest the major thrust faults are the Keystone thrust which places Cambrian Bonanza King over

Jurassic Aztec Sandstone, the Lee Canyon thrust which cuts across Paleozoic units from Cambrian through Pennsylvanian, and the Wheeler Pass thrust which places late Precambrian and early Paleozoic rocks over Pennsylvanian Bird Springs

(Figure 5). These faults exhibit decollement behavior at depth (Wernicke et al.,

1984) and are traceable regionally in the case of the Keystone and Wheeler Pass thrusts. Thrusting in the Spring Mountains produced a minimum shortening between 37 to 75 km (Burchfiel et al., 1974).

The second episode of tectonism in the study area was extensional in nature and occurred during the Tertiary producing the present Basin and Range topography. Regional reconstruction of the extension by Wernicke et al., (1988) has placed the Spring Mountains in a zone of relatively minor extension. The

Spring Mountains have moved as a coherent block from east to west away from

Frenchman Mountain, opening the Las Vegas Valley. Right lateral movement along the Las Vegas shear zone relative to the Sheep Range and the Las Vegas

Range has also occurred as the Las Vegas shear zone marks the boundary between two regions of differential extension (Wernicke et al., 1984). The Wheeler Pass thrust can be correlated with the Gass Peak thrust across the Las Vegas shear zone exhibiting approximately 65 km of right-lateral movement (Figure 5).

Throughout the period of extension, sediments have been weathered from the surrounding mountain ranges and transported to the valleys. Tertiary through

Quaternary-age alluvial fan deposits surround the Spring Mountains and grade into valley-fill deposits. Alluvial fan deposits shed off the Spring Mountains into

Pahrump Valley, Indian Springs Valley, and the northern Las Vegas Valley are highly cemented by calcium carbonate and are composed predominantly of Indian Springs hd ? □■ED (1 ( D E ■ □ □ S r . . £ a. a. a cr . o a £ a " o " 2. w S £ 3 S — w ® * 2 3 .2 J .H o 2 >* I I I ! on a 1 £ h O«

Figure 5. Generalized geologic map of the Spring Mountains study area, south­ ern Nevada {after Longwell et al., 1965). 18 19

limestone and dolomite clasts. Fan deposits in the western portion of the Las

Vegas Valley and southern portion of the Pahrump Valley are composed of carbonate clasts and clasts derived from Mesozoic terrigenous rocks. Extensive deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay are found in the valleys. The material is unconsolidated and may extend to great depths at the axes of the valleys.

Hydrogeology

The Spring Mountains study area lies in the southern portion of a large carbonate rock terrain (Figure 6). Parts of this carbonate terrain have been found to conduct ground water between basins forming an aquifer system of regional extent (Hess and Mifflin, 1978; Mifflin, 1968; Eakin, 1966). The Spring Mountains are the third highest mountain range in Nevada and contribute significant amounts of recharge to the regional ground-water system. Locally, the study area can be divided into three types of aquifers, the mountain-bedrock aquifer, the alluvial apron aquifer, and the valley-fill aquifers.

A definition of a regional ground-water flow system in Nevada as defined by

Hess and Mifflin (1978) is "a region within saturated earth materials where there is dynamic movement of ground water from a recharge area to a discharge area which encompasses one or more topographic basins". Many authors including

Eakin (1966), Mifflin (1968), and Naff et al. (1974), have delineated flow systems that contain more than one topographic basin in the regional carbonate terrain.

Various forms of evidence including Nevada Test Site wells drilled in carbonate rocks, wildcat oil wells, large springs associated with carbonate rocks, and unbalanced-basin water budgets have been used to establish the existence of interbasin flow in eastern Nevada. The Spring Mountains and associated valleys are part of the Death Valley flow system and/or the Colorado River flow system. 20

• Reno

Las Vegas ^ 80% of measured section > 50% carbonate rock

Figure 6. Carbonate rock terrain in Nevada where 80 percent of measured sections are greater than 50 percent carbonate rock (after Mifflin, 1968). 21

The Spring Mountains contribute large amounts of recharge to Las Vegas,

Pahrump, and Indian Springs Valleys. Estimates of recharge derived from precipitation in the Spring Mountains are 3.7X107 m3/yr (Harrill, 1976), 4.55X107 m3/y r (Harrill, 1986), and 1.23X107 m3/y r (Rush, 1971) for the Las Vegas,

Pahrump, and Indian Springs Valleys, respectively. Recharge estimates are derived from water budget calculations, an empirical formula developed by Eakin et al. (1951), and computer modeling.

The mountain-bedrock aquifer consists of predominantly Paleozoic carbonate rocks which outcrop in the montane portion of the study area and lie beneath the alluvial apron aquifer and the valley-fill aquifers. The rocks are well consolidated with very low primary porosities. Secondary porosity is quite high due to the highly fractured and faulted nature of the bedrock induced by tectonic activity.

Plume (1985) conducted aquifer tests in the Spring Mountains and found transmissivities to range from 0.4 to 18.6 (m2/d) for the Nopah Formation in the

Lee Canyon area. A transmissivity value of 15.8 m2/d for the Monte Cristo

Formation in the Kyle Canyon area was also reported (Plume, 1985).

Transmissivity values reported by Winograd and Thordarson (1975) for the lower carbonate aquifer (Carrara Formation through Devils Gate Limestone) at the

Nevada Test Site are the only other bedrock-aquifer transmissivities available for the area and have a wide range from 12.4 to 11,180 m2/d . Plume (1985) also reported large fluctuations in water levels in bedrock and alluvial wells in Kyle and Lee Canyons during the spring in response to snowmelt.

Surrounding the mountain block and overlying the bedrock aquifer are the alluvial apron aquifers. The alluvial apron aquifers originate high in the mountain range as alluvial fans and slope down to and prograde into the valley- fill aquifers. In the higher elevations, the alluvial apron aquifers are composed of 22

poorly sorted, heterogeneous mixtures of coarse material eroded from the

mountain block. In these areas, the alluvial apron aquifers readily acquire

recharge from snowmelt, flash floods, and upward flow from the bedrock aquifer

(Plume, 1985). Specific yields for wells located in the alluvium of Kyle Canyon

range from 8 to 16 percent (Plume, 1985). W ater levels at the mouth of Kyle

Canyon and Lee Canyon are approximately 45 m below the surface (Lyles, 1987).

Moving down elevation to the valleys the alluvial aquifer material becomes well

sorted and finer grained. Thick beds of caliche are found in the shallow layers of

the alluvial apron, making the alluvium relatively impermeable to surface

recharge. Midway down the Kyle Canyon fan, water levels in wells are from 120

to 150 m below the surface (Lyles, 1987). At the base of the alluvial apron, the

aquifer materials are fine-grained sand, silt, and clay. Water levels at the base of

the alluvial apron in the Kyle Canyon areas is approximately 200 m below the

surface.

The valley-fill aquifers are composed of fine-grained sand, silt and clay which may be interbedded with fine-grained playa deposits and Pleistocene lake bed

deposits. These unconsolidated sediments overlie the Pliocene(?) Muddy Creek

Formation which is a light colored fine-grained sand, silt, and clay (Malmberg,

1965). This combination of sediments form the principal ground-water reservoirs

in the Las Vegas, Pahrump and Indian Springs Valleys. Valley fill composed of

alluvium and Muddy Creek Formation is up to 1000 m in depth in Las Vegas

Valley (Harrill, 1976). Most ground water is pumped from the 200 to 400 m

depth in the Las Vegas Valley. Transmissivities for the valley-fill aquifers in Las

Vegas Valley range from 12 to 3,700 m2/d (Harrill, 1976). W ater levels in the

principal aquifers of the Las Vegas Valley have been declining as more ground­ water is pumped to accommodate increased population growth. W ater levels in 23

the northern Las Vegas Valley (in the vicinity of the Las Vegas shear zone) are from 30 to 75 m in depth (Lyles, 1987). In the Pahrum p Valley, wells do not penetrate the entire thickness of valley fill. Saturated thicknesses of the valley-fill aquifer estimated by geophysical techniques range from 60 to 1200 m in depth and transmissivities range from less than 90 to 370 m2/d (Harrill, 1986). The hydrogeology of the Indian Springs Valley is similar to Las Vegas Valley and

Pahrum p Valley. W ater levels are less than 30 m from the surface. 24

HYDROGEOCHEMCIAL THEORY

Geochemistry

Chemical analyses of ground water can be used to follow its evolution with time and distance along flow path. Chebotarev (1955) examined more than

10,000 chemical analyses of well samples from Australia and concluded ground water evolved chemically from relatively pure atmospheric precipitation to the

composition of seawater. He determined that the geographic distribution of waters classified by the dominant anion was a function of the direction and distance of flow. The changes in dominant anion species along ground-water flow path follow the general trend:

Recharge area —► Discharge area

h c o 3- -*• h c o 3~ + so |- -► s o 42~ + HC03“ -+

so|- + cr -► cr + so42- -► cr

The changes occur as water enters the soil zone, flows through the soil zone to the water table, and then flows down gradient to discharge areas. This idea coupled with other research has lead to the use of major ion chemistry of water as a tool for flow delineation.

The lithology of the material which ground water flows through determines the ionic species available for chemical reactions. The chemical characteristics of ground water are also influenced by various chemical processes that occur as water encounters different geologic units. Changes in the chemical character of water 25

are caused by dissolution, precipitation, oxidation, reduction, and ion-exchange.

Most ground water originates as precipitation, which has very small amounts of ionic species in solution. As the water encounters the land surface and percolates through the soil or runs off the surface, it dissolves minerals in the soil.

The percolating water also dissolves carbon-dioxide from the soil air where C02 concentrations may be several times greater than the atmosphere because of large amounts of plant and organic activity. As C02 is dissolved, the pH of the water is lowered, and thus the water will dissolve more minerals, and ionic concentrations will increase.

The major ions that go into solution depend on the rocks encountered.

Limestone, dolomite, and other calcareous rocks will contribute calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate ions. Silicate rocks will contribute calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium ions and silicon reported as Si02. Evaporites will contribute calcium, sodium, potassium, sulfate and chloride ions. A large variety of trace elements may also enter into solution depending on their presence in minerals.

The chemical characteristics of ground water are dependent on several chemical processes. Because of the powerful solvent properties of water, dissolution-precipitation reactions with the aquifer material are important in controlling ground-water chemistry. The dissolution of a mineral in water may be described by an equilibrium reaction. When water is brought in contact with a mineral the ionic concentration in the water increases until the solution is saturated. At equilibrium, the concentration of the solution is equal to the solubility of the mineral for a given temperature and pressure. If conditions change, supersaturation with respect to a given mineral may occur, resulting in 26

precipitation of that mineral.

Dissolution-precipitation reactions involving calcite, dolomite and gypsum control the chemical nature of some ground waters. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the soil react with precipitation to form carbonic acid:

c o 2(g) + H20 —► h 2c o 3.

Carbonic acid dissociates to a hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion:

h 2c o 3 - > h + + h c o 3-

The lowering of the pH by these reactions increase the ability of recharging waters to dissolve carbonate minerals:

CaC03 + H+ Ca2+ + HCOf or

CaMg(C03)2 + 2H+ -► Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 2HC03-

Calcite saturation of ground water in carbonate terrains is reached quickly while the dissolution of dolomite occurs at a much slower rate. Down gradient from recharge areas incongruent dissolution of dolomite and calcite occurs, along with gypsum dissolution:

CaS04 • 2H20 -► Ca2+ + S042" + 2H20.

These reactions raise the Ca2+ concentration in ground water resulting in calcite precipitation by:

Ca2+ + HC03- -► CaC03 + H+. 27

Incongruent dissolution also occurs with most rock-forming silicates which are common in granites and sandstones derived from granites. For example, the dissolution of orthoclase results in the formation of another solid phase (kaolinite) and potassium ions. Aggressive waters (low pH) leach cations and silica from silicate minerals, raising their concentrations in solution.

Oxidation-reduction reactions in ground water are dependent on the dissolved oxygen content of the water and the presence of bacteria and microorganisms.

These reactions may have effect on sulfate, iron, nitrogen and several other species present in the water.

Ion exchange may have pronounced effect on ground-water chemistry.

Aquifer clays may be rich in sodium due to deposition in marine environments.

When entering a sodium-rich aquifer, ground waters dominated by calcium and magnesium will lose calcium to the aquifer clays and gain sodium via cation exchange. The removal of calcium by this process will continue until the exchange capacity of the aquifer is exhausted.

Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 and Deuterium/Hydrogen

Isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen have been used as tracers in previous hydrologic studies (Fontes and Zuppi, 1976; Dincer and Payne, 1971; Arnason and

Sigurgeirsson, 1967). The stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen used in this study and their relative abundances in the hydrosphere are listed in Table 3.

Molecules of waters are made up of various combinations of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes and their physical behavior is dependent upon the resulting molecular weights. During phase changes, the heavier molecules have a tendency to occupy the lower energy state while lighter molecules occupy the higher energy state.

This fractionation due to mass differences is the basis for the use of stable isotope 28

TABLE 3. WORLDWIDE ABUNDANCES OF SELECTED ISOTOPES (after Fritz and Fontes, 1980).

Element Isotope Percent

Hydrogen *H 99.98

Hydrogen (Deuterium) 2H(D) 0.015

Oxygen 16 0 99.67

Oxygen 18 o 0.20

ratios as fingerprints of different water sources. The concentrations of the

different isotopes are measured and reported as the ratio of heavy isotopes to light

isotopes as compared to a standard. The resulting delta ( 8 ) values are defined

by:

(18o / 16o)sample 6 180 = - 1 X 1000 (18o / 16o)standard

(2H / fcUpta 5D = - 1 X 1000. (2H /

The standard, V-SMOW (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water), was used to

report 6 values of oxygen-18 and deuterium.

Fritz and Fontes (1980) describe several processes which cause fractionation of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes and result in variations of 8 values. Of particular interest is the temperature effect which in part governs the isotopic signature of precipitation. The colder the temperature of formation of the condensed phase of a given air mass, the more depleted in D (2H) and 180 the condensed phase becomes. Precipitation formed at higher elevations and 29

precipitation formed during the winter months, generally, have lighter isotopic

signatures than precipitation formed at lower elevations and during warmer times

of the year.

Craig (1961) determined 6 values of oxygen-18 and deuterium for

precipitation, surface waters, and ground waters and found the data to form a

straight line when plotted with 6 180 on the abscissa and 6 D on the ordinate

axes. This line, termed the Meteoric Water Line, is defined by:

SD = 8 6 lsO + 10°/oo

and is used as a reference when examining 6 values of a hydrologic study.

Two assumptions are made when using isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in

hydrologic studies. First, the isotopes are assumed to be conservative tracers since

they are part of the water molecule. Secondly, the isotopic content of a volume of water after recharge is assumed to be constant during residence in the aquifer.

Thus, the isotopic signature of ground waters reflect the elevation and temperature of precipitation (recharging waters) at the time of recharge.

Carbon-14

Unlike the isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen, isotopes of carbon are not considered to be conservative in ground water. Carbon isotopes do vary in amount depending on different sources and sinks. This allows their use as flow- path indicators or identifiers of those sources and sinks. Table 4 lists the worldwide abundances of carbon isotopes including radioactive carbon-14 which is used to determine the average age of ground water. 30

TABLE 4. WORLDWIDE ABUNDANCES OF CARBON ISOTOPES (after Fritz and Fontes, 1980).

Element Isotope Percent Half-life

Carbon 12C 98.89 Carbon 13C 1.11 Carbon 14c «10-10 5730yrs.

Carbon-14 is produced when cosmic ray neutrons bombard nitrogen in the atmosphere by the nuclear reaction:

14N + n —*> 14C + p and the 14C produced combines with oxygen to form 14C02. The 14C02 behaves similar to other varieties of C02 and gradually enters the hydosphere by chemical reactions. Radioactive decay of carbon-14 is described by:

14C -► 14N + p~ where the activity of carbon-14 is measured by detection of beta particles.

Deviations of measured activities from a sample are compared to a standard by:

-Sample -^standard 8 14C = X 10J •^standard where Agtandard is 0.949 times the specific activity of NBS oxalic acid. Measured activities of a sample are reported as percent modern carbon (pmc) where:

8l4C pmc = + 100. 10 31

Carbon-14 follows the law of radioactive decay:

-^sample -^standard e where

In 2 X = ^1/2 and tj /2 = 5730 (±40) years.

The apparent age of ground water is then determined by:

-^sample T = -8720 In -^standard where the reference year is 1950 A.D. Due to above ground nuclear testing, which began in the early 1950’s, the 14C content in the atmosphere has increased to 200 percent of normal background levels (Mook, 1980). This results in waters of very recent recharge having greater than 100 percent modern carbon. Obtaining absolute age dates of water poses many problems. A thorough understanding of the chemical reactions and the carbon sources and sinks along a proposed flow path must be known. In the open system, the amount of 14C in water is constant with respect to the C02 reservoir because of equilibrium reactions. As water moves along a flow path, it may change from an open system to a closed system where 14C is no longer replaced. From this point, radioactive decay decreases the amount of 14C present in the water and an apparent age can be determined.

Dissolution of marine limestone which has little or no 14C can occur, "dilutes" the measured amount of 14C with stable 13C and 12C, resulting in age dates that are 32

too old. Many authors have attempted to correct 14C ages for sources of dead (no

14C present) carbon by several methods including a chemical approach (Geyh and

Wendt, 1965), an isotopic approach (Pearson, 1965), and a chemical/isotopic

approach ( Mook, 1976, Deines et al., 1974). Due to the different kinds of aquifers

in the study area (alluvial, bedrock) and because of mixing and interbasin flow in

the valley aquifers, no attempt will be made to determine absolute 14C ages or use

13C corrections. Carbon-14 analyses will be expressed as percent modern carbon

and will be used as relative ages primarily to determine different flow paths and

mixing zones.

Carbon-13 / Carbon-12

Fractionation occurs between the naturally occurring isotopes of carbon as chemical reactions and physical processes take place. The ratio of the abundance of 13C to 12C can be used to identify different sources of carbon and delineate ground-water flow paths.

Chemical compounds undergo equilibrium isotopic fractionation during chemical reactions and physical processes while kinetic fractionation occurs during irreversible chemical reactions such as photosynthesis (Craig, 1953). Equilibrium isotopic fractionation occurs during a chemical reaction due to differences in vibrational frequencies of various atoms. A diatomic molecule with a heavy isotope will have a higher bond energy than a molecule with a lighter isotope.

The bonds formed by a light isotope are more readily broken than bonds involving a heavier isotope. Thus, during a chemical reaction, molecules bearing a light isotope will react more readily than those with a heavier isotope (Hoefs,

1973). 33

Kinetic fractionation also occurs due to differences in bond strength of isotopic molecules described above. However, in this case fractionation occurs during irreversible chemical processes. For example, plants with different metabolic pathways discriminate against heavy isotopes of carbon while using atmospheric C02. Physical processes such as phase changes (evaporation, condensation) also cause equilibrium isotopic fractionation. As a compound changes from one phase to another the molecules with heavier isotopes are included in the denser phase. The isotopic fractionation factor, a, between two phases A and B is defined as:

_ [ ( 13C/12C)ph„.A (13C /12C)phaMB '

The reference standard for carbon-13 is C02 gas obtained by reacting belemnites of the Peedee Formation, South Carolina (PDB) with 100 percent phosphoric acid.

Different reservoirs of carbon have different 8 13C values due to fractionation which occurs as various compounds are formed. Because of these differences, sources of carbon in ground water can be identified and used to delineate possible ground-water flow paths. A simplified conceptual model starts with precipitation forming in the atmosphere and dissolving atmospheric C02. The precipitation then enters the soil zone and reacts with soil C 02 (derived from plant respiration and decay of organic matter) and with various soil carbonates. The soil water eventually reaches the water table mixing with the existing water and flowing down gradient. As the ground water flows through the aquifer, it reacts with the geologic material of the aquifer. Each step in this model may contribute a unique

8 13C signature to the ground water which results in a traceable flow path. 34

Before this method of investigation can be applied, the 8 13C values of carbon sources have to be identified. Many authors have addressed this problem and their results will be used as a guide to interpert the 8 13C values of ground water in the Spring Mountains.

The atmosphere contains carbon dioxide at a partial pressure of about 10-3 5 atmospheres and a 8 13C value of approximately -7°/oo which is lower over the continents than the oceans due to plant respiration and the burning of fossil fuels

(Kneeling, 1961). The partial pressure of C02 in the soil is usually much higher than the atmosphere as the result of plant respiration and decomposition of organic matter. The amount of carbon dioxide produced and the isotopic signature of soil C02 is controlled by the amount and type of plants present.

Terrestrial plants fractionate carbon isotopes in atmospheric C02 by preferential intake of 12C02 and by photosynthetic carbon fixation. 8 13C values of plant material are highly correlated with the type of photosynthetic cycle followed.

Carbon fixation in photosynthesis proceeds by three different pathways known as the Calvin-Benson (C3) cycle, the Hatch-Slack (C4) cycle and the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) cycle. Depending on the pathway the carbon isotope composition of the plant material will vary (Smith and Epstein,

1971; Bender, 1971 and Allaway et al., 1974). Most terrestrial plants are C3 plants with 8 13C values ranging from -24°/oo to -34°/oo. Aquatic plants, desert plants and some grasses are C4 plants with values ranging from -9°/oo to -19°/oo.

CAM plants such as desert succulents have values intermediate of C3 and C4 plants.

Park and Epstein (1960) conducted experiments on tomato plants to determine the mechanisms of carbon fractionation by plants. They determined 35

that the major fractionation of carbon isotopes is due to a two step process. The

first step involves the plant absorbing C02 through the leaves and dissolving the

C02 into the plant cytoplasm. This is controlled by kinetic effects. The resulting

8 13C values of the dissolved C 0 2 in the cytoplasm are dependent on the efficiency

of C02 uptake by the plant. For the dissolved C02 in the cytoplasm, Park and

Epstein (1960) obtained a range of values from -9°/oo to -14°/oo. The second step

is a conversion of dissolved C 02 to phosphoglyceric acid. 12C02 is preferentially

fixed into the phosphoglyceric acid and is ultimately converted to carbohydrates.

8 13C values for whole tomato plants ranged from -24°/oo to -26°/oo. Not all of

the dissolved C02 in the cytoplasm is converted to phosphoglyceric acid. A

portion of the unreacted dissolved C02 which is depleted in 13C relative to C 02 in

the atmosphere is eliminated from the plant by respiration.

Variations in soil C02 may develop according to seasonal changes. Rightmire

(1978) found distinct seasonal cycles in the isotopic composition of soil C 0 2.

During the winter, with low PC02, the isotopic composition of the soil C02 was

close to atmosphere (-9.6°/oo). Between May and June with the onset of vegetation growth a rapid decrease to -21.5°/oo with an increase in P co2 was observed. Cerling (1984) calculated diffusional effects in soil using P co2’s m

atmosphere versus observed values from plant respiration. Increased plant

activity increases the amount of C02 produced in the soil, limiting the amount of

atmospheric C02 in the soil. Thus 8 13C values of soil C 0 2 are closer to true

plant values. Less plant activity lowers P co2 *m the soil zone and allows more influence of atmospheric C02 driving 813C values of soil C 0 2 closer to atmospheric values. As a result of these processes, the Pco2 an^ ^ 13C of soil gas at any given time are highly variable and may provide a unique signature for the 36

soil gas reservoir.

Pores in the unsaturated soil zone are filled with soil air. As a result of microbial respiration during the decomposition of organic material and the respiration of plant roots, the partial pressure of soil air is much greater than atmospheric levels. Thus 8 13C values of C02 in the soil reflect the influence of plants. When rain water enters the soil, C02 will dissolve by:

co2 + h2o = H2C03 ( 1) where H2C03 (carbonic acid) can be considered the same as solvated C 02 (Drever,

1982). There is an isotopic fractionation such that:

s‘> g = * 3cK ) +(1 w where is the fractionation factor between C02(g) and C02(iq). H2C03 than dissociates to form HCCXf and H+ by:

H2C03 = H+ + HC03- (3)

With the associated fractionation:

{1!,C(h0o;'m) = 5I3C(o0=(«)) + £2 (4) where e2 is the fractionation factor between C02(aq) and HC03_M. In soils with high PC02, a continuous exchange occurs between the dissolved bicarbonate and the C02. Soil C02, depleted in 13C from plant respiration and organic decay, cause the 8 13C values for the HC03~ to be very negative. HCO^- in soil moisture is also derived from the dissolution of solid CaCOa. From the dissolution of 37

C aC 03:

C aC 03 + H+ = Ca2+ + HCCXf (5) the 8 13C value of the CaC03 will contribute to the 8 13C value of the total HCO^- dissolved in the soil moisture. The fractionation factor between HCOo~, , and a ("0 CaC03(s) is e3 from the isotopic fractionation equation:

{13° h c% ) = 813(3 (H«.-M) + e =>- <6>

Calcium carbonate in soils may come from a variety of sources such as marine limestone, freshwater limestone, aeolian dust or secondary precipitated carbonate.

Craig (1953) analyzed hundreds of carbon samples from various geologic sources to document the variation of 8 13C values in nature.

During the dissolution of CaC03, open and closed systems have to be considered (Garrels and Christ, 1965). In a closed system, water is in contact with the soil atmosphere and dissolves C02. Then as the water charged with aqueous

C 0 2 moves into the saturated zone it is isolated from the soil air. Upon contact with CaC03, the C02 charged water will dissolve CaC03 and produce HCO^".

From the reaction:

C02 + H20 + CaC03 = Ca2+ + 2HC03" (7) equal portions of carbon in the HCO^- will be derived from the CaC03 and the aqueous C 02.

In the open system, water is in continual contact with the soil atmosphere.

The dissolved C02 in the water and the C02 gas in the soil atmosphere are in 38

equilibrium. The water in the unsaturated zone reacts with any CaC03 present and produces HC03“. With sufficient time, an equilibrium between the HCCtf and the C02 gas reservoir will exist.

A study of soil carbonates by Salomons and Mook (1976) assumed a closed system where equilibrium was not maintained between the soil solution and gaseous soil C 0 2. If C aC 03 with a 5 13C value of 0°/oo (marine limestone) is dissolved by soil C 0 2 of -24°/oo (C3 plants) the resulting soil solution will have an isotopic composition of about -12°/oo. Magaritz and Amiel (1980) and

Rabenhorst et al. (1984) assumed open system conditions where equilibrium was maintained between soil solution and soil C02. Here, the 8 13C value for the

HCO^~ is independent of the CaC03 values. The 8 13C values of HCO^- are a direct result of the 8 13C value for the soil C02 and the respective fractionation factors. For a 8 13C value of 0°/oo (marine limestone) reacting with gaseous soil

C 0 2 of -24°/oo (C3 plants), the resulting 8 13C value of the dissolved HCO^- would be -16°/oo.

The 813C value of the soil water just before it recharges the aquifer is determined by the processes above. The recharging waters, which are slightly acidic and undersaturated with respect to carbonate minerals, mix with water in the aquifer and flow down gradient. Carbonate minerals in the aquifer are subject to dissolution and contribute a 8 13C value of 0.0 °/oo ±2.0 °/oo (Craig, 1953). As the water flows through the aquifer, more carbonate minerals are dissolved and the 8 13C signature of the water approaches 0 °/oo. As saturation of carbonate minerals is reached, these minerals may begin to precipitate resulting in another fractionation of the carbon isotopes in ground water.

Carbon isotopes in ground water may fractionate many times as water moves 39

through the hydrologic cycle and different reservoirs of carbon may have unique

8 13C signatures. Because of the behavior of carbon isotopes in ground water and the interaction of ground water with different carbon reservoirs, the 8 13C values of ground water may be used to identify areas of recharge and discharge, and to delineate different carbon reservoirs along a proposed flow path. 40

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Introduction

Various types of hydrologic parameters and water samples for chemical and isotopic analyses were collected at different stages of the hydrologic cycle.

Ground-water samples were collected from wells and springs for water quality and environmental isotope analysis, precipitation samples were collected for isotopic analysis, and hydrologic data from three springs were collected on a continual basis for spring discharge, water temperature, electrical conductivity, air temperature, and amount of precipitation at each spring. Water samples were analyzed for concentrations of chemical constituents and isotopic ratios by standard laboratory methods.

Ground-Water Sampling

Water samples were collected from wells and springs for water quality and environmental isotope analysis from March 3, 1987 to August 7, 1987. Domestic wells were pumped for several minutes until temperature and electrical conductivity measurements stablized. Springs were sampled as close to the orifice as possible to limit the amount of time available for degassing of C02.

Temperature and electrical conductivity were measured with a Presto-Tek Poly-

Pram meter. Laboratory standards of 100 and 500 //mhos/cm were used to calibrate the meter for electrical conductivity before each measurement. A

Corning 103 pH meter was used for field measurements of pH. Laboratory pH buffers of 6.86 and 9.01 @25 0 C were used to calibrate the meter before and after each measurement. If the pH of the buffer was greater than ± 0.05 pH units after 41

measurement of the ground-water pH, the pH meter was recalibrated and the

ground-water measurement was repeated. Field alkalinity titrations were

preformed using a Hach digital titrator along with the Corning pH meter.

Titrations were carried to a pH of 3.5 and then plotted on graph paper to

determine the bicarbonate end point.

Samples for cation analyses were filtered and acidified with a few drops of

concentrated HN03 and stored in 500 ml plastic bottles. Samples for anions were

unfiltered and stored in 250 ml nalgene bottles. Samples were immediately cooled

and then shipped to the Desert Research Institute’s analytical laboratory in Reno,

Nevada within 24 hours of collection. Oxygen-18 and deuterium samples were

collected in 12 ml glass bottles. Samples for environmental isotopes were analyzed

at the Desert Research Institute’s isotope laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada.

Carbon-13 and carbon-14 samples were collected in one liter glass bottles and 50 liter nalgene containers, respectively. Carbon-13 samples were filtered to remove organic carbon only when carbon-14 samples were not collected. Due to the large volume of water needed to perform carbon-14 analysis, it was not feasible to filter the sample. Thus for consistency, corresponding carbon-13 samples were not filtered. Carbon samples were precipitated in the laboratory with SrCl2 and

NaOH within one week of collection. Carbon-14 precipitates were shipped to the

Teledyne laboratory in Westwood, New Jersey for analysis. Tritium sample were collected in 1 liter glass bottles and shipped to the Desert Research Institute’s tritium laboratory in Reno, Nevada.

Snow Collection

Snow samples were collected throughout the mountain range from January

14, 1987 to March 30, 1987. Samples were collected between 1675 m and 2865 m 42

in elevation. A 3.8 cm diameter plastic tube was inserted into snow banks to

collect an integrated sample of existing snow accumulations. Snow samples were

placed in 250 ml nalgene containers and sealed. After melting, the samples were

transferred to 12 ml glass bottles. Samples were analyzed for deuterium and

oxygen-18.

Time Series Data Collection

Three springs located on the northeast side of the Spring Mountains (Figure

7) were monitored for time-series data starting March 1987. Five parameters

including spring discharge, water temperature, electrical conductivity, air

temperature, and amount of precipitation were collected on a continual basis.

Campbell computerized microloggers were used to collect and store data at Deer

Creek Spring #1 (=$22, 2870 m), Cold Creek Spring (#16, 1930 m), and Indian

Spring ( #45, 971 m). Discharge, water temperature, electrical conductivity, and

air temperature measurements were collected every five minutes and averaged over

a one hour period. Hourly averages were recorded and used for statistical

analyses. Spring discharge was measured using a Parshall flume and a pressure

transducer. The pressure transducer measured changes in stage height inside a

stilling well that was hydraulically connected to the fume. Water temperature

and electrical conductivity were measured with a Yellow Springs Instruments

Company’s combination temperature and electrical conductivity probe. Air temperature was measured with a thermistor within 10 m of the spring.

Precipitation was measured in one hundredth of an inch of precipitation with a tipping bucket style precipitation gauge and recorded in fifteen minute intervals.

The precipitation gauges at Deer Creek Spring #1 and Cold Creek Spring were heated during winter with propane heaters. The precipitation gauge at Indian 43

MERCURY /N

INDIAN SPRINGS

Indian Spring

Cold Crook Spring

Deer C reek Spring #1

LAS VEGAS PAHRUMP

JEAN

Z3 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 7. Location of Deer Creek Spring #1, Cold Creek Spring, and Indian Spring, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada. 44

Spring was not heated because of its low elevation and warm temperature records.

Data from Deer Creek Spring #1 and Cold Creek Spring were transferred from the dataloggers on site to the Desert Research Institute’s mainframe computer via cassette recorder on a monthly basis. Data from Indian Spring were transferred to the Desert Research Institute’s mainframe via telephone line on a daily basis.

Water samples for chemical analyses from the springs were collected by a

Manning Technologies’ portable discrete sampler. The 500 ml samples were collected every other day at 12:00 PM. Samples were retrieved from on site on a weekly basis and refrigerated until chosen for analyses. Samplers and dataloggers at Deer Creek Spring and Cold Creek Springs were powered by 12 volt batteries and recharged by solar panels.

Precipitation falling adjacent the springs was collected for isotopic analyses.

Rain samples were collected by a funnel and plastic tube connected to the base of the precipitation gauge. Rain passing through the precipitation gauge flowed through the tube into a plastic container. Samples were collected on a weekly basis. Snow samples were collected with a 3.8 cm diameter plastic tube inserted into the accumulated snow near the springs. Snow samples were collected monthly. Rain and snow samples were analyzed for deuterium and oxygen-18.

Chemical Analyses

Chemical analyses of water samples for major ions were conducted at the

Desert Research Institute’s analytical laboratory in Reno, Nevada. The samples were prepared according to methods found in "Methods for Chemical Analysis of

Water and Wastes", (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental

Monitoring and Support Laboratories, 1979). Appendix VI lists the species analyzed, method of analysis, equipment used, and appropriate references. 45

Isotopic Analyses

Isotopic analyses for oxygen-18, deuterium , and carbon-13 were conducted at the Desert Research Institute’s laboratory in Las Yegas, Nevada. Samples analyzed for deuterium were prepared by the U 02 oxidation method as described by Friedmund (1953), and the resulting hydrogen gas was analyzed in a 3-60-HD

Nuclide (Nier type) mass spectrometer for deuterium/hydrogen ratios. Isotopic 6 values of deuterium and oxygen-18 are reported in per mil (°/°°) difference relative to the standard V-SMOW. Samples analyzed for oxygen-18 were prepared by the guanidine hydrocloride method as described by Dugan et al. (1985), and the resulting carbon dioxide gas was analyzed in a Finnigan-Matt Delta E (Nier type) mass spectrometer for oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratios. Samples analyzed for carbon-

13 were precipitated in the laboratory as strontium carbonate and prepared by the phosphoric acid method as described by McCrea (1950), and the resulting carbon dioxide gas was also analyzed in the Finnigan-Matt mass spectrometer for carbon-13/carbon-12 ratios.

Carbon-14 samples were precipitated as strontium carbonate as described by

Pearson (1970). The precipitate was shipped to Teledyne Isotopes, Westwood,

New Jersey for analysis of carbon-14 activity. C02 gas was produced from the precipitate which was then proportionally counted for /? “ particles with the result expressed as <514C.

Water samples for tritium analyses were conducted at the Desert Research

Institute’s tritium laboratory in Reno, Nevada. The enrichment method described by Johns (1975) was used to prepare the sample for scintillation counting. 46

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Major Ion Geochemistry

Chemical analyses from 116 springs and wells were used for regional interpretations of ground-water quality. Figure 8 shows the location and distribution of ground-water samples used in this discussion. The majority of the samples are springs located within the mountain block which are represented as dot’s, while wells, which are represented as open circles, are mostly located in the valleys and alluvial fans. A generalized potentiometric map of the study area

(Figure 9), generated by a computer contouring program using sample locations and elevations, displays the similarity between equipotential contours and topographic contours. Precipitation recharges the ground water which flows down gradient from the mountain to the associated valleys.

Chemical analyses were run through WATEQDR, a computer model that calculates equilibrium distribution of inorganic aqueous species of elements in natural waters. WATEQDR is a version of WATEQF (Plummer et al. 1976) which was updated by Bohm and Jacobson (1981) for use at the Water Resources

Center of the Desert Research Institute. WATEQDR calculates activity coefficients, ionic strength, activity and solubility products, and gas partial pressures using chemical analyses, field measurements of temperature and pH, and thermodynamic data.

The chemistry of ground waters in the study area is strongly influenced by lithology. A trilinear diagram (Figure 10) of ground water shows a large concentration of analyses lying within the Ca2+ - Mg2+ - H C 03~ facies as defined /K

100

45 ^ ❖ ^ 8 2 <> 73 43 <>N 0 25

24 49 f 36

20 47

63 107 101 78 -»V 40 37 66 \ 5 8

33 ? ' 27 X 33 >92 103 \ ❖ 63 u t " aX 21 ao' 94 ,109 '% Z BS 102 • 76 77 53 96 108 62 10 8! 74 61 30

69

LEGEND ■is Spring «i« Well

46 «

c 3 0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 8. Location of ground-water sampling points in the Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. MERCURY

NDIAN SPRINGS

1201

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring Well

1------1..... I 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 200 meters

Figure 9. Generalized potentiometric map of the Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 40

o

90 CALCIUM CHLORIDE

Figure 10. Trilinear diagram of ground-water chemical analyses of the Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. P = Paleozoic, M = Mesozoic, C = Precambrian. 50

by Back (1966). This is a result of the large amount of Paleozoic carbonate rocks and associated alluvium found within the study area. Ground waters emanating from the Mesozoic clastic and evaporite rocks lie within the Ca2+ - Mg2+ - SO2_ facies. These type waters originate in the higher-elevation carbonate rocks and pick up sodium, potassium, chloride, and sulfate ions as they move through and dissolve minerals in the Mesozoic rocks. Ground waters found in the northern part of the area are influenced by the Precambrian quartzite and shale and exhibit a range of facies from Ca2+ - Mg2+ - HCO^" to Ca2+ - Mg2+ - SO2-. These waters evolve similarly to the waters found in the south, originating in the carbonate rocks and acquiring other ions as they dissolve Precambrian clastic rocks.

The amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) in a water sample can be used as a measure of water quality. Higher TDS waters are found in the northern and southern portions of the study area (Figure 11). These waters, relative to waters in the principal part of the mountain block, are of poorer quality as a result of local variations in lithology. Figures 12 and 13 also show the influences of lithologic changes as ground water flows down gradient. Elevated levels of Na+ ,

K+ and SO2- are found in northern Pahrump Valley and southern Las Vegas

Valley. Water in the central part of Las Vegas Valley is a mixture of carbonate water entering the valley from the north and sulfate type water from the west and south as a result of induced gradients caused by heavy pumping in the Las Vegas well field (Noack, 1988).

The behavior of waters from the carbonate block can be interpreted using

Figures 14 through 19. Samples with anomalously high TDS values (due to localized zones of gypsum bearing rocks) such as Grassy (37) and Diebert Springs

(24) were omitted for clarity. Most partial pressures of C02 (Pco2) m the study area are elevated relative to atmospheric values (10-3 5 atmospheres) except for 51

MERCURY

INDIAN SPRINGS

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring <> Well 600

I I ]1 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 300 m g/l

Figure 11. Computer generated contour map of TDS in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 52

MERCURY 4 \

INDIAN SPRINGS

CO

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring Well 0 JEAN

r i i 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 20 mg/l

Figure 12. Computer generated contour map of Na+ + K+ concentrations in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. MERCURY A

INDIAN SPRINGS

LEGEND

i i — i 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 100 m g/l

Figure 13. Computer generated contour map of S042 concentrations in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 54

MERCURY 4 \

INDIAN SPRINGS

LAS VEGAS,

60 4 0

LEGEND Spring » Well j '<► JEAN

i r —i 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 20 m g/l

Figure 14. Computer generated contour map of Ca2+ concentrations in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 55

MERCURY /N

INDIAN SPRINGS

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring » Well 4 JEAN

I I I 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 10 m g/l

Figure 15. Computer generated contour map of Mg2+ concentrations in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 56

MERCURY A

INDIAN SPRINGS

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring Well ❖ JEAN

I' I I 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 1 00 m g/l

Figure 16. Computer generated contour map of HC03 concentrations in ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 57

MERCURY /K

' INDIAN SPRINGS

•o

• o> A ? )

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring ❖ Well - 2.0 ❖ JEAN

i i ------]1 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 0.5 Atmospheres

Figure 17. Computer generated contour map of log Pco2 °f ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 58

MERCURY

NDIAN SPRINGS

O'

LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring O.o Well o JEAN

i i"...... i 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 0.5

Figure 18. Computer generated contour map of log SI calcite of ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 59

MERCURY

NDIAN SPRINGS

4.0 LAS VEGAS, •o

LEGEND 2 .0 Spring 0 Well <► JEAN

I I I 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 2.0

Figure 19. Computer generated contour map of Ca2+/Mg2+ ratio of ground water, Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 60

the high-elevation springs and wells. The upper portion of the mountain block has classic recharge area chemistry with 40 to 60 mg/l Ca2+, low concentrations of

Mg2+ and HCOjf, low PC0(2’s, large Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios, and logarithm of saturation index (log SI) values with respect to calcite near zero (saturation).

Areas immediately to the northwest and southeast have greater concentrations of

Ca2+, Mg2+, and HC03_, with higher Pco2’s> lower Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios, and calcite at or above saturation. The southern portion of the mountain range has even higher concentrations of Ca2+, and Mg2+ with higher Pco2’s and lower HCO^“ concentrations, along with lower Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios and lower levels of calcite saturation.

The chemistry of the valley discharge areas vary relative to the mountain block and to each other. The Pahrump Valley has characteristic carbonate water with concentrations of Ca2+ from 40 to 60 mg/l, Mg2+ from 20 to 30 mg/l, and

HCO^" from 200 to 300 mg/l, with log Pco2 values ranging from -2.5 to -2.0 atmospheres. Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios range from 4 to 2 and Si’s with respect to calcite range from saturation to a little below saturation. The Indian Springs Valley has similar concentrations of Ca2+ and HCCXf with lower concentrations of Mg2+, and higher Pco2’s* The Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios are lower, ranging from 2 to 1, and saturation with respect to calcite is below saturation.

The Las Vegas Valley has two distinct zones, one zone is in the northern neck of the valley, the other is in the central part of the valley around the Las Vegas well field. The northern zone has low Ca2+ concentrations (below 40 mg/l), high

Mg2+ concentrations (between 20 and 40 mg/l), HCO^- concentrations from 200 to

300 m g/l, low log P co2 values (from -3.5 to -2.5 atmospheres), undersaturation with respect to calcite, and the Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios near one. The central portion 61

of the valley has higher Ca2+ concentrations, lower Mg2+ concentrations, similar

HC03- concentrations with elevated Pco2 values, calcite at saturation, and

Ca2+/Mg2+ ratios near 3.

Stable Isotopes in Precipitation and Ground Water

Ground-water samples from 85 springs and wells along with 57 samples of

rain and snow were analyzed for stable isotope ratios of 8 180 and 8 D. These

analyses were used to evaluate the recharge processes occurring in the Spring

Mountains. Figure 20 is a plot of the Meteoric Water Line (Craig, 1961), 8 180,

and 8 D values of wells and springs from the study area. All ground waters fall

on or near the Meteoric Water Line indicating the waters are meteoric in origin

and have not been evaporated significantly. 8 180 and 8 D values of ground

waters range from -14.3 to -10.9°/oo and from -106 to -86°/oo, respectively, for

the study area. The 5D values of ground waters in the upper elevations of the

mountain block are as isotopically light as any in the study area (Figure 21)

reflecting the altitude and temperature effects. Ground waters in the mountain

block to the northwest and southeast are isotopically heavier because recharge

occurs at lower elevations.

Recharge to valley aquifers in the Basin and Range physiographic province

may come from mountain bedrock aquifers, alluvial-apron aquifers and regional

interbasin aquifers. Stable isotope ratios of ground water can be used to identify

these different sources of recharging waters. The 8 D values of valley-fill aquifer

ground waters encompass almost the entire range of values found in the study

area from -86°/oo to -103°/oo. Malmberg (1965) and Harrill (1986) hypothesized significant recharge to the Pahrump Valley (over 2.55X107 m3/year) from the

Spring Mountains. Ground water from the Pahrump Valley has an average <$D springs wells Meteoric Water Line ++ (5D (o/oo)

area, southern Nevada. 62 63

MERCURY 4 \

INDIAN SPRINGS

<3.

PLAS VEGAS,

LEGEND Spring <► Well 4- JEAN

i ~~i~-...... ~i O 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 5 o/oo

Figure 21. Computer generated contour map of 5D (°/00) °f ground water, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada. 64

value of -98°/oo which is similar to 5D values of ground water found in the upper portions of the Spring Mountains. Rush (1971) estimated 1.23X107 m3/year of recharge entering the Indian Springs Valley from the Spring Mountains. The average 8 D value for ground water in the Indian Springs Valley is -98°/oo which again is the same as observed in the upper portions of the Spring Mountains and is similar to regional waters found in the Amargosa Valley (Winograd and

Friedman, 1972).

Noack (1988) studied the different ground-water masses within the Las Vegas

Valley using geochemical and isotopic analyses of water from the deepest wells available. Two water masses were delineated, one to the west of Las Vegas is isotopically heavy (5D = -88°/oo) with short flow paths, the other to the north is isotopically lighter (5D = -101°/oo) with longer flow paths. The two waters mix in the vicinity of the Las Vegas well field with a resulting average 8 D value of

-97°/oo. The waters in the western portion of the Las Vegas Valley are recharged from the southern section of the Spring Mountains. The average <5D values for ground waters in this area of the mountain range is -90°/oo. The water mass at the northern portion of the Las Vegas Valley appears to be a mixture of Spring

Mountain recharge, Sheep Range recharge and regional aquifer water (Lyles and

Hess, 1988).

Precipitation samples were collected for oxygen-18 and deuterium analyses.

A variety of samples were collected including snow cores, snow-melt water, snow- melt water from the heated precipitation gauges at Deer Creek Spring #1 and

Cold Creek Spring, and rain water from Deer Creek Spring #1, Cold Creek

Spring, and Indian Spring. The 8180 and 5D of the precipitation samples collected are shown in Figure 22 along with the Meteoric Water Line (5D =

8 8180 + 10°/oo) and a local meteoric water line (5D = 7 8 180 - 5°/oo) 65

co c a o oo S to ,S a cn a>

00 C5oo f-H o I o oor>. 0 5

.2-a ooo ‘o <§ > §5 a t* U Oh ^ c—» •+£ ° § •*■=> CO -2 - "3- ^ _ t— O cs ^ >> . -C - CM to P ^ to O 2 00 CM J3 - CM CM CM

- CM to

O o o CM

(5D (o/oo) 66

determined by linear regression analysis of the precipitation data. Precipitation samples range from -161 to -24°/oo in 5D and from -22.4 to -2.7°/oo in 8 180.

Rain samples range range from -107 to -24°/oo in 8 D and from -15.5 to -2.7°/oo in 8 180 while snow samples range from -161 to -83°/oo in 81) and from -22.4 to

-11.6°/oo in 8 180. Separate linear regression lines for snow and rain data (Figure

23) show the snow line (5D = 7.78 180 + 4.2°/oo) to have approximately the same slope as the Meteoric Water Line while the local rain line (5D = 6.l£ 180

-12.5°/oo) displays a small evaporative shift in 8 D and 8 180 of rain samples.

The isotopic signature of precipitation events vary widely from storm to storm and from season to season. As precipitation moves through the soil and mixes with existing ground water, a homogenization of the isotopes of water takes place which smooths out the variance of isotopic ratios seen in precipitation.

Therefore, assuming minimal evaporation in the soil, ground water will show little isotopic variation over time and will reflect an average isotopic value of precipitation that recharges the aquifer. Figure 24 is a plot of the stable isotopic composition of snow, rain, and ground waters within the study area. The ground waters plot in a cluster on the Meteoric Water Line and range from -106 and

-14.3°/oo to -86 and -10.9°/oo 5D and 8 180, respectively. Applying the average

8 D and 8 lsO values of rain and snow to the lever rule, a mixture of 45 percent rain and 55 percent snow is needed to derive the average ground-water isotope values of -95 and -13.0°/oo. This simple approach gives a first approximation of the contributions of warm weather versus cold weather precipitation in waters recharging the ground-water system. Several factors to consider when using this method that could effect the results include; the lack of recharge occurring at low elevations, the possibility of interbasin ground-water flow recharging the local valley aquifers, the spatial distribution of the precipitation and ground-water 67

CD 00 CJ00 t>I o00

0£ wc -o c 01 CM C *cet- 'S TO C«m ^ o o S s ■0^3CD c -2 o CO O m ‘o 2 * <*> g t« ca « 2 > > co "O^ 0) ^ .5C2 •** w ~ 03 (3 e - CM .2 ’S 03 + 2 Efi c hbu o 3 CM £ 2 — CM c_ to c

O o m CM CM

6D (o/oo) ground water rain <5D (o/oo)

the Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada. 68 69

data, and the potential for evaporation occurring during recharge.

The results of applying the lever rule to the stable isotopic data of

precipitation and ground water in the study area suggest that a significant

amount of warm weather precipitation recharges the ground-water system at

higher elevations. Winograd and Riggs (1984) analyzed stable isotopic ratios of

precipitation, snow pack, snow melt, and ground waters in the Spring Mountains

and concluded that recharge is composed primarily of cool season precipitation

(November - May) and that infiltration from summer convective storms seldom

reach the water table. A study of flow in fractured tuffs at Rainier Mesa (2343

meters), on the Nevada Test Site by Russell et al. (1987), using stable isotopic

analyses of precipitation and ground water also concluded that winter was the

principal period of recharge. The methods used by Russell et al. (1987) were

similar to those used by Simpson et al. (1970) where the precipitation record was

divided into appropriate periods and the amount of precipitation occurring during

those periods was weighted by its stable isotopic content. The isotopically

weighted precipitation amounts were summed and then divided by the total

amount of precipitation occurring during the precipitation record to determine the

weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation. The weighted mean isotopic values

of precipitation were then compared to the stable isotopic values of ground water

at discharge points within the same flow system.

The method described above was applied to data collected from Deer Creek

Spring #1 (2870 m) to determine the contribution of warm weather precipitation

to recharge in the Spring Mountains ground-water system. Spring discharge and

precipitation amounts were recorded at the spring from September, 1987 to

August, 1988. A precipitation collector was installed on the propane heated

tipping bucket to collect rain and snow samples for stable isotopic analysis. Snow 70

cores next to the spring were also collected for stable isotopic analysis. Weighted mean isotopic values of precipitation were calculated and compared with stable isotopic values of ground water from Deer Creek Spring #1. Isotopic samples of ground water from January, 1988 were selected for comparison with precipitation samples. Based on yearly discharge measurements (Figure 25), ground-water samples from this time period were considered isotopically representative of baseflow conditions.

Weighted mean isotopic values of precipitation at Deer Creek Spring #1

(Table 5) are enriched relative to stable isotopic ratios of ground water from Deer

Creek Spring #1 by 2°/oo 5 D. Considering the conclusions of Winograd and

Riggs (1984) and Russell et al. (1987) that recharge in southern Nevada is derived from winter precipitation, then the weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation at Deer Creek Spring #1 should have approximately the same stable isotopic value as ground water from Deer Creek Spring # 1. Table 6 shows the weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation at Deer Creek Spring # 1.

The weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation at Deer Creek Spring #1 is isotopically lighter than ground water from Deer Creek Spring j f l by 14°/oo

5D. This suggests that recharging waters are not made of winter precipitation exclusively. Table 7 is the weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation at Deer

Creek Spring # 1 excluding warm season precipitation events of less than 1.5 centimeters. The weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation is within analytical error of Deer Creek Spring #1 ground water suggesting that large warm weather precipitation events of isotopically heavy precipitation infiltrates and recharges the ground-water system at Deer Creek Spring #1.

The discussion above as well as the studies by Winograd and Riggs (1984) and Russell et al. (1987) assume that evaporation of soil waters does not occur 71

00 * 72

TABLE 5. WEIGHTED MEAN ISOTOPIC VALUE OF PRECIPITATION AT DEER CREEK SPRING #1.

PERIOD PRECIP 8T> PRECIP X S D 8 lsO PRECIP X 8 lsO (cm) (7°o) (°/oo) 8/87 0.48 -74 -35.52 -10.7 -5.14 4.34 -79 -342.86 -11.9 -51.65 0.30 9/87 0.53 -46 -24.38 - 6.8 -3.60 0.41 -40 -16.40 -5.4 -2.21 10/87 6.58 -107 -704.06 -15.5 -101.99 11/87 1.57 -107 -167.99 -15.5 -24.34 1.73 -82 -141.86 -11.8 -20.41 0.33 12/87 0.71 -135 -95.85 -15.6 -11.08 3.02 -157 -474.14 -22.4 -67.65 1/88 0.30 -159 -48.46 - 21.2 -6.36 1.52 -121 -183.92 -16.5 -25.08 2/88 3.15 3/88 0.99 4/88 6.91 -92 -635.72 -12.3 -84.99 5/88 0.58 -92 -53.36 -12.3 -7.13 1.27 -83 -105.41 - 12.2 -15.49 6/88 1.65 -79 -130.35 - 11.0 -18.15 7/88 5.44 8/88 1.65 7.44 -75 -558.00 -11.3 -84.07 TOTAL 39...Q4 -3718.28 -529.34

(PRECIP X 8 )tota, Weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation = PRECIP TOTAL 8 D = -95 °/oo 8 180 = -13.6 °/oo

Isotopic value of ground water at Deer Creek Spring (1/7/88)

£ D = -97 % o 8 180 = -13.9 °/oo 73

TABLE 6. WEIGHTED MEAN ISOTOPIC VALUE OF WINTER PRECIPITATION AT DEER CREEK SPRING #1.

PERIODPRECIP <5D PRECIP X 5 D 6 lsO PRECIP X 5 lgO (cm) (°/oo) (7°o)

11/87 1.57 -107 -167.99 -15.5 -24.34 1.73 -82 -141.86 -11.8 -20.41 0.33 12/87 0.71 -135 -95.85 -15.6 -11.08 3.02 -157 -474.14 -22.4 -67.65 1/88 0.30 -159 -48.46 - 21.2 -6.36 1.52 -121 -183.92 -16.5 -25.08 2/88 3.15 3/88 0.99 4/88 6.91 -92 -635.72 -12.3 -84.99 ..TOTAL 15.76 -1747.94 -239.91

(PRECIP X 6 )fcotal Weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation = PRECIP TOTAL S- D i o _ = -111 _ °/oo1 ~ . 5 180 = -15.2 0/ OO

Isotopic value of ground water at Deer Creek Spring (1/7/88)

<5D = -97 °/oo 5 lsO = -13.9 °/oo 74

TABLE 7. WEIGHTED MEAN ISOTOPIC VALUE OF PRECIPITATION EXCLUDING WARM SEASON PRECIPITATION EVENTS OF LESS THAN 1.5 CENTIMETERS AT DEER CREEK SPRING # 1 .

PERIOD PRECIP 5 D PRECIP X «5D 8 1S O PRECIP X 5 lsO (cm) (°/oo) (°/oo)

8/87 4.34 -79 -342.86 -11.9 -51.65 10/87 6.58 -107 -704.06 -15.5 -101.99 11/87 1.57 -107 -167.99 -15.5 -24.34 1.73 -82 -141.86 -11.8 -20.41 0.33 12/87 0.71 -135 -95.85 -15.6 -11.08 3.02 -157 -474.14 -22.4 -67.65 1/88 0.30 -159 -48.46 -21.2 -6.36 1.52 -121 -183.92 -16.5 -25.08 2/88 3.15 3/88 0.99 4/88 6.91 -92 -635.72 -12.3 -84.99 6/88 1.65 -79 -130.35 -11.0 -18.15 7/88 5.44 8/88 1.65 7.44 -75 -558.00 -11.3 -84.07 .TOTAL...... 35,77 t34&3,2L_ . -495.77

(PRECIP X 8 )totai Adjusted weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation = PRECIP TOTAL 8 D = -97 °/oo 8 180 = -13.9 °/oo

Isotopic value of ground water at Deer Creek Spring (1/7/88)

8 D = -97 °/oo 8 180 = -13.9 °/oo 75

before recharge to the ground-water system. Evaporation of precipitation in the soil zone could provide the mechanism to explain the difference between the weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation and the stable isotopic signature of ground water at Deer Creek Spring # 1. However, nonequilibrium fractionation which occurs duing evaporation of soil water causes a larger fractionation of 180 relative to D. As a result, evaporated soil waters will plot below the Meteoric Water Line on a 8 lsO versus 8 D plot. Figure 23 shows most ground waters fall on or near the Meteoric Water Line which indicates that ground waters are not significantly evaporated before recharge. Therefore, the assumption that evaporation of soil water does not occur (at higher elevations) is reasonable.

Another possible explanation for the large difference between the weighted mean isotopic value of winter precipitation and the stable isotopic signature of ground water at Deer Creek Spring # 1 is an isotopic enrichment of the snow pack as it melts. Stichler et al. (1981) documented an average enrichment of 5.5°/oo

8 D of the snowpack in Switzerland as it melted. A 5.5°/oo enrichment of the

Deer Creek Spring #1 snowpack would necessitate excluding warm season precipitation events of approximately 2.0 centimeters or less to achieve the stable isotopic signature of ground water. Although the actual enrichment (if any) of the Deer Creek Spring # 1 snowpack is unknown, such a mechanism could partially explain the isotopic variation between winter precipitation and ground water at Deer Creek Spring #1.

Carbon-14 in Ground Water

Ground-water samples from 53 locations were analyzed for carbon-14 content. Figure 26 shows the location and amount of 14C (expressed in pmc) 76

MERCURY 4 \

INDIAN SPRINGS

7.7

7.0 87.3

79.2 6 8 .0

84.6

16.4 61.4 48.0

97.7 ,83.i

19.0 90.8 26.0 LAS VEGAS,

84.1 44.8 17.0 M 0 . 62.0 48.0

73.4 59.0

50.5 •32.7

3.0

60.4

67.5 LEGEND

39.4

I l "1 0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 26. Percent modern carbon of ground water in the Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 77

found in ground water in the study area. Deer Creek Spring #2 is the highest elevation ground water analyzed for 14C with a percent modern carbon of 104.

Ground waters above Deer Creek Spring # 2 have elevated tritium levels and cold temperatures and thus are assumed to have pmc’s of 100 or greater. Upper- elevation bedrock ground waters have an average pmc of 91.4 while flanking alluvial-fan aquifers have an average pmc of 56.6. Ground waters in the valley aquifers have an average pmc of 13.7. Two wells that penetrate carbonate bedrock near the toe of the Kyle Canyon fan (#66 Mifflin well and #79 P at well) have pmc’s of 16.4 and 11.2, respectively.

From these data points, the obvious trend of high-elevation recharge waters flowing down gradient toward the basin floors can be seen. The alluvial aquifer and the bedrock aquifer in the Kyle Canyon area can easily be distinguished.

Ground waters in the alluvial-aquifer system have higher velocities than ground waters in the underlying bedrock aquifer as evidenced by the low pmc’s of Mifflin and Pat wells and the corresponding higher values of Cortney (#19) well and

Paiute Indian Reservation (#78) well (48.4 and 57.0 pmc, respectively) near the toe of the fan. Ground-water values of pmc in the Las Vegas shear zone are much lower than pmc values in the Kyle Canyon fan alluvial aquifer which suggests a mixing of older-interbasin regional water with the younger waters of the Spring

Mountain alluvial system (Lyles and Hess, 1988). In the vicinity of the Las Vegas well field, ground waters have pmc’s near the average for valley aquifers (average pmc = 13.7). Noack (1988) has suggested a mixing of Red Rock alluvial fan waters derived from the southeast Spring Mountains with regional waters from the Las Vegas shear zone due to the induced gradient caused by heavy pumping in the Las Vegas well field. An isotopically and chemically indistinguishable component of Spring Mountain bedrock water may also be mixing in the Las 78

Vegas shear zone and the Las Vegas well field.

Ground water in the Pahrump Valley is derived from precipitation that falls in the the Spring Mountains (Harrill, 1986). Ground-water flow is from the

Spring Mountains to the southwest across the valley toward the Nopah Range where it leaves the valley as subsurface flow. Although ground-water analyses of

14C are limited in number, they are in general agreement with the proposed conceptual model. Values of pmc suggest that ground water is derived exclusively from Spring Mountain recharge and are very similar to values seen in the lower reaches of the Kyle Canyon alluvial fan. Influences from older regional waters are not observed. The ground water sampled at Hidden Hills Ranch (#39) appears to be in a zone of high ground-water velocity. Ground-water values of pmc suggest a southwesterly flow path similar to that proposed by Harrill (1986).

Carbon-13/Carbon-12 in Ground Water

Ground-water samples from 75 locations were analyzed for 8 13C. Figure 27 is a plot of ground-water sample locations in the study area with hand contours of equal 8 13C values. According to the idealized model, recharging waters acquire a 8 13C signature depleted in 13C and progressively move toward a 5 13C signature of 0°/oo as water moves along flow path. An anomaly to the idealized model is observed at the higher elevation sample points. The recharge area should have the most negative 8 13C values in the system, but 8 13C values from springs in the upper portion of the mountain block have enriched values relative to lower elevation ground waters. 8 13C values of ground water above 2525 m range from

-9.6°/oo to -8.0°/oo as opposed to ground water between 1825 m and 2525 m which have 8 13C values ranging from -11.2°/oo to -9.4°/oo. Figure 28 shows the

8 13C behavior with calculated log P co 2 values along a traverse down the Kyle 79

MERCURY /K

INDIAN SPRINGS

- 9 - 9 -8 LAS VEGAS,

LEGEND

i " i i 0 10 20 KILOMETERS Contour Interval 1 o/oo

Figure 27. Hand contours of 513C values of ground water in the Spring Mountains and associated valleys, southern Nevada. 80

log PCOl o q o m ro CN c\i

> e 3 O _aj

£H-1 h0 C o c3 u CM 3 * > TJ 3 •O t> 3 c 3 ^ o O 3 t-4 o hO 0) > .. . -J=5 JU 3 O O LJ co o f 3 ^ 3 od-e c O 3 CL ° bo ^s O bO ~ 3 ~o ’£ a o . 3 cn - o 00O ^ W5 Q,3 o - m 00 ! _ u < o CL CM

bO

01

<5,3C ( 0/ 00) 81

Canyon flow path, starting at Deer Creek Spring # 1 (2870 m) and ending in the

Las Yegas shear zone (716 m). Enriched 8 13C values of ground water are found at the higher elevations and gradually become depleted to about 2000 m where the trend is reversed and 8 13C values of ground water become more enriched to

-6.0°/oo.

This anomalous behavior may be explained by several processes. The 8 13C signature of recharging waters are mostly influenced by the Pco 2 and ^ 13C of soil atmosphere which in turn is influenced by the type and amount of plants present.

The biotic community above timberline in the Spring Mountains is a pseudoalpine tundra community consisting of large expanses of barren rock and talus slopes, with meadows of grasses and wildflowers. The climate is typical of high mountainous regions with extreme winter temperatures, high winds and short growing seasons. From timberline, down to approximately 2200 m are two biotic communities. The upper community consists of bristlecone pines, limber pines, and a very sparse undercover of grasses, while the lower community is predominantly ponderosa pine and white fir with aspen, sagebrush and grasses.

Finally, the communities below 2200 m are a combination of pinyon pine, juniper, yucca’s, blackbrush and creosote bushes. At the highest elevations, soils are thin and poorly developed while the density of plants per unit area is small. Cerling

(1984), using a one dimensional diffusion model, determined that increased plant respiration rates produced more negative 8 13C values for soil C 02. This suggests minimal production of plant derived C0 2 in the soil at higher elevations and results in low P co 2 aQd ^ 13C values near atmospheric values (-7 to -9°/oo). At lower elevations, plant densities increase resulting in elevated Pco 2 and more depleted 8 13C. 82

Soil gas sampling for P co 2 an<^ 6 13C in Kyle Canyon conducted by

Amundson and Doner (1986) exhibited a decrease in 8 13C of soil C 0 2 with an

increase in elevation. Samples ranged from - 12.0 °/oo at 841 m in the creosote

bush community to -19.8 °/oo at 2194 m in the ponderosa pine community. They

concluded the 8 13C observed in the soil gas and the elevated levels of soil C 0 2 were the result of plant cover. For example, the ponderosa community has more than 60 percent plant cover with elevated Pco 2 and depleted 8 13C values in soil

C0 2 while the creosote community with 15 percent cover has lower Pco 2 and more enriched 8 13C in soil C 0 2. Unfortunely, 8 13C values of soil C 0 2 above 2194 m are only hypothetical but the results of Amundson and Doner (1986) suggest an increase in 8 13C values of soil C 0 2 as plant densities decrease with increasing elevation.

Another process that effects the 8 13C of soil gas is plant type. Plants using the C4 photosynthetic pathway have 8 13C values closer to atmospheric values than C3 plants (Deines, 1980). A preponderance of C 4 plants at higher elevations would result in increased 8 13C values for soil C02. However, Salisbury and Ross

(1978) point out that C 4 plants are adapted to hot dry climates and that alpine environment plants are C 3 plants. Quade et al. (1989) conducted a plant survey in Lee Canyon (approximately 15 km northwest of Kyle Canyon) as part of a study of 8 13C in pedogenic carbonate. One C 4 plant type was noted, a shrub,

Atriplex sp., that made up 2.2 percent of the plant cover at 1900 m in the pinyon-juniper community. The highest elevation site surveyed was at 2740 m in the ponderosa community. This site was well below timberline and was inhabited exclusively by C 3 type plants. Again, this study as with Amundson and Doner

(1986) was not conducted at higher elevations leaving the actual plant densities 83

and plant types above 2800 m not documented. However, it appears that plants using the C 4 photosynthetic pathway do not play a significant role in determining the 8 13C of soil gas at higher elevations in the Spring Mountains.

Although the Pco 2 and 8 13C of soil gas, and the plant types above 2200 m are not documented in the Spring Mountains, the enriched 8 13C signatures of high elevation springs may be influenced by a lack of plant generated soil C0 2 with corresponding enriched 813C values of C0 2 in the recharge areas above timberline. Ground waters in the 1825 to 2525 m elevation range are probably recharged by precipitation above and below timberline and show the stronger influence of the increased plant activity, thicker soil zone, and possibly different

8 13C produced in the forested recharge areas.

Another source for carbon in the system is carbonate minerals in the soil.

The carbonate in the soil zone may be from several sources including aeolian dust from playas or other terrains, dissolved and reprecipitated pedogenic carbonate, and detrital carbonate from parent material. Each type offers its own 813C signature which may or may not vary enough from other sources so as to be identifiable. Soil samples should be analyzed for 8 13C along with other possible sources. Boughton (1986) analyzed soil carbonate at the Nevada Test Site and found 8 13C values for playa soil ranging from -1.3 to -0.4°/oo, and a 8 13C value of -3.8°/oo from Paiute Mesa topsoil. Amundson and Doner (1986) found similar values in Kyle Canyon. Lower elevation pedogenic carbonates ranged from -2.3 to

2.0°/oo while higher elevation (above 1700 m) pedogenic carbonates ranged from

-6.6 to -2.0°/oo.

Flow paths for the higher elevation springs must be fairly short as seen by the percent modern carbon and tritium values in Figure 29. Short flow paths give 100 l c n - o Percent CD o Modern o Carbon O C «- « o CM o fO o rtu (TU) Tritium o o - m - O i''- CN o o CM m CN o o O d L — -+ JD > D o c > 03 cfl O a a G to « I S’3 C CD £ ;> 03 3 ^ 03 ca bO m -4-5 C5 g C - m !>> G -

84 85

the ground water little time to dissolve the carbonate rock through which it flows thus introducing very little dilution of 8 13C in ground water by heavier carbon from carbonate rock. 8 13C values of the higher elevation springs should be very similar to the values of water recharging the system. Flow paths are longer for lower elevation ground waters that have more depleted 8 13C values. These waters have more time to be diluted by dissolved carbonate rock. But this process is probably masked by the strong influence of high soil Pco 2 and depleted 5 13C of soil C 0 2.

Many authors including those mentioned earlier have calculated 8 13C values using various simple mathematical models and compared those calculated values to values collected in the field. Similar techniques have been applied to the Spring

Mountains to help determine the influences of different sources of carbon in the ground waters. An inherent problem exists when using these mathematical models, models. The models are based on the assumption that the processes can be sorted out and that desired values can be calculated for each step. In actuality, most processes act in a continuum and are not easily separated. With this in mind, a description of a few models and calculations using appropriate values from the Spring Mountains are presented below.

The open system of dissolution of carbonate either in soil or ground water can be described by equations 1 through 6. Water is assumed to be in continual contact with a reservoir of C0 2 where an equilibrium is established and maintained between the HCO;f and the C0 2 reservoir. Since the 8 13C value of pedogenic carbonate in this discussion is a measured or known value and the 8 13C value of interest is the HCCtf, equations 5 and 6 can be ignored. The equation for 8 13C of dissolved bicarbonate can be found by substituting equation 1 into equation 2 which results in: 86

5 ,3 0 (Hco- « ) “ 5‘3 c K , ) + £ l + 62 (8)

where

*n = (On - 1) (1 X 103)

In the open system model, all of the HCCtf in the resulting water comes from the

C 0 2 reservoir and is derived independently from any carbonate bearing minerals

in the soil zone or aquifer.

The closed system must be examined in three parts. Firstly, the closed

system may operate in the soil zone as described by Salomons and Mook (1976) where water is in contact with a reservoir of C02, dissolves C02, and produces

HC03~. Then, the water becomes isolated from the C 0 2 reservoir by moving into

another area deeper in the soil below the root zone. At this time, the dissolved

C 0 2 in the water reacts with any carbonate minerals present producing more

HCO^- by equation 7. One half of the bicarbonate comes from the C0 2 and the other half comes from the dissolution of carbonate minerals. Thus the calculation is performed simply by adding the 8 13C value of the C 0 2 reservoir and the 8 13C value of the soil carbonate and dividing by two:

(<$13c C02 + ^13csoil) «,3C,ampi, ------2------• (9)

Secondly, the closed system may operate in the saturated zone as described by Micheails et al. (1984). This method combines the 813C value for HCO^- obtained from the open system calculation with the 8 13C value of carbonate minerals in the aquifer. The equation: 87

«13Cs,mpl, = «13C„n (10) sample sample where

*13Cs0i, = 513c rHCO_ \ by equation 8 , N)J

(h C 0 3 j sample = concentration of bicarbonate in the ground water,

(h c o 3-) „ , = concentration of Ca2+ + Mg2+ in the ground water, and

(HCOi-j^i- (hC0 3- ( h C O ^ ~ ) aqf has the advantage of accounting for the concentration of HCO^“ in the sampled water from two different sources, the C0 2 reservoir and the dissolved carbonate minerals.

Finally, a closed system model described by Plummer et al. (1983) and

Wigley et al. (1978) is needed to evaluate the chemical and isotopic change of carbon in ground water from one point in a flow path to the next. The equation to evaluate these changes is:

/ e (HCOg ) final A S13Cfin>] = B #3Cjnltial - S'3Ca„ + ^ ~-g- + 5‘3c a»t (1 1 ) R J (h c o 3-) inilial where

R = ratio of total carbon input by carbon precipitated,

(1X10~3) e B = 1 + , and R

(BR) A = (i - R)'

Data needed to apply equation (11) are the major ion chemistry of the ground waters, a basic understanding of the flow system, the 8 13C values of the various sources and sinks, and the isotopic fractionation factors. This equation is similar to equation (10) in that it accounts for the changes in concentration of HC03~ due to the effects of sources and sinks. Table 8 lists the various 8 13C values and fractionation factors needed to perform the calculations described above.

TABLE 8 . LIST OF 5 13C VALUES AND FRACTIONATION FACTORS USED TO MODEL CARBON-13 IN GROUND WATER.

Name Elevation 8 13 C a Temp Source (meters) (°/oo) ( °c) Atmosphere 2194 -9.1 Amundson (1986) Soil Gas 2194 -19.8 Amundson (1986) Soil Gas -18.1 assumed

Soil Gas - -18.7 assumed

Soil Carb. 2740 -9.1 Quade (1989) Soil Carb. 2194 -6.6 Amundson (1986) Aquifer 0.0 Craig (1953)

HCQ3- M- co2(g) 1.0102 5 Mook et al. (1974) H C O f C 0 2(g) 1.009 15 Mook et al. (1974) C aC 03(s)- H C Q fM 1.002 20 Emrich et al. (1970) 89

Results of calculations using the various models are displayed in Table 9.

Beginning with Deer Creek Spring # 1 (2870 m), two models are in agreement, the

open-system model and the closed-system ground-water model. Applying end

member 5 13C values of soil COa to the open-system model (-9.1 and -19.8°/oo),

results in a predicted 8 13C value for Deer Creek Spring #1 ground water ranging

from + l.l° /o o (pure atmospheric C02) to -9.6°/oo (ponderosa soil C 0 2). The

actual 8 13C value of ground water (-8.5°/oo) suggests a soil gas quite depleted

with respect to the atmospheric value but somewhat enriched compared to values

found in the ponderosa soils. Assuming the Pco2'm so^ above timberline is near

atmospheric levels as compared to elevated levels ( 10-2° atm.) in the ponderosa

soil (Amundson and Doner 1986), a hypothesized 8 13C value of -18.7°/oo for soil

C 0 2 may actually represent an average soil C0 2 value for the Deer Creek # 1 flow

path. This average soil 8 13C value (needed to derive the 8 13C value of ground

water at Deer Creek Spring # 1) may be the result of a short flow path.

Recharging water in equilibrium with soil C0 2 (-9.1°/oo) above timberline may

not have sufficient time to reach equilibrium with depleted soil C0 2 (-19.8°/oo) it

encounters below timberline. Thus achieving an intermediate 8 13C value of

-18.7°/oo.

The closed-system ground-water model also accounts for the 8 13C value seen

at Deer Creek Spring # 1 when dissolving soil carbonate of -9.1°/oo. Considering

the P Co 2 (10-3 ° atm.), the calcite saturation (log SI = 0.3), and the concentration

of Ca2+ (45 mg/1) of water from Deer Creek Spring # 1, it is improbable that the

closed system could derive the same chemistry. As discussed by Drever (1982), a water at 25 ° C in equilibrium with C0 2 at a P co 2 °f 10-2 0 atmospheres under

closed-system conditions would only dissolve 33 mg/1 of CaC0 3 with a final P co 2 90

TABLE 9. RESULTS OF CARBON-13 MODELING, KYLE CANYON.

Site Name System Eqn Soil Gas Carbonate Result Actual 8 13C 8 13C 8 13C 8 13C (°/oo) (°/oo) (°/oo) (°/oo)

Deer Creek # 1 Open (8) -9.1 - + 1-1 -8.5 (8 ) -18.1 - -7.9 -8.5 (8 ) -18.7 - -8.5 -8.5 (8 ) -19.8 - -9.6 -8.5

Closed (9) -19.8 0.0 -9.9 -8.5 (soil) (9) -19.8 -9.1 -14.5 -8.5 (9) -9.1 0.0 -4.5 -8.5 (9) -9.1 -9.1 -9.1 -8.5

Closed 10) -19.8 0.0 -5.0 -8.5 (ground 10) -19.8 -9.1 -9.4 -8.5 water) 1°) -9.1 0.0 + 0.6 -8.5 10) -9.1 -9.1 -3.8 -8.5 10) -18.1 -9.1 -8.5 -8.5

Deer Creek =$2 Open (8 ) -9.1 - + 1.1 -9.6 (8 ) -19.8 - -9.6 -9.6

Closed (9) -19.8 0.0 -9.9 -9.6 (soil) (9) -19.8 -9.1 -14.5 -9.6 (9) -9.1 0.0 -4.5 -9.6 (9) -9.1 -9.1 -9.1 -9.6

Closed 10) -19.8 0.0 -4.9 -9.6 (ground 10) -19.8 -9.1 -9.4 -9.6 water) T°) -9.1 0.0 + 0.6 -9.6 10) -9.1 -9.1 -3.9 -9.6 o o Kyle Highway Open (8 ) -9.1 — -0.1 1 r —1 (8 ) -19.8 - 10.1 1

Closed (9) -19.8 0.0 -9.9 - 10.1 (soil) (9) -19.8 -6.6 -13.2 -10.1

Closed (10) -19.8 0.0 -4.8 -10.1 (ground (10) -19.8 -6.6 -8.3 -10.1 water)

Gilbert well Closed (11) - 0.0 -9.1 - 8.8

Cortney well Closed (11) - 0.0 -7.8 -7.9 91

of 10 ~40 atm. which is noticeably different from the chemistry at Deer Creek

Spring #1.

Hess and Mifflin (1978) have tabulated the number and length of solution caves, and the number of carbonate springs found in various geologic units in southern Nevada and have used these numbers as a measure of secondary permeability of carbonate rocks. Deer Creek Spring # 1 is located in the

Ordovician Pogonip Group which is one of the most cavernous units in the Spring

Mountains. This idea also suggests that the open-system model reasonably describes the behavior of carbon-13 at Deer Creek Spring #1.

Model calculations for Deer Creek Spring =$2 (2638 m) are similar to those at

Deer Creek Spring # 1. Both the open-system model and the closed-system ground-water model derive similar results. For the same reasons as stated above the open-system model more closely approximates the behavior seen at Deer Creek

Spring #2. The S 13C value at Deer Creek Spring #2 (-9.6 V 00) is more depleted than Deer Creek Spring # 1 (-8.5 °/oo) due to more depleted soil C0 2 (-19.8°/oo) and higher Pco 2 found in the soil at lower elevations. This also suggests less influence of soil gas above timberline and a longer flow path with more time to equilibrate with soil C 0 2 below timberline. The chemistry at Deer Creek Spring

=$2 has slightly higher values of Ca2+ and HCO^- concentrations, a Pco 2

(l0—33), and a log SI calcite of 0.8. Deer Creek Spring #2 is also found in the

Ordovician Pogonip Group.

Modeling of the Kyle Canyon Highway Maintenance well (=$50, 2071 m), which is located in alluvium in the upper reaches of Kyle Canyon, again suggests two possible types of behavior for the carbon system. The open-system model derives a 6 13C value exactly the same as the actual ground water (-10.1 °/oo) 92

while the calculations with the closed-system soil model gives a value slightly

enriched (-9.9 °/oo). Tritium levels (27 T.U.) in ground water suggest recent

recharge to the ground-water system in the upper reaches of Kyle Canyon. Plume

(1985) observed large water level fluctuations in wells in the upper reaches of Kyle

Canyon during spring thaw. These fluctuations suggest open system conditions

where the ground-water table responds quickly to large increases in recharge.

Depth to ground water (less than 50 m) and alluvial aquifer material also suggest

open system conditions. Considering tritium levels, water table fluctuations,

depth to ground water, aquifer material and the observed 5 13C values of soil C 0 2

(-19.8°/oo) up gradient from the Kyle Canyon Highway Maintenance well, it

appears that open-system condition occur at this part of the Kyle Canyon flow

path.

Up to this point, the discussion has centered around the behavior of carbon-

13 in ground water in the upper portions of the mountain range. Modeling, down

gradient from the Kyle Canyon Highway Maintenance well is limited to the

alluvial aquifer system due to the sparse number of wells that penetrate the

carbonate bedrock beneath the alluvial apron. The behavior of carbon-13 in

ground water from the Kyle Canyon Highway Maintenance well to Gilbert well

(#33, 1118 m) and from Gilbert well to Cortney well (#19, 914 m) is modeled

using equation (11). Mass balance calculations performed using the computer

program BALANCE have indicated incongruent dissolution of calcite and

dolomite with dissolution of gypsum (Lyles and Hess, 1988) along the proposed

flow path. Modeling calculations using this information have resulted in predicted values very similar to observed values. Operating under closed conditions, the

dissolution of dolomite and gypsum have caused the precipitation of calcite which

results in elevated Pco2’s ^or ground waters (Gilbert and Cortney well = 10-1 9 93

atm.). Thus in the lower reaches of the aquifer system, the principle change in

8 13C values occurs as calcite precipitates causing fractionation that results in

more enriched values in ground water.

Geochemical Modeling

The geochemical evolution of ground waters along a flow path can be

evaluated with the use of geochemical models. Models of proposed flow paths in

the Spring Mountains study area were constructed and examined for their

validity. Geochemical traverses into each valley were formulated, examined and

then modeled using geochemical computer models WATEQDR, BALANCE, and

PHREEQE. Results of the computer models were compared with measured

concentrations of ionic species and pH of actual ground waters.

A proposed flow path was constructed by linking a series of ground-water

sampling locations perpendicular to lines of equal potential (Figure 9) from a

known recharge area to a known discharge area. Chemical analyses from each

location were run through WATEQDR to determine the saturation index of

calcite, dolomite, and gypsum and to calculate the Pco2- The computer program

BALANCE, developed by Parkhurst et al., (1982), was then used to calculate the

mass transfer of chemical constituents between two points in the flow path. An

initial solution (first point in a flow path) is combined with a set of minerals to

produce a final solution (second point in a flow path). BALANCE solves a set of

linear equations that are not constrained by thermodynamic data and thus may

produce results that are mathematically correct but chemically impossible.

Results from WATEQDR and BALANCE simulations were compared to

determine the validity of the BALANCE calculations. If the BALANCE results were reasonable, the computer program PHREEQE, developed by Parkhurst et 94

al., (1980), was then used to combine the mass transfers of BALANCE with

thermodynamic data. PHREEQE was not developed as a reaction path-finding

model and thus requires careful consideration of the chemistry of the proposed

flow paths. Initial solutions were brought to calcite saturation and then reacted

with a specific amount of dolomite (determined by BALANCE). The resulting

solutions were then reacted with a specific amount of gypsum (determined by

BALANCE) and brought to a specific calcite saturation (determined by

WATEQDR for the second point in the flow path). The final modeled pH and

concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO^~, and SO 4- were compared with actual

measured values from the second point of the proposed flow path. The model was

considered a reasonable representation of chemical processes if measured and

modeled parameters were within 15 percent.

Proposed flow paths for Indian Springs, Pahrump, and West Las Vegas

Valley’s are shown in Figure 30. Figures 31 and 32 are plots of isotopic and

geochemical traverses for Indian Springs Valley from McFarland Spring (#65,

2350 m) to Indian Springs (#45, 971 m). Isotopically, the ground waters along

the traverse have the same 8 D (-99 °/oo) with increasing 8 13C and decreasing

percent modern carbon. Chemically, Na+, SO2-, and log SI gypsum increase

slightly while Mg2+ increases by approximately one epm. Ca2+ and HCO^~

decrease along flow path while log SI for calcite and dolomite are undersaturated

at McFarland Spring and Indian Spring and are near saturation at Cold Creek

Spring. The observed behavior of chemical species is characteristic of ground­

water evolving along flow path in carbonate rock terrain. Table 10 lists the

results of chemical computer modeling conducted on the Indian Springs flow path.

Excellent agreement between measured and modeled parameters suggest that the

chemical computer models accurately describe the chemical processes occurring 95

INDIAN SPRINGS ''N VALLEY

•.Indian Springs

Cold Creek. Spring^'" McFarland Spring

T rout„ Spring LAS VEGAS PAHRUMP VALLEY VALLEY L V V W D #1 1_a J Pine Creek Manse Spring , LVVWD Well ' Red Rock Visitor Center

i -i i 0 10 20 KILOMETERS

Figure 30. Modeled ground-water flow paths in Indian Springs, Pahrump, and west Las Vegas Valleys, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada. 96 20 16 20 14 10 12 DISTANCE (km) DISTANCE DISTANCE (km ) DISTANCE (km ) 8 6 Indian Springs Valley Springs Indian 2 4 area, southern Nevada. to Indian Spring, Indian Springs Valley, Spring Mountains study Percent Modern Carbon 0 -, - - 5 5 . . 8 0 7 9 - - - 10.0 - - 1 1 .0

(oo/o) OP Figure 31. Isotopic traverse of ground-water flow path, from McFarland Spring •© LOG SI iue 2 Ceia taes fgon-ae fo pt, rm Frad Spring cFarland M from path, flow ground-water of traverse Chemical 32. Figure UJ Q_ - 5 . 1 - - 0 . 3 - - 5 . 2 - - 5 . 0 - 2 0.0 , - 5 . 0 . 0 - 4 - 3 - 0 4 0 S - e - —+ - M g g M - —+ - n a N a C 3 0 C H o nin pig Ida Srns aly Srn Mutis study Mountains Spring Valley, Springs Indian Spring, Indian to ra suhr Nevada. southern area, 2 nin pig Valley Springs Indian 4 6 a ITNE k ) (km DISTANCE ITNE (km) DISTANCE 012 10 6 1 4 1 + • e t i m o l o D • —+ — 0 e t i c l a C - m u s p y G 8 1 — —O 20 20 97 98

TABLE 10. RESULTS OF CHEMICAL MODELING, INDIAN SPRINGS VALLEY FLOW PATH.

McFarland Spring to Cold Creek Spring

Parameter Conc. Cone. Error A Phase* A Phase* measured modeled (percent) BALANCE PHREEQE (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1)

PHo 7.77 7.78 0 Ca2+ 1.72 1.70 1 -0.38 -0.40 Mg2+ 0.70 0.70 0 0.17 - HCOo- 4.46 4.67 5 -- so2- 0.09 0.09 0 0.02 -

Cold Creek Spring to Indian Spring

Parameter Conc. Cone. Error A Phase* A Phase* measured modeled (percent) BALANCE PHREEQE (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1)

PHo 8.05 8.05 0 Ca + 1.16 1.15 0 -0.94 -0.95 Mg2+ 1.00 1.00 0 0.30 - h c o 3- 4.00 4.09 2 --

S 0 42- 0.17 0.17 0 0.08 -

* Negative indicates precipitation and positive indicates dissolution along the flow path. Incongruent dissolution of dolomite is accompanied by gypsum dissolution from McFarland Spring to Indian Springs. Modeling indicates

Indian Springs is 100 percent Spring Mountain water that is chemically evolved which is in agreement with the local hydrology. Winograd and Thordarson (1975) and Lyles and Hess (1988) observed a stair-stepped drop in water levels across the

Las Vegas shear zone from south to north and hypothesized a structural and perhaps a lithologic barrier to ground-water flow in this area of the Indian Springs

Valley. 99

Figures 33 and 34 are chemical traverses of isotopes and ion chemistry of ground water for the southern Pahrump Valley in the direction of ground-water flow as hypothesized by Harrill (1986). Ground water is thought to continue flowing to the southwest under the Nopah Range to Tecopa and Shoshone,

California, but because of the lack of data points in the area, the modeled flow path only extends from Trout Spring (#102, 2360m) to Manse well (#62, 866 m) in the central portion of the Pahrump Valley. Isotopically, <5D is approximately the same along flow path while 6 13C decreases slightly and the percent modern carbon decreases from 90 to 50. Chemically, Mg2+ and HCO^" increase while

Ca2+ is constant and Na+ and SO2- increase slightly. The log SI of calcite and dolomite are near saturation while the SI gypsum increases approximately one half order of magnitude. Geochemical computer modeling is again in good agreement with measured concentrations at Manse well (Table 11). Chemical processes on the western side of the Spring Mountains are similar to those observed in the

Indian Springs Valley where incongruent dissolution of dolomite with gypsum dissolution is occurring.

Figures 35 and 36 are isotopic and chemical traverses for the western portion of the Las Vegas Valley. The modeled flow path begins with Pine Creek Spring

(#81, 1347 m), which issues from the Aztec sandstone, and continues across the

Red Rock alluvial fan into the Las Vegas Valley well field (L W W D # lla well,

#51, 649 m). Isotopically, ground waters are heavier in the western portion of the valley (5 D = -87°/oo) and become progressively lighter as the flow path approaches the Las Vegas Valley well field (5D = -97°/oo). Carbon isotopes have

8 values similar to others in the study area. Noack (1988) delineated two different water masses in the Las Vegas Valley, one water mass in the western portion of the valley is isotopically heavy and is calcium-bicarbonate-sulfate in nature, while 100 1------1— Percent Modern Carbon ------1 ------14 10 IS 20 22 14 16 18 20 22 — i------1 12 12 ------1

DISTANCE (km) DISTANCE DISTANCE (km) DISTANCE (km) OISTANCE ------1 10 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 ------1 Pahrump Valley Pahrump ------1 ------1 Nevada. Manse well, Pahrump Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern ------2 4 6 8 10 12 “ 1 60 ■

LOG SI 2- d L l 3 - - - 3 2 - 0 0 Na — —+ * Mg Mg * —+ 4 0 S - 6 - ■*- Gypsum u s p y G - * -■ f - omi e it m lo o Calcite D - —f — 2 2 3 0 C H a C as wl, arm Vle, pig onan suy ra southern area, study Mountains Spring Valley, Pahrump well, Manse Nevada. 4 4 arm Valley Pahrump 8 6 6 8 ITNE k ) (km DISTANCE (km) DISTANCE 10 10 12 12 14 618 16 618 16 20 20 22 22 101 102

TABLE 11. RESULTS OF CHEMICAL MODELING, PAHRUMP VALLEY FLOW PATH.

Trout Spring to Manse Well

Param eter Conc. Cone. Error A Phase* A Phase* measured modeled (percent) BALANCE PHREEQE (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1)

pH 7.51 7.52 0 Ca2+ 1.20 1.11 8 -0.67 -0.76 Mg2+ 0.91 0.91 0 0.49 - H C O f 3.82 4.38 15 -- so|- 2.40 2.40 0 0.19 -

* Negative indicates precipitation and positive indicates dissolution the other is an isotopically lighter water mass in the northern portion of the valley and is calcium-bicarbonate in nature. The isotopically heavy 8 D values of the western water mass are indicative of recharge occurring at lower elevations.

Chemically, from Pine Creek Spring to the Red Rock Visitor Center (#87, 1134 m), Ca2+ and S042~ increase sharply as ground water from the overlying carbonate terrain crosses the Keystone thrust and encounters gypsum minerals in

Mesozoic clastic and evaporite rocks in the Red Rock Recreational Lands area.

Mg2+, HC03~, and Na+ concentrations, and log SI gypsum also increase. Results of geochemical modeling for this portion of the flow path (Table 12) are again in good agreement with measured values and suggest incongruent dissolution of dolomite and close to double the amount of calcite precipitation as calculated for the predominantly carbonate rock traverses. Large amounts of gypsum are also dissolving which is driving the calcite precipitation.

From the Red Rock Visitor Center to the central portion of the Las Vegas

Valley in the vicinity of the Las Vegas well field, isotopic and chemical behavior is again seen to change. 5 D decrease sharply while 8 13C increase. Chemically, Ca2+, 103 30 30 30 “1 25 "T” 20 20 20 —r DISTANCE (km) DISTANCE DISTANCE (Urn) DISTANCE DISTANCE (km) DISTANCE 10 T~ West Las Vegas Valley Vegas Las West to LW W D#lla well, west Las Vegas Valley, Spring Mountains study area, southern Nevada. Percent Modem Carbon - - 0 0 0 2 - -9 0

(oo/o) OP (°°/°) 3uP Figure 35. Isotopic traverse of ground-water flow path, from Pine Creek Spring iue 6 Ceia taes fgon-ae fo pt, rm ieCek Spring Creek Pine from path, flow ground-water of traverse Chemical 36. Figure LU LOG SI . Q ZS 3 - - 1 - 5 - 4 2 - 0 0 4 0 S - e - a N — a C 3 0 C H td ae, oten Nevada. southern area, study o l el ws Ls ea Vle, pig Mountains Spring Valley, Vegas Las west well, lla ^ D W W L to et a Vgs Valley Vegas Las West 5 5 10 10 ITNE (km) DISTANCE ITNE (km) DISTANCE 15 15 20 20 m u s p y G - * ■ - —• — Calcite Calcite — —• —+ - D olo m ite ite m olo D - —+ 0 3 5 2 5 2 ---- 0 0 3 104 105

TABLE 12. RESULTS OF CHEMICAL MODELING, WEST LAS VEGAS VALLEY FLOW PATH.

Pine Creek Spring to Red Rock Visitor Center Well

Param eter Conc. Cone. Error A Phase* A Phase* measured modeled (percent) BALANCE PHREEQE (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1)

PHo 7.43 7.42 0 Ca2+ 2.12 2.14 1 -0.55 -0.53 Mg2+ 1.23 1.23 0 0.37 - HCOo" 3.48 3.63 4 - -

sof- 1.77 1.77 0 1.30 -

LW W D # l a = 60% Red Rock Visitor Center Well & 40% Tule Springs Well

Parameter Cone. Cone. Error A Phase* A Phase* measured modeled (percent) BALANCE PHREEQE (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1)

pH 7.60 7.60 0 Ca2+ 1.55 1.63 2 -0.35 -0.36 Mg2+ 1.29 1.15 6 0.14 0.22 H C 03" 3.66 3.85 8 - - S 0 42" 1.21 1.09 3 0.13 0.08

LWWD #lla = 10% Red Rock Visitor Center Well & 90% Tule Springs Well

Parameter Cone. Cone. Error A Phase* A Phase* measured modeled (percent) BALANCE PHREEQE (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/ 1) (mmoles/l)

pH 7.56 7.57 0 Ca2+ 1.35 1.38 2 -0.08 -0.14 Mg2+ 1.07 1.19 11 0.00 0.12 HCOg- 3.71 4.19 13 -- S O f- 0.67 0.65 3 0.27 0.25

* Negative indicates precipitation and positive indicates dissolution. 106

Mg2+, and SO2- concentrations decrease as does log SI gypsum. Noack (1988)

hypothesized mixing of the two ground-water masses in the vicinity of the Las

Vegas well field as a result of the large induced gradients that are produced by

heavy pumping of ground water. Representative ground water in the northern

portion of the Las Vegas Valley is found at Tule Springs well which is a mix of 90

percent regional carbonate ground water and 10 percent Spring Mountains ground

water (Lyles and Hess, 1988). Mixing of the two ground-water masses would

explain the isotopic behavior of ground water in the vicinity of the Las Vegas well

field. Ground waters from the northern portion of the valley have depleted 8 D

values and low concentrations of carbon-14 because of the large amount of

regional ground water present. Mixing with ground water from the western

portion of the valley would drive 8 D and pmc values lower while increasing 8 13C.

Geochemical modeling of ground water in the vicinity of the Las Vegas well

field consisted of mixing ground water from Tule Springs well in the north with ground water from the Red Rock Visitor Center well and reacting the mix with

calcite, dolomite, and gypsum. BALANCE was used first to determine the percentage of each water present in LWWD # la well (#52, 701 m) and LWWD

# lla well. Percentages were incorporated in PHREEQE along with the mineral assemblage and the resulting water was compared with measured concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO^-, and SO2- and measured pH values in LWWD # la well and LWWD # lla well. Results of the chemical modeling are listed in Table 12.

LWWD #la well is located approximately 3 km west of LVVWD #lla, up gradient from the heart of the Las Vegas well field, and is a mix of 60 percent Red

Rock Visitor Center well and 40 percent Tule Springs well. Modeling suggests small amounts of calcite are precipitating along with dissolution of dolomite and gypsum. LW W D # l l a is found in the heart of the Las Vegas well field and is a 107

mix of 10 percent Red Rock Visitor Center well and 90 percent of Tule Springs well. Modeling suggests calcite and dolomite are at saturation with some dissolution of gypsum occurring. 108

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The Spring Mountains are the largest recharge area in southern Nevada and are considered part of the regional carbonate aquifer system found in eastern

Nevada. Because of their recharge potential and their proximity to Las Vegas, an understanding of the recharge processes and the chemical nature of ground waters in the study area are necessary to help adequately plan for future consumption.

This research suggests more precipitation is recharging the ground-water system at higher elevations then previously thought and mixing of several ground-water masses including older regional water appears to be occurring in the northern Las

Vegas Valley.

Recharge to the ground-water system in the Spring Mountains appears to be composed of some warm summer rain as well as cold winter snow. Comparisons of average 8 D and 8 180 of sampled ground waters with average 8 D and 8 180 of snow and rain in the study area suggest a mixture of over 40 percent rain and less then 60 percent snow to derive ground waters. Similarly, a detailed study of 8 D and 8 lsO of precipitation and ground water at Deer Creek Spring #1 suggest some summer precipitation is recharging the ground-water system in the Spring

Mountains. The weighed mean isotopic value of all precipitation at Deer Creek

Spring #1 for the time period is isotopically heavier than the isotopic value of ground water at Deer Creek Spring #1 at base flow conditions. Exclusion of pre­ cipitation amounts of 1.5 centimeters or less of summer precipitation makes the weighted mean isotopic value of precipitation approximately equal to isotopic values of ground water at Deer Creek Spring #1. Figure 24 illustrates that most 109

summer precipitation occurs in concentrated time periods of several days allowing the thin soil zones to become saturated and for precipitation to recharge through fractures. Considering trends of increased precipitation and decreased tempera­ tures with increased elevation, along with decreased plant density and decreased soil depths with increased elevations, precipitation from events of several days duration should infiltrate the soil zones and enter fractures at higher elevations.

The anomalous 8 13C of high elevation springs in the Spring Mountains also suggest a large amount of recharge at higher elevations. Ground water between

1825 and 2525 m elevation have 8 13C ranging from -11.2 to -9.4°/oo while ground water above 2525 meters have 8 13C ranging from -9.6 to -8.0°/oo. This reversal of the idealized model, where ground water in the recharge areas have the most depleted 8 13C, appear to be the result of low plant densities and thin soils.

Modeling of 8 13C in ground water suggest low P co 2 and enriched 8 13C in soil

C 0 2 above timberline similar to atmospheric values. This agrees with the hypothesis that decreases in soil thickness and plant density allows easier infiltration as elevation increases. 8 13C modeling suggest open system conditions in the mountain block where ground waters are in contact with soil C 0 2 via frac­ tures in the bedrock.

Ground waters recharged in the upper portions of the mountain range then flow down gradient in either the bedrock aquifers or the alluvial-fan aquifers.

Percent modern carbon of ground water suggest higher ground water velocities in the alluvial-fan aquifers then the underlying bedrock aquifers. Ground water in the alluvial-fan aquifers have an average pmc of 56.6 while two wells in the bedrock aquifer on the northeast side of the study area have an average pmc of

13.8. The percent modern carbon of ground water in the valley-fill aquifers are similar to values in the bedrock aquifers (average pmc of valley-fill ground waters 110

= 13.7). In the vicinity of the Las Vegas shear zone, a mixing of alluvial-fan ground water, bedrock ground water and regional ground water is occurring (Lyles and Hess, 1988; and Noack, 1988) and is documented by variations in pmc

(alluvial-fan = 56.5, bedrock = 13.8, regional 1.9). Ground water in the

Pahrump Valley appear to be derived exclusively from Spring Mountain recharge

(Harrill, 1986).

Chemically, most ground waters in the study area are of high quality (low

TDS) as the result of the predominance of carbonate rock. Water quality decreases to the north and south in the areas away from the central carbonate mountain block. Increases in TDS, SOf- , and Na+ + K+ are the result of changes in lithology with Precambrian and Early Cambrian quartzite and shale in the north and Mesozoic clastic and evaporite rocks to the south. Ground waters flowing from the central Spring Mountains into the opposing Pahrump and Indian

Springs Valleys evolve chemically through carbonate terrain. Modeling of the chemical evolution of ground water shows calcite saturation is achieved in the first part of the flow path followed by incongruent dissolution of dolomite. Further along the flow path, dissolution of small amounts of gypsum causes calcite precip­ itation. In the Las Vegas Valley, mixing of two different ground-water masses occurs in the vicinity of the Las Vegas Valley well field (Noack, 1988). Modeling suggests a mixture of 90 percent ground water from the northern part of the Las

Vegas Valley (Las Vegas shear zone) with 10 percent ground water from the western part of the Las Vegas Valley (Red Rock alluvial fan). Ill

FURTHER RESEARCH

Because of the large area covered in this study, a broad or regional approach was taken for collection and interpretation of data. For an initial investigation, this approach worked very well. However, some interesting and previously unk­ nown phenomena have been discovered including the possibility of summer precip­ itation recharging the ground-water system in the Spring Mountains and the enriched 8 13C values of high elevation springs. The hypotheses put forth in this study are based on a limited amount of data and numerous assumptions. Follow­ ing are several recommendations for further research that may better define the concepts discussed above.

The hypothesis that a significant amount of summer precipitation is recharg­ ing the ground-water system at high elevations is based on several assumptions.

These assumptions include that evaporation of soil water is not occurring before recharge, the isotopic signature of individual snow-fall events and the isotopic sig­ nature of the snow pack are representative of recharging waters, and that the iso­ topic signature of precipitation falling at Deer Creek Spring #1 is representative of precipitation falling higher in the catchment area. To better delineate the processes occurring during recharge, the isotopic signature of soil waters at high elevations should be examined during the spring snow melt period and after large summer precipitation events. Variation of the isotopic signature of snow pack over time has been documented and should also be considered in the Spring

Mountains. Collection of water derived from the snow pack should be collected and analyzed for 8 D and 8 180. The isotopic signature of precipitation is known 112

to vary with the elevation of formation which is dependent on the temperature of

formation. In this study, the isotopic signature of precipitation at Deer Creek

Spring #1 was compared with the isotopic signature of ground water at Deer

Creek Spring # 1. However, most water recharging Deer Creek Spring is derived

from precipitation falling at much higher elevations. Therefore, to accurately com­

pare the isotopic signature of a spring with the isotopic signature of the water

recharging that spring, sampling of precipitation in the catchment area above the

spring should be conducted.

The isotopic signature of precipitation varies from storm to storm, from year

to year, and from the origin of the air mass (Gat, 1980). The collection of precipi­

tation for isotopic analyses for this study was conducted over approximately a one

year period. Because of the variation of isotopic signature of precipitation over

time, a continuation of sampling of precipitation in the Spring Mountains should

be considered. Also, the isotopic signature of Deer Creek Spring # 1 may vary

with time. Periodic sampling of the ground water, perhaps on a monthly basis, should be conducted to develop an isotopic hydrograph of discharge at Deer Creek

Spring # 1 or any other spring considered for observation.

Carbon-13 analyses of ground water in the Spring Mountains study area also

raised some interesting questions about the influences of different carbon sources

and sinks on ground water. Initial interpretations of the observation that ground water above 2525 m has enriched 8 13C values relative to ground water between

1825 m and 2525 m suggest that soil C 0 2 above timberline has close to atmos­ pheric values of Pco 2 aQd & 13C. In order to explain this phenomena more rigorously, a sampling traverse similar to the one conducted by Amundson and

Doner (1986) should be conducted from the ponderosa community to the alpine tundra community above timberline. This sampling traverse should include 113

measurements of soil PCq2, collection of soil gas for analysis of 8 13C of soil C 0 2, collection of pedogenic carbonate for 8 13C analysis, collection of atmosphere for

813C analysis of C02, and collection of parent (bedrock) material for 813C analysis. Also, several sites that are representative of the different plant commun­ ities should be examined for plant type and plant density. Collection of this data would greatly improve the ability to accurately model the interactions of atmos­ pheric and soil C 0 2 with pedogenic material, parent material, and ground water. 114

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Quade, J., Cerling, T. E., and Bowman, J. R., 1989, Systematic variations in the carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonate along elevation transects in the southern Great Basin, United States: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 101, p. 464-475.

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Winograd, I. J., and Thordarson, W., 1975, Hydrogeologic and hydrogeochemical framework of the southcentral Great Basin, Nevada, California, with special reference to the Nevada Test Site: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 712-C, 126 p. APPENDIX A

Field Data 124

Field D ata

Bootleg Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 30’30” Latitude = 36 ° 02’56”

Comments : Bootleg Spring is located several kilometers north of Mountain Springs at the southern end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a marshy area in a shallow veneer of alluvium. The hills in the area are composed of Devonian Sultan Limestone. The stable isotope samples were collected from a small diameter black plastic pipe approximately 100 meters from the marshy area.

Field D ata

Sample Number 6 Sample Date 6/17/87 Elevation 1698.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium/Devonian Sultan Limestone Temperature Field EC pH

Bootlegger Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 35’48” Latitude = 36 0 09’59”

Comments : Bootlegger Spring is located in Lovell Canyon on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from the Permian Redbeds of the Moenkopi Formation.

Field D ata

Sample Number 7 Sample Date 6/18/87 Elevation 1940.0 m Geology Permian Redbeds Temperature 9.3 ° C Field EC 708 //mhos @ 25 ° C pH 125

Buck Spring

Longitude = 115 0 46’29” Latitude = 36 ° 20’37”

Comments'. Buck Spring is located north of the central block of the Spring Moun­ tains in the vicinity of Wheeler Well. The spring issues from several seeps in a dry creek bed. A small diameter black plastic pipe immerges from the creek bed and runs approximately 100 m to a metal trough. The samples were collected from the end of the black pipe.

Field D ata

Sample Number 9 Sample Date 7/01/87 Elevation 2224.0 m Geology Quat. Alluvium/Penn. Bird Spring Formation Temperature 13.9 ° C Field EC 619 //mhos @ 25 0 C pH 7.56

CC Spring

Longitude = 115 0 35’30” Latitude = 36 0 08’33”

Comments: CC Spring is located in Lovell Canyon on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. The spring is partially developed and issues from the Permian Kiabab Limestone. The samples were collected from a small pool of standing water with a large amount of organic matter (grass and insects).

Field D ata

Sample Number 10 Sample Date 6/18/87 Elevation 1882.0 m Geology Permian Kiabab Limestone Temperature 13 5 0 C Field EC 643 //mhos @ 250 C pH

Clark Spring Longitude = 115 ° 43T5” Latitude = 36 ° 19’14”

Comments: Clark Spring is one of the highest elevation spring sampled and is located in the central block of the mountain range on the west side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from fractured limestone of either Cambrian Nopah or Bonanza King Formations. The samples were collected from a small hole dug 126

in saturated material at the base of a swampy area.

Field Data

Sample Number 14 Sample Date 6/24/87 Elevation 2648.0 m Geology Cambrian Nopah or Bonanza King Temperature 10.8 ° C Field EC 540 //mhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.87

Coal Spring

Longitude = 115°37’12” Latitude = 36°09’44”

Comments'. Coal Spring is located in an arroyo between Lovell Canyon and Trout Canyon on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from alluvium in the arroyo.

Field Data

Sample Number 15 Sample Date 6/18/87 Elevation 1945.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium Temperature 10.8 ° C Field EC 596 //mhos @ 25 ° C pH

Cold Creek Spring

Longitude = 115 0 44’36” Latitude = 36 ° 24’32”

Comments : Cold Creek Spring is located on an alluvial fan on the northeast side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues at the head of an erosional cut in the alluvium. Flow varies from 17.8 1/s in January to a peak of 65.7 1/s in April. Hughes (1966) suggests the large discharge, which occurs from non-saturated material, may be the result of an erosional exposure of a cavernous system.

Field Data

Sample Number 16 Sample Date 3/31/87 Elevation 1930.0 m Geology Quaternary/Tertiary Alluvium Temperature 10.0 ° C Field EC 429 /Ltmhos @ 2 5 0 C pH 7.77

Crystal Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 58’25” Latitude = 36 ° 25’39”

Comments : Crystal Spring is located on the western side of the northwest end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a marshy area in a small narrow canyon. Stable isotope samples were collected from a small pool of standing water in the marshy area.

Field D ata

Sample Number 20 Sample Date 7/07/87 Elevation 1580.0 m Geology Precambrian Johnnie Formation Temperature Field EC pH

Deer Creek Spring #1

Longitude = 115 0 38T5” Latitude = 36 ° 18’23”

Comments : Deer Creek Spring #1 is located on a steep north-facing slope below the body of Mummy Mountain on the northeastern side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a fracture in the bedrock and flows approximately 2 km to the Deer Creek Spring Picnic Area. Flow varies from 1.1 1/s in January to a peak of 15.7 1/s in May.

Field D ata

Sample Number 22 Sample Date 3/30/87 Elevation 2870.0 m Geology Ordovician Pogonip Group Temperature 4.3 °C Field EC 269 //mhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 7.90 128

East Horse Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 52’15” Latitude = 36 0 17’50”

Comments: East Horse Spring is located northeast of Pahrump in the foothills of the Spring Mountains. The spring sampled is found approximately 1 km east of Horse Spring (as marked on numerous maps) and issues from the same outcrop at approximately the same elevation.

Field D ata

Sample Number 26 Sample Date 6/25/87 Elevation 1620.0 m Geology Cambrian Carrara Formation Temperature 18.9 0 C Field EC 509 //mhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 7.23

Gold Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 57’39” Latitude = 36 ° 27’48”

Comments: Gold Spring is located at the northeast end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a a small diameter black plastic pipe approximately 50 meters from a hill of purple quartzite and flows into a trough. Stable isotope samples were collected from the end of the pipe.

Field D ata

Sample Number 34 Sample Date 7/14/87 Elevation 1118.0 m Geology Precambrian Stirling Quartzite Temperature 42.7 0 C Field EC pH

Grapevine Spring II

Longitude = 116°01’32” Latitude = 36°27’25”

Comments: Grapevine Spring II is located on the western side of the northwestern end of the Spring Mountains. Several springs issue from alluvial material and quartzite outcrops in the area. The springs are developed with steel pipes and several ponds in the vicinity of an active mining operation. The samples were col­ lected from a steel pipe at the end of an adit approximately 100 meters deep. 129

Field D ata

Sample Number 36 Sample Date 7/09/87 Elevation 1359.0 m Geology Precambrian Stirling Quartzite Temperature 18.9 °C Field EC 608 //mhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 7.73

Grassy Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 29’57” Latitude = 36 0 20’23”

Comments : Grassy Spring is located in Grassy Canyon, •which is the next major canyon north of Kyle Canyon on the eastern side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from an outcrop of pink siltstone of the Moenkopi Formation. The samples were collected from a small pool of water in a marshy area at the base of the outcrop.

Field D ata

Sample Number 37 Sample Date 7/28/87 Elevation 1569.7 m Geology Triassic Moenkopi Formation Temperature 19.4 °C Field EC 1077 /^mhos/cm @ 25 0 C pH 7.84

Harris Springs

Longitude = 115 ° 32’35” Latitude = 36 ° 14’27”

Comments: Harris Springs are located in the next canyon south of Kyle Canyon on the eastern side of the Spring Mountains. The springs issue from a wide expanse of alluvial material in the main part of the canyon which is composed of Permian Redbeds. The samples were collected from a stream of water in a marshy area where the stream originates.

Field D ata

Sample Number 38 Sample Date 7/15/87 Elevation 1820.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium/Permian Redbeds 130

Temperature 14.00 C Field EC 675 /umhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 7.45

Hidden Hills Ranch Well

Longitude = 115 ° 51’51” Latitude = 36 0 00’51”

Comments: The well is located in the center of a compound of several buildings at Hidden Hills Ranch which is located in the southern Pahrump Valley on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. According to the caretaker, the well was drilled in 1963 and was connected to a small tank. The pump was run for 10 minutes and then the well was sampled. The samples were collected from a gar­ den hose connected to the tank.

Field Data

Sample Number 39 Sample Date 7/30/87 Elevation 841.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium Temperature 24.10 C Field EC 476 //mhos/cm @ 25 0 C pH 7.22

Horseshutem Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 59’57” Latitude = 36 0 26’35”

Comments : Horseshutem Spring is located on the western side of the northwestern end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from alluvial material below a buff to orange colored ridge of Precambrian Johnnie Formation. The samples were collected from a small pool of water at the base of the ridge.

Field D ata

Sample Number 41 Sample Date 7/09/87 Elevation 1490.0 m Geology Precambrian Johnnie Formation Temperature 17.7 ° C Field EC 400 /wmhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 8.18 131

Johnnie Gold Pan Casino Well

Longitude = 116°04’12” Latitude = 36°25T4”

Comments: The well is located behind the casino building in the small commun­ ity of Johnnie which is located in the northern Pahrump Valley on the northwest side of the Spring Mountains. The well was connected to a large diesel pump that was manually switched on and off to fill a large storage tank (over 10 m tall). At the time of collection, the pump was not running. The samples were collected from an exterior faucet at the casino. Considering the size of the tank and the temperature of the water, the water collected for analysis probably sat in the tank for a period of time.

Field D ata

Sample Number 47 Sample Date 7/30/87 Elevation 1012.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium Temperature 29 7 0 C Field EC 444 //mhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 7.61

Kiup Spring

Longitude = 115 0 43’28” Latitude = 36 0 09’57” Comments: Kiup Spring is located at the lower end of Trout Canyon on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a limestone outcrop on the side of a hill. The hill is composed of Cambrian Bonanza King Formation. Stable isotope samples were collected from a small diameter black plastic pipe approximately 100 meters from the hill.

Field D ata

Sample Number 48 Sample Date 6/18/87 Elevation 1625.0 m Geology Cambrian Bonanza King Formation Temperature Field EC pH 132

Kwichup Spring

Longitude = 116 ° 02’16” Latitude = 36 0 28’21”

Comments: Kwichup Spring is located at the northwest end of the Spring Moun­ tains. Stable isotope samples were collected from a pool of standing water in an old adit.

Field D ata

Sample Number 49 Sample Date 7/09/87 Elevation 1206.0 m Geology Precambrian Johnnie Formation Temperature Field EC pH

La Madre Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 30’20” Latitude = 36 0 l l ’Ol”

Comments : La Madre Spring is located in the Red Rock Canyon area, north of the Keystone Thrust fault on the southeastern end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from seeps in alluvium in a small drainage surrounded by outcrops of fractured dolomite. The isotope samples were collected from a small pool of water near the seeps.

Field D ata

Sample Number 53 Sample Date 8/05/87 Elevation 1670.0 m Geology Cambrian Bonanza King Formation Temperature Field EC pH

Lee Canyon Ski Spring

Longitude = 1150 41’03” Latitude = 36 ° 17’32”

Comments: Lee Canyon Ski Spring is located at the head of Lee Canyon above the western ski lift. The spring issues from fractured limestone in a small, steep drainage. The samples were collected from a small stream. 133

Field D ata

Sample Number 55 Sample Date 8/06/87 Elevation 2967.0 m Geology Pennsylvanian Bird Springs Formation Temperature 7.7 0 C Field EC 324 mhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.99

Lee Canyon West Spring

Longitude = 1150 39’45” Latitude = 36 ° 19’37”

Comments : Lee Canyon West Spring is located in Lee Canyon on the east side of the central block of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a seep in allu­ vium on the side of a hill. The stable isotope samples were collected from a small hole dug in the alluvium.

Field Data

Sample Number 57 Sample Date 7/15/87 Elevation 2525.0 m Geology Devonian Sultan Limestone Temperature Field EC pH

Lost Cabin Spring

Longitude = 115 0 39’08” Latitude = 360 05’00”

Comments-. Lost Cabin Spring is located at the southwest end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a fractured limestone cliff. The cliff is com­ posed of Permian Moenkopi Formation. Stable isotope samples were collected from a small diameter black plastic pipe approximately 100 meters from the cliff. 134

Field D ata

Sample Number 61 Sample Date 6/17/87 Elevation 1540.0 m Geology Permian Moenkopi Formation Temperature 33.7 0 C Field EC pH

McFarland Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 44’38” Latitude = 36 ° 22’54”

Comments: McFarland Spring is located west of Cold Creek Spring on the northeast side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a ceramic pipe and flows into a concrete box. Flow from the pipe is approximately 0.5 1/s. The sam­ ples were collected from the end of the ceramic pipe.

Field D ata

Sample Number 65 Sample Date 7/13/87 Elevation 2350.0 m Geology Pennsylvanian Bird Spring Formation Temperature 8.4 0 C Field EC 434 //mhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.29

Mountain Springs

Longitude = 1150 30’20” Latitude = 36 0 01’19”

Comments: The springs are located on the crest of the southern end of the Spring Mountains near Mountain Springs Pass. The springs issue from a small erosional depression filled with alluvium. The source rock is probably Cambrian Bonanza King Formation. Flow at the time of sampling was very low so only 10 ml were collected for stable isotope analysis. 135

Field D ata

Sample Number 67 Sample Date 6/17/87 Elevation 1690.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium/Cambrian Bonanza King Temperature Field EC pH

Mountain Springs Fire Department Well

Longitude = 115 ° 30’24” Latitude = 36 °01’08”

Comments: The well is located next to the fire department building in the com­ munity of Mountain Springs. The well is used only for water supply at the build­ ing. The well has a submersible pump connected to a small holding tank. The pump was run for 10 minutes and then the well was sampled from an exterior faucet.

Field D ata

Sample Number 69 Sample Date 7/30/87 Elevation 1660.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium/Cambrian Bonanza King Temperature 16.7 0 C Field EC 615 //mhos/cm @ 25 ° C pH 7.30

Mud Springs

Longitude = 1150 41’00” Latitude = 360 22T 6”

Comments: Mud Springs are located in an erosional cut filled with alluvium in a small canyon situated between McFarland Canyon and Macks Canyon on the east side of the Spring Mountains. The springs issues from a marshy area in the allu­ vium. The samples were collected from a small stream flowing in the marshy area.

Field D ata

Sample Number 70 Sample Date 7/28/87 Elevation 2280.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium 136

Temperature 11.0 ° C Field EC 712 /Ltmhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.15

Mule Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 34’48” Latitude = 36 ° 01’53”

Comments: Mule Spring is located several kilometers from Mountain Springs on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from fractures in the Kiabab Limestone at the end of an eroded canyon. A stable isotope sample was collected from a small shaded pool at the base of a fractured limestone wall.

Field D ata

Sample Number 72 Sample Date 6/17/87 Elevation 1510.0 m Geology Permian Kiabab Limestone Temperature Field EC pH

Pine Creek Spring

Longitude = 115°29’52” Latitude = 36°07’09”

Comments: Pine Creek Spring is located in the Red Rock Canyon area on the southeastern end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a fractured outcrop of Jurassic Aztec Sandstone. The isotope samples were collected from a small stream of water flowing in the upper reaches of Pine Creek Canyon.

Field Data

Sample Number 81 Sample Date 8/07/87 Elevation 3260.0 m Geology Pennsylvanian Bird Spring Formation Temperature 6.9 0 C Field EC 386 /unhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.61 137

Peak Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 41’49” Latitude = 36 ° 15’40”

Comments: Peak Spring is highest elevation spring sampled and is located in the central block of the mountain range on the west side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from fractured limestone of the Pennsylvanian Bird Spring For­ mation. The samples were collected from a small stream of water flowing over the outcrop. Water for carbon-14 analysis was collected at the end of the dirt access road to Carpenter Canyon (also called Peak Spring Canyon) several km down­ stream of the spring.

Field Data

Sample Number 80 Sample Date 6/23/87 Elevation 3260.0 m Geology Pennsylvanian Bird Spring Formation Temperature 6.9 °C Field EC 386 //mhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.61

Rainbow Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 30’32” Latitude = 36 0 03T0”

Comments: Rainbow Spring is located several km north of Mountain Springs and approximately 1 km northwest of Bootleg Spring at the southern end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from several seeps in a shallow veneer of alluvium. The hills in the area are composed of Cambrian Bonanza King Forma­ tion. The samples were collected close to the seeps in a small drainage.

Field Data

Sample Number 84 Sample Date 6/17/87 Elevation 1702.0 m Geology Quaternary Alluvium/Cambrian Bonanza King Temperature 12.0 °C Field EC 538 //mhos @ 2 5 0 C pH 7.43 138

Trough Spring

Longitude = 115 0 46’29” Latitude = 36 ° 22’39”

Comments'. Trough Spring is located north of the central block of the Spring Mountains in the vicinity of Wheeler Well. The spring issues from a small diame­ ter black plastic pipe that immerges from a side of a hill at the end of a canyon. The pipe runs approximately 50 m to a metal trough. The samples were collected from the end of the black pipe.

Field D ata

Sample Number 101 Sample Date 7/01/87 Elevation 2505.0 m Geology Pennsylvanian Bird Spring Formation Temperature 13.2 ° C Field EC 527 //mhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.62

Trout Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 41’05” Latitude = 36 ° 13’27”

Comments: Trout Spring is located in Trout Canyon on the southwest side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a large cavern found in Pennsylvanian Bird Spring Formation and has a relatively large discharge compared to most springs in the mountain range. The samples were collected from the mouth of the cavern. Strontium Carbonate used for carbon-14 analysis was precipitated in the field from spring water with a fiberglass precipitator carried to the spring.

Field D ata

Sample Number 102 Sample Date 6/30/87 Elevation 2360.0 m Geology Pennsylvanian Bird Spring Formation Temperature 6.9 ° C Field EC 286 //mhos @ 25 0 C pH 8.13

Upper Macks Canyon Spring

Longitude = 115 ° 41’U ” Latitude = 36 ° 20’07”

Comments: Upper Macks Canyon Spring is the uppermost spring in a series of springs near the end of Macks Canyon. Macks Canyon is located on the east side 139

of the central block of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a marshy area at the base of a hill on the side of the canyon The samples were collected from a small stream flowing in the marshy area.

Field D ata

Sample Number 104 Sample Date 7/15/87 Elevation 2710.0 m Geology Ordovician Ely Springs Dolomite Temperature 9.2 °C Field EC 441 jumhos @ 25 ° C pH 8.40

White Rock Spring

Longitude = 115 0 28’43” Latitude = 36 ° 10’27”

Comments'. White Rock Spring is located in the Red Rock Canyon area near the Keystone Thrust fault at the southeastern end of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a steel pipe that is buried in soil at the base of a Jurassic Aztec Sandstone outcrop. The isotope samples were collected from the end of the steel pipe before the water entered a concrete pool.

Field D ata

Sample Number 108 Sample Date 8/05/87 Elevation 1474.6 m Geology Jurassic Aztec Sandstone Temperature Field EC pH

Wood Canyon Spring

Longitude = 115 0 55’54” Latitude = 36 ° 23’58”

Comments : Wood Canyon Spring is a small seep located in Wood Canyon on the western side of the Spring Mountains. The spring issues from a thin veneer of soil underlain by Precambrian Stirling Quartzite. The samples were collected from a small hole dug in the soil. 140

Field Data

Sample Number 113 Sample Date 7/07/87 Elevation 1780.0 m Geology Precambrian Stirling Quartzite Temperature 17.4 °C Field EC 465 jUmhos @ 25 ° C pH 7.30 APPEN DIX B

Geographical Data 142

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Data Sources

1. Desert Reseach Institute

2. U.S. Geological Survey

3. Westphal, J. A., Bateman, R. L., Cooper, E. N., Hainline, J. L., Hess, J. W., Mahoney, J. L. IE, and Patt, R. O., 1975, Reconnaissance study of water and botanical resources of Spring Mountain Ranch and Pine Creek Site of Red Rock Recreational Area, Clark County, Nevada: Desert Research Institute, Center for Water Resources Research, Project report #35, 214 p.

4. Noack, R. E., 1988, Sources of ground water recharging the principal alluvial aquifers in Las Vegas Valley, Nevada: Masters Thesis, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 160 p.

5. Weaver, S. C., 1982. The hydrogeochemistry of the principal alluvial aquifers in Las Vegas Valley, Nevada.: Masters Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, 159 P-

6. Nichols, W. D., and Davis, L. E., 1979. Data on ground-water resources of the Spring Mountains area, Toiyabe National Forest, Nevada: U. S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 79-1638, 16 p.

7. Plume, R. W., 1985, Ground-water resources of Kyle and Lee Canyons, Spring Mountains, Clark County, Nevada: U. S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 84-438, 47 p.

8 . McKinley, P. W., and Benson, L. V., DRAFT, Ground-water chemistry at selected sites in the Yucca Mountain area, Nye County, Nevada: U. S. Geological Ssurvey Open-File Report 86 -XXXX, 82 p.

9. Robinson, B. P., and Beetem, W. A., 1975, Quality of water in aquifers of the Amargosa Desert and vicinity, Nevada: U. S. Geological Survey Report 474- 215, 64 p. 147

10. Claassen, H. C., 1973, Water quality and physical characteristics of Nevada Test Site water-supply wells: U. S. Geological Survey Report 474-158, 141 p.

11. Boughton, C. J., 1986, Integrated geochemical and hydraulic analyses of Nevada Test Site ground-water systems: Masters Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, 135 p.

12. Winograd, I. J., and Pearson, F. J., 1976, Major carbon-14 anomaly in a regional carbonate aquifer: possible evidence for megascale channeling, south central Great Basin: Water Resources Research, v. 12, n. 6, p. 1125. APPENDIX C

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Statistics 164

GEOCHEMICAL STATISTICS

Variable Mean Min Max SD Numb Temperature 17.3 3.0 31.0 7.1 103 EC field 544 269 1357 200 70 EC lab 527 246 1720 268 100 TDS 332 125 1680 226 108 pH field 7.58 6.76 8.71 0.41 72 pH lab 7.84 6.9 8.46 .34 93 Ca2+ 59.8 17.4 150 24.3 108 Mg2+ 29.1 7.8 150 19.6 108 Na+ 13.1 0.6 132 22.0 108 K+ 1.8 0.2 11.1 2.0 107 Cl" 12.7 0.0 225 28.2 108 so42- 66.6 0.8 770 122.8 108 HCOg- field 257 154 521 70 45 HCOg- lab 257 146 508 66 103 C 032- 11.4 0.0 22.6 10.6 5 F~ 0.32 0.00 9.70 0.99 97 NOg- 3.2 0.00 32.3 5.40 97 Si02 14.0 2.7 46.0 8.1 106 Li+ 0.017 0.000 0.210 0.041 73 Sr2+ 0.720 0.045 5.700 0.955 73 Fe2+ 0.102 0.000 1.040 0.278 83 Log P Co2 -2.384 -3.505 -1.589 0.433 93 Log SI calcite 0.262 -0.785 1.180 0.381 93 Log SI dolomite 0.436 -1.781 2.354 0.779 93 Log SI gypsum -2.140 -3.166 -0.731 0.553 93 165

ISOTOPIC STATISTICS

Variable Mean Min Max SD Number GROUND WATER 6D -95 -106 -86 4.2 86 <5 18 O -13.2 -14.3 -10.9 0.65 83 Tritium 6.8 <5.0 30.6 9.38 55 6 13 C -8.8 -12.4 -5.6 1.42 72 14C 42.0 1.9 104.0 30.65 53 234u OQO, ^ 3.7 1.7 10.5 1.78 28

PRECIPITATION t 5D CO 00 -161 -24 32.9 57 5 18 O -13.3 -22.4 -2.7 4.63 57

RAIN 8 D -72 -139 -24 27.2 24 8 lsO -9.6 -18.7 -2.7 4.08 24

SNOW 8 D -117 -161 -82 22.5 33 8 180 -16.0 -22.4 -11.6 2.85 33 APPENDIX F

Laboratory Chemical Analysis Methods 167

Measurement Reference Parameter Method Equipment

EPA-600/4-79-020 Beckman 4500 pH (March, 1979b) Automated Titrator Method 150.1 EPA-600/4-79-020 Beckman Model RC-19 Electrical Conductivity (March, 1979b) Conductivity Bridge Method 120.1 Bicarbonate EPA-600/4-79-020 Brinkman Metrohm (Alkalinity) (March, 1979b) Automated Titrator Method 305.1 Model E 636/Series 02 EPA-600/4-79-020 Coulter Industrial Chloride (March, 1979b) Kemolab Method 325.1 EPA-600/4-79-020 Hach Model 2100 Sulfate (March, 1979b) Turbidimeter Method 375.4 EPA-600/4-79-020 Two Channel Technicon Nitrate (March, 1979b) Autoanalyzer Method 353.2 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Sodium (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 273.1 Spectrophotometer 952 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Potassium (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 258.1 Spectrophotometer 952 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Magnesium (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 242.1 Spectrophotometer 952 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Calcium (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 215.1 Spectrophotometer 952 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Lithium (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 243.1 Spectrophotometer 952 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Strontium (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 200.0 Spectrophotometer 952 EPA-600/4-79-020 Instrumentation Laboratory Iron (March, 1979b) AA/AE Method 236.1 Spectrophotometer 952 Skougstad e t al., Coulter Automated Silica (1979b) Analyzer

EPA-600/4-79-020 Floride (March, 1979b) Specific Ion Probe Method 340.2 APPENDIX G

Geochemical Modeling 169

McFarland spring + minerals => Cold Creek spring CA 1.72 1.91 MG 0.70 0.53 S 0.09 0.07 C 4.46 4.40

CALCITE CA 1.0 C 1.0 DOLOMITE CA 1.0 MG 1.0 C 2.0 CO2 GAS C 1.0 GYPSUM CA 1.0 S 1.0

McFarland spring + minerals => Cold Creek spring

DELTA CALCITEDOLOMITE C02 GAS GYPSUM

-0.190 CA 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.170 MG 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.020 S 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.060 C 1.000 2.000 1.000 0.000

DELTA PHASES

CALCITE -0.3800

DOLOMITE 0.1700

C02 GAS 0.1000

GYPSUM 0.0200

Negative delta phase indicates precipitation, positive delta phase indicates dissolution. 170

Cold Creek spring + minerals => Indian spring CA 1.16 1.72 MG 1.00 0.70 S 0.17 0.09 C 4.00 4.46

CALCITE CA 1.0 C 1.0 DOLOMITE CA 1.0 MG 1.0 C02 GAS C 1.0 GYPSUM CA 1.0 S 1.0

Cold Creek spring + minerals => Indian spring

DELTA CALCITE DOLOMITE C02 GAS GYPSUM

-0.560 CA ' 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.300 MG 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.080 S 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 -0.460 C 1.000 2.000 1.000 0.000

DELTA PHASES

CALCITE -0.9400

DOLOMITE 0.3000

C02 GAS -0.1200

GYPSUM 0.0800

Negative delta phase indicates precipitation, positive delta phase indicates dissolution. 171

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Trout spring + minerals => Manse Spring well CA 1.20 1.19 MG 0.91 0.42 S 0.24 0.05 C 3.82 3.15

CALCITE CA 1.0 C 1.0 DOLOMITE CA 1.0 MG 1.0 C 2.0 C02 GAS C 1.0 GYPSUM CA 1.0 S 1.0

Trout spring + minerals => Manse Spring well

DELTA CALCITE DOLOMITE C02 GAS GYPSUM

0.010 CA 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.490 MG 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.190 S 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.670 C 1.000 2.000 1.000 0.000

DELTA PHASES

CALCITE -0.6700

DOLOMITE 0.4900

C02 GAS 0.3600

GYPSUM 0.1900

Negative delta phase indicates precipitation, positive delta phase indicates dissolution. 194

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CALCITE CA 1.0 C 1.0 DOLOMITE CA 1.0 MG 1.0 C02 GAS C 1.0 GYPSUM CA 1.0 S 1.0 1

Pine Creek spring + minerals => Red Rock Visitor Center well

DELTA CALCITE DOLOMITE C02 GAS GYPSUM

1.120 CA 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.370 MG 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 1.300 S 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.970 c 1.000 2.000 1.000 0.000

DELTA PHASES

CALCITE -0.5500

DOLOMITE 0.3700

C02 GAS 0.7800

GYPSUM 1.3000

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mo • H* I u> cn o o 232 'description of solution ***« Hr or» S r-» •H rH co _ *h •o 4". 83 _ $•8 ■ 0 or* 2 > oS1

. meg m rH • o . • o r* in 10 * &• r* 10 « . ^ vo et • 9 h 0 0 ^ * S S i 2 * i © eg © r- ci m m u• • •

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19 GYPSUM 0.62«2e-06 0.2494e-04 -6.2047 -4.6031 0.2502e-01 -1.60166 -2.18585 GYPSUM 62 HALITE 0.5006e-07 0.3821e+02 -7.3005 1.5822 0.1310e-08 -8.88274 -12.12263 HALITE 114 HUOTITE 0.6115e-33 0.1061e-29 -33.2136 -29.9743 0.5764e-03 -3.23929 -4.42079 HUOTITE 233 234

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