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371GPC-Pioneering /Research Copy ISSN 8755-6839 SCIENCE OF TSUNAMI HAZARDS Journal of Tsunami Society International Volume 37 Number 1 2018 BRIEF HISTORY OF EARLY PIONEERING TSUNAMI RESEARCH – Part A George Pararas-Carayannis Tsunami Society International, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A ABSTRACT The year 2015 marked the 50th anniversary of operations of the International Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific Ocean - which officially begun in 1965. Our previous report in this journal described briefly the establishment of early tsunami warning systems by the USA and other countries and the progressive improvements and international cooperative efforts which were expanded to include other regions in establishing the International Tsunami Warning System under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, with the purpose of mitigating the disaster’s impact. The present paper (Part A) provides a brief historical review of the early, pioneering research efforts undertaken mainly in the U.S.A. and in Canada, initially by scientists at the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics of the University of Hawaii, at the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, at the Honolulu Observatory - later renamed Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) - at the International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC), at the Joint Tsunami Research Effort (JTRE) and at the later-established Joint Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Research (JIMAR) at the University of Hawaii, in close cooperation with scientists at the Pacific Division of the National Weather Service (NWS) of and the Pacific Marine Environmenal Laboratory (PMEL) of NOAA in Seattle. Also, reviewed briefly - but to a lesser extent - are some of the additional early research projects undertaken by scientists of the U.S. Coast of Geodetic Survey (USC&GS), of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), of the U.S. National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) in Boulder, Colorado, of the U.S. Army, Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) and the Waterways Experiment Station (WES) in Vicksburg, Mississippi, and of researchers at different U.S. Universities and by members of the Tsunami Society, as well as at by many other national and international governmental and non-governmental institutions and Civil Defense Agencies. Part B will expand on international contributions. Keywords: Tsunami research; Science of Tsunami Hazards; Pacific Tsunami Warning System; Vol. 37, No. 1, page 49 (2018) 1 BRIEF HISTORY OF EARLY PIONEERING TSUNAMI RESEARCH – Part A: USA and Canada 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Pioneering Research in Seismology 1.2 Pioneering Research in Tsunami Science 1.3 Early Applied Research Efforts in Support of a Tsunami Warning System for the Pacific Region 1.4 2. EARLY TSUNAMI RESEARCH IN THE USA, CANADA AND INTERNATIONALLY – THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCIENCE OF TSUNAMI HAZARDS 2.1 Evolution of Early Tsunami Warning Systems and Development of the International Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific and Other Oceans and Seas. 3. FOCUS OF EARLY TSUNAMI RESEARCH IN SUPPORT OF THE TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM IN THE PACIFIC 3.1 Methodology for Establishing Tsunami Risk - Preparation of Inundation Charts and Zones of Evacuation in Hawaii. 3.2 Use of Atmospheric Data for Evaluation of Potential Tsunamis 3.3 Recommendation on the Relative Susceptibility of the Hawaiian Islands to Waves Generated by Storms and Nuclear Explosions 3.4 Recommendation - Field Office Addition of the Tsunami Warning System in the Atlantic 3.5 Preparation of Charts for Rapid Earthquake Epicenter Determination in Support of the Tsunami Warning System. 3.6 Quadripartite Seismic Array for rapid earthquake epicenter determinations 3.7 Additional Research on Tsunami Propagation and Decay 3.8 Research on the Hydrodynamics of Long Period Waves 3.9 Numerical Modeling Studies on the Dissipation of Long Period Waves and Tsunamis 3.10 Research on the Linear and Non-linear Behavior of Tsunamis 3.11 Modeling Tsunami Generation, Propagation, Wave Breaking and Run-up. 4. STUDIES OF TSUNAMI ANOMALIES AND PRECURSORY SEISMIC PHENOMENA 4.1 Studies of T-phases and of Other Seismic Signals 4.2 Studies of Ionospheric Pertubations from Large Earthquakes 4.3 Research on Frequency-Energy Distribution of Earthquakes in Establishing Probabilities of Recurrence. 4.4 Theoretical Studies and Mathematical Models and Analysis on Tsunami Propagation 4.5 Studies of Compressional and Shear Wave Arrivals at Hydrophones from Nuclear Explosions and Earthquakes. Vol. 37, No. 1, page 50 (2018) 2 4.6 Marine Geology and Volcanology Studies 4.6.1 Other volcanological and Geologicalstudies (Mount Augustine, Alaska; Cumbre Vieja/LaPalma-Canary Islands; Caribbean-LesserAntilles; The earthquake and Tsunami of 365 A.D in the Eastern Mediterranean 4.7 Development of Deep-Ocean Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems - Establishment of a Regional Tsunami Warning System for the Hawaiian Islands – Establishment of other Regional Warning Systems. 4.8 Preparation of Tsunami Travel Charts in Support of the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific - Numerical Modeling of Tsunami Wave Refraction 4.9 Development of Planning and Zoning Criteria 4.10 Research on Tsunami Response of Island Systems 4.11 Numerical Modeling Studies 5. DOCUMENTATION OF MAJOR TSUNAMIGENIC EARTHQUAKES 5.1 Investigations of the Great Chile Earthquake and Tsunami of 23 May 1960 5.2 Investigations of the Great Alaska Earthquake and Tsunami of 27 March 1964 5.3 Investigations of the November 29, 1975 tsunami along the coast of the island of Hawaii – Slope Failure of Kilauea Volcano 5.4 Investigations of Subaerial and Submarine Landslides and Rock Falls 5.4.1 Analysis of the 9 July 1958 Tsunami Generation Mechanism in Lituya Bay, Alaska 5.4.1a Proposed Asteroid Model Validation based on the Lituya Bay Rockfall Event - Verification of the Impulsive Rockfall Source Mechanism 5.5 Investigation or The Mexican Earthquakes and Tsunami of September 19 and 21, 1985. 5.6 The 17 August 1999 Koaceli Earthquake and Tsunami in Izmit Bay, Turkey. 6. PREPARATION OF HISTORICAL TSUNAMI CATALOGS AND DATABASES 6.1a. Catalog of Tsunamis in the Pacific 6.1b Catalog of Tsunamis in Alaska 6.1c Catalog of Historical Tsunamis in the Hawaiian Islands. 7. PREPARATION OF ADDITIONAL HISTORICAL TSUNAMI CATALOGS 7.1 Catalog of Tsunamis in the Samoan Islands 7.2 Catalogs of Tsunamis for Other Regions 8. EFFORTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONAL TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEMS IN SOUTH AMERICA AND THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC 8.1 Five-Year Master Plan for the Development of a Regional Tsunami Warning System in the Southwest Pacific (Experts Missions and Project Formulation) 8.2 Other Master Plans for the Development of Regional Tsunami Warning Systems Vol. 37, No. 1, page 51 (2018) 3 9. TSUNAMI RISK ASSESSMENT AND HAZARD MITIGATION STUDIES 9.1. Design and Safety Guidelines for Nuclear Power Plants. 9.2 Critical Assessment of Global and Regional Vulnerabilities and Strategies for Mitigating Tsunami Impacts on Nuclear Power Plants. 9.3 Critical Assessment of Global and Regional Vulnerabilities and Strategies for Mitigating the Potential Impacts of Other Disasters on Nuclear Power Plants. 9.4 Subsequent Concerns and Research on the Safety of Nuclear Power Plants 10. DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATIONAL AND EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS 10.1 Visiting Scientists Training Programs and Applied Tsunami Research Coordination by ITIC and PTWC 11. PREPARATION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS IN SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION AND AWARENESS OF TSUNAMI HAZARDS 11.1 Preparation of Educational Materials 11.1a Children’s Book About Tsunamis 11.2 Compilations of Tsunami Glossaries 11.3 Compilation of Sea Level Data 12. PREPARATION OF WAVE REPORTING PROCEDURES FOR TIDE OBSERVERS IN THE TSUNAMI WANRING SYSTEM, MANUALS AND GUIDES 13. TSUNAMI SOCIETY’S SUPPORT OF THE TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEMS THROUGH DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE, PROMOTION OF AWARENESS AND MITIGATION OF TSUNAMI HAZARDS 13. 1 Formation of the Tsunami Society 13.2 Mandate and Functions of Tsunami Society 13.3 Publication of the international Journal “Science of Tsunami Hazards’” 13.4 Change of Name to Tsunami Society International. 13.5 Awards of Tsunami Society International 13.6 Recent Publications of International Scientists in the Society’s Journal and other Academic Publications on Major Tsunamigenic Earthquakes (i.e The 29 September 2009 Tsunamigenic Earthquake in the Tonga-Kermadec Trench) . CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Vol. 37, No. 1, page 52 (201 4 BRIEF HISTORY OF EARLY PIONEERING TSUNAMI RESEARCH – Part A: Mainly in USA and Canada 1. INTRODUCTION Scientific knowledge has several distinct and important facets in the development of our civilization. Τhe term “science” refers to a collection of known facts and observations’ which taken together over a period of time provide humanity with an understanding of physical phenomena – thus giving us greater power over nature, as well as a base and the means by which we can improve and protect our lives, our environment and to mitigate deleterious impacts of natural disasters. Thus, the study of the history of a scientific field allows us to have a glimpse of just how we gradually discovered everything we know about the natural laws and how we can improve our understanding and our subsequent progress to build block by block on our cumulative knowledge. Earthquakes and tsunamis are well known natural hazards that have impacted human settlements for thousands of years. However seismology is a very new science. The study of Tsunami Hazards - as a scientific discipline - did not begin until after the 1946 Aleutian earthquake, so it has been an even newer field
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