Trapped Within the Confrontation Between Unified State Political

ęȱȱȱȱȱ1

by Mykola Horokh

Abstract The articles uses previously unknown sources to analyze the issues of confrontation between the ȱĜȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱǻ¢ȱȮȱȃ”) and the ęȱȱȱȱǻȱȮȱȂȱȱȱ ȱěǼǯȱ is an ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱęȱȱȱȱŗşřŖǯȱȱȱ distribution centers, cooperatives, commercial stores, the “black” market, and the card rationing system operated, the network stores were by far the only examples of open state trade where every citizen could purchase the commodities s/he needed and the network itself was the ȱ ȱ £Ȭȱ ȱ £ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ USPD in the life of ǲȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ ȱȱ£ȱȱęȱ ȱ ȱǲȱȱȱȱĜ¢ǯȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱŗşřŖȱȱŗşřŜǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱĜȱȱȱǯ

Keywords: Torgsin, USDP, NKVD, trade, currency valuables

he socio-economic1 conditions of the Return from Oblivion TSoviet Union in the early 1930s demanded authorities to search for alternative sources of For decades, Soviet leaders suppressed the currency revenues that would facilitate the fact that there was mass famine in Ukraine in industrialization of the country along with 1932 and 1933, while the agenda subject to a the export revenues, gold extraction, and the certain taboo. A similar approach was typical expropriation of valuables by the institutions of for other issues directly or indirectly related ȱęȱȱȱȱǻǼȱ to the tragic events. The range of unwanted and the People’s Commissariat of Internal and literally forbidden subjects also included ěȱ ǻ Ǽȱ ȱ ŗŖȱ ¢ȱ ŗşřŚǯȱ ȱ the . Its annual foreign currency plans, ȱ ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱĜȱ sales plans, reports on incoming valuables, for Trade with Foreigners on the Territory of the explanatory notes to them, directives on USSR, broadly known under the abbreviation organizing the purchasing of valuables had of “.” State leaders expected it to best ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ Ȃȱ ǯȱ perform by “summoning” gold, silver, platina, The category ‘not to publish’ included its jewels, and foreign currency from the citizens’ quarterly and monthly foreign currency plans, ǯȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ sales plans and plans to transfer the boosted by factors such as starvation, the short ȱ ȱ Ȃȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǻĚǰȱ Ǽǰȱ £ǰȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ the introduction of a rationing system, the antique items or jewelry. Even the Ukrainian openness of the network stores to all groups Republican Exports Council was debriefed on of the population irrespective of their social ȱĜȂȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ background. organizations, during the closed sessions.2 The

1 The article was written with the support 2 State Archive of the Dnipropetrovsk of the Holodomor Research and Education Region, collǯȱ ʇȬŗŞŘŘǰȱ descr. 1, ęȱ śǰȱ pageȱ řśǰȱ Consortium (Canadian institute of Ukrainian 42; State Archive of Chernihiv Region, coll. Studies, University of Alberta).

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mark “not to publish” can be also found on the publications mentioning ȱę¢ȱ news bulletin of the Board of the Foreign Trade increased. Thus, “The State Journal” (Lansing, Combine (F/C “Torgsin”) entitled Ǽȱ ȱ ŗśȱ ¢ȱ ŗşřŘȱ ȱ “Torgsinovets” (Torgsiner).3 The duty to about the transformation of stores £ȱȱěȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ therein was on the store managers.4 ěȱȱȱȱ¢ǯȱ¢ȱȱ Western and American scholars, particularly the authorities access to household gold and experts in Soviet industrialization, knew also were places where foreigners could Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ buy the goods they needed “at reasonable came out in periodicals. Foreign journalists prices.”7 From March to June 1933, the British and travelers informed their readers about “Manchester Guardian” and “Morning Post” Moscow’s exceptional interest in having published a series of reports by Malcolm foreign currency paid for the goods. One of Muggeridge who managed to visit the North ȱęȱȱȱ was printed in Caucasus and Ukraine. He described stores ȱ ȱ ȱ ȃȱ ȱ £ĴȄȱ where people could exchange their precious (Reno, Nevada). In the issue, dated 3 August ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ Ĵǰȱ ǰȱ 1931, there is an article by Stanley Richardson fruits, and tea. The author warned that visiting ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱěȱȱ such points of sale was not safe since there was foreign citizens a wide range of products of ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱĜǯ8 much higher quality than Soviet citizens could The awareness of the among foreign purchase in regular stores.ś His colleague £ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Charles Driscoll claimed that some of the works of publicists. Such pieces of writing ȱȱȱěȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ were authored by renowned politicians, organization were church valuables (chalices, diplomats, and experts who were visiting ę¡ǰȱȱǰȱǰȱȱĴǼȱ the USSR or used to work in the country, but and the articles that used to belong to the Tsar not by professional historians. The American family and their network.6 chemist Alcan Hirsch became interested in Between 1932 and 1933, the number of whether Soviet citizens had any access to the points of sale of the network. He described to ʇȬŘŖŜřǰȱdescr. 1, ę 324, page 4. his readers the conduct of visitors to 3 The newspaper was published by the printing house of the State Bank stores, the procedure of buying valuables, ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗśȱ ȱ 1933, with ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ǯ9 a total circulation of ŗś00 copies, twice a month. The newspaper articles raised some general issues The German journalist and publicist Erich regarding the functioning of the points of sale; they listed recommendations and uncovered Wollenberg analyzed the status of Soviet ęȱȱȱ Ȃȱ. A heading ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ¢ǯȱ “On the Grounds” included reports from regional correspondents (activists and members of editorial Among them he mentioned the “Torgsin boards of the stores’ wallpapers), which were a valuable source for studying the local peculiarities of operations. 7 “Soviets now have improved stores,” The 4 State Archive of Sumy Region, collǯȱʇȬŗŜŘşǰȱ State Journal, ŗśȱ ¢ȱŗşřŘǯ descr. 1, ę 27, page 109. 8 Malcolm Muggeridge, “Russia revealed,” The ś Stanley P. Richardson, “Tourist trade is So- ȱǰȱśȱ ȱŗşřřǯ viet’s aim,” ȱȱ £, August 3, 1931, 6. 9 Alcan Hirsch, Industrialized Russia (New 6 Charles B. Driscoll, “The World and All,” York: The chemical catalog company, Inc., 1934), The State Journal, October 2, 1931, 6. 181.

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Rouble” as a “preferential” type.10 ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşśŖȱ ȱ ŗşŝŖǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱĜǯȱȱȱȱȱȱ American researchers (Frederick Schuman,11 increased even more when the National John Martin,12 Alec Nove,13 Mikhail Socialists came to power in Germany. Condoide14) did not reveal any special interest ȱȱȬŗşśŖǰȱȱȱȱ in , and only randomly mentioned to can be found in the works of it in the context of their scholarly research. Ukrainian diaspora activists. They were The relations of the network and the USPD primarily works addressing the repressive are rarely mentioned in their works. Thus, in ȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǯȱ ȱŗşśśǰȱ ŗşśşǰȱȱ£ȱ ȱ¢ȱȱȱ Pavlo Liutarevych published in “Ukrayinskyi ȱȱȱȱĴȱȱȬȱ Zbirnyk” (Ukrainian Collection) numbers and Activities in the House of Representatives. facts on the famine in Ukraine in 1932 and The authors of the report focused primarily 1933. The author highlighted the as on the cooperation between US companies one of the ways to save people from starvation. and the Soviet Intourist and the All-Union The gastronomic stores had “anything Combine of that could serve as a but for bird milk” in stock.17 This kind of way cover for spies.ŗś More details can be found in out, according to Liutarevych, put visitors at the memoirs of former high-ranking western risk of facing problems with the SPD in the Ĝǰȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ŗşśŞǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ example, the German diplomat Andor Hencke detachments of the Organization of Ukrainian who served as a consul in Kyiv from 1933 to Nationalists, a monograph by Andriy ŗşřśȱ ȱ when writing about Mykulyn was published about concentration assistance received from German charities ǯȱ ȱ ȱ Ě¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ (“Aid to the Brothers in Distress,” a.o.). He of in the context of punishing citizens claimed that the Soviet Union felt a huge for “antirevolutionary relations with foreign ęȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ countries.” The researcher claimed that banks easily accepted donations from other countries registered all persons’ valuables, and further for the German colonists.16 Large amounts Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯ18 To commemorate the 40th anniversary of 10 Erich Wollenberg, “Wages and Prices in ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşřŘȮŗşřřǰȱ ȱ ȱ the Soviet Union,” The New International 3 (1936): 70-2. ȱęȱȱȱěȱȱȱ 11 Frederick L. Schuman, Russia since 1917: European and American media where they Four decades of Soviet politics (New York: Knopf, ŗşśŝǼǯ started publishing memories of eyewitnesses. 12 John S. Martin, A picture history of Russia ǻ ȱǱȱ ȱǰȱŗşśŜǼǯ Let us quote an article by Ivan Chynchenko 13 Alec Nove, An Economic History of the who gives a detailed account of a story by USSR (London: The Penguin Press, 1969). 14 Mikhail V. Condoide, Russian-American Anastazia Tzymbaliuk about how she lost the ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ¢ silver candle-holders, golden rings, signets, (Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio state university, 1946). ŗś “The Communist parcel operation. Report by the Committee on Un-American Activities of the Ukrain. Freie Univ., 1979), 16. House of Representatives,” in ¢Ȭ¡ȱǰȱ 17 Pavlo Liutarevych, “Tsyfry i fakty pro first session, September 25, 1959 (Washington: United ȱ ȱ ȱ ǻ¢ȱ ŗşřŘȮŗşřřǼǰȄȱ Ukrayinskyi ȱ ȱȱǰȱŗşśşǼǰȱřȬśǯ Zbirnyk (Miunkhen) ŘȱǻŗşśśǼǱȱŞŖȬşŚǯ 16 Andor Hencke, ȱȱȱ 18 Andriy Mykulyn, Kontsentratsiini tabory v ȱȱ ȱȱȱ ȱŗşřřȮŗşřŜ (München: Sovietskomu Soiuzi (b. mǯǰȱŗşśŞǼǯ

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bracelets, and coins via , and also about ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ the persecutions of her husband and her by study relations between and USPD ȱĜǯ19 was Osokina. For her, the network was a Soviet historiography tried to avoid any peculiar phenomenon of the 1930s, an island mentions of . Its special status and the of market (state) entrepreneurship in the peculiarity of its operations for many years ocean of the planned economy, an institution remained out of the scope of the research where all customers were socially equal.Řś The of historians and economists. Between the problems were also mentioned in the works ŗşśŖȱ ȱ ŗşŝŖȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ǻȱ of Russian historians Iryna Pavlova26 and Husakov, Yosyp Dymshyts,20 Zakhariy Hanna Semenova.27 Western European and Atlas,21 Lazar Frey22) emphasized the fact that American scholars such as Robert Service,28 establishment of the network was a forced Marjorie Hilton,29 Sheila ĵǰ30 Sarah ǰȱȱȱ Ȭęǯȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ę¢ȱ ȱ .31 of co-existence of the network and the Among the local historians, in addition to the USPD was not a subject of research for obvious abovementioned Marochko, the peculiarities reasons. of co-existence of ȱ and USPD were A crucially new stage in researching the described by Oleksandr Slonevskyi,32 began after the collapse of the Soviet Volodymyr ymonenko, Stepan Martseniuk,33 ǯȱ ȱŗşşśǰȱȱȱȃ¢ȱ ¢Ȅȱǻȱ ¢Ǽȱȱȱęȱ Řś Elena Osokina, “Sovetskaya zhizn: oby- specialized academic article on the etwork. dennost ispyitaniya (na primere istorii Torgsina i OGPU)” Otechestvennaya istoriya 2 (2004): 113-24; It was authored by the Russian researcher Elena Osokina, “Dollaryi dlya industrializatsii. Olena Osokina.23ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ Valyutnyie operatsii v 1930-e godyi” Rodina 3 (2004): 76-81; Elena Osokina, “Sovetskaya povsednevnost: the social history of the organization was obyidennost priklyucheniya, privyichnost riska. Na primere Torgsina i OGPU,” u Sotsialnaya istoriya: conducted in 2002 by the Ukrainian historian £, 2007 (Moskva: ROSSPEN, 2008), 87-102. Vasyl Marochko.24 Since then, -related 26 Irina Pavlova, “Torgsinyi v Zapadno- Sibirskom krae,” Ekonomika i £¢ 3 (2003): subjects started to come out of the shadow of 162-9. more global studies on the social economic 27 Anna Semenova, “Deyatelnost Vyatskogo otdeleniya Vsesoyuznogo ob’edineniya “Torgsin“ history of the Soviet Union, and evolved into a ǻŗşřŘȮŗşřŜȱgg.),” Vestnik ¢ separate strand of research. universitetaȱŚȱǻŘŖŗŖǼǱȱřśȬşǯ 28 Robert Service, A History of Modern Russia, from Nicholas II to Putin (Harvard University Press, 19 Ivan Chynchenko, “Vtrachene zoloto,” ŘŖŖśǼǯ u Kalendar-almanakh “Novoho shliakhu“ na 1974 rik 29 Marjorie L. Hilton, ȱ ȱ ȱ Ǳȱ (Vinnipeh: Novyi shliakh, 1974), 137-44. ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ŗŞŞŖȮŗşřŖ (University of 20 Aleksandr Gusakov, Iosif Dyimshits, Denezhnoe Pittsburgh Press, 2011). obraschenie i kredit SSSR (Moskva: Gosfinizdat, 30 Sheila Fitspatrik, Povsednevnyiy stalinizm. ŗşśŗǼǯ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ řŖȬȱ ¢Ǳȱ 21 Zahariy Atlas, Sotsialisticheskaya denezhnaya , per. s angl. L. Pantina (Moskva: ROSSPEN, sistema: Problemyi preobrazovaniya i 2008). razvitiya denezhnoy sistemyi SSSR (Moskva: Finansyi, 31 Sarah Rosemary Davies, Popular opinion in 1969). ȂȱǱȱǰȱȱȱǰȱŗşřŚȮ 22 Lazar Frey, Mezhdunarodnyie raschetyi i 1941 (Cambridge University Press, 1997). finansirovanie vneshney sotsialisticheskih stran 32 Oleksandr Slonevskyi, “Kinets Kamen- (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnyie otnosheniyaǰȱŗşŜśǼǯ skoho ‘Torhsynu’,” Ekspedytsiia XXIǰȱŜǰȱŘŖŗŗǰȱśǯ 23 Elena Osokina, “Za zerkalnoy dveryu Torgsina,” 33 Volodymyr Symonenko ta Stepan Martse- Otechestvennaya istoriyaȱŘȱǻŗşşśǼǱȱŞŜȬŗŖŚǯ niuk, “Pid shalenym natyskom (Za materialamy 24 Vasyl Marochko, “Torhsyny: zolota tsina Derzharkhivu Chernihivskoi oblasti v m. Nizhy- zhyttia,” Personal 9 (2002): 21-3. ni),” Siverianskyi litopys 1 (1998): 110-2.

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Iryna Shcherbyna.34 A number of unknown from 1930 to 1936, i.e., from the moment earlier documents from the Sectoral State of establishment until the date of liquidation. Archive of the Security Service of Ukraine that cover relations between customers of the Kyiv ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ and the political Association authorities were made public by Vasyl Danylenko.řś The researchers also mention the Since the 1917 October Revolution, the topic of combating the so called “Hitler aid” ęȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ arriving in the network’s accounts. The tools citizens had been one of the key functions of and methods the USPD authorities used in the repressing bodies of the state. During the this regard are described in detail by Mykola ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşŘŖǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Shytiuk.36 The topic was further developed or less legal currency market. It placed almost in the works of Yuriy Kotliar and Iryna no restrictions on Soviet citizens to buy and Mironova.37 sell gold or foreign currency. The situation Despite a number of works on the history of crucially changed with the start of forced , the topic of its confrontation with industrialization. The collapse of the legal ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ foreign currency market made it impossible later with the People’s Commissariat for to make any transactions in foreign currency ȱěȱȱǯȱȱȱ without the involvement of the state. Instead, ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ěǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ USPD played in the operations of , were willing to sell valuables to the state ‘at to identify major controversies between the ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ǯȄȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ǰȱ ȱ organizations that enhanced the confrontation risk group included holders of the so called ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝ¢ȱ ȱ ȃěȄȱ ȱ ¢ǰ38 golden and their operations and the way it was perceived silver coins, or family jewelry. by common customers of the network. The weak economic stimuli were replaced Timewise, the research covers the period by forced acts of the USPD, with arrests, ǰȱęǰȱȱǰȱȱȱ 34 Iryna Shcherbyna, “Torhsin yak zasib vyzhyvannia “novoi burzhuazii” v umovakh criminal investigation authorities and militia likvidatsii nepu,” Naukovo-praktychna konferentsiia transferred to them all “foreign currency” naukovo-pedahohichnykh pratsivnykiv, naukovtsiv, aspirantiv ta spivrobitnykiv akademii (45-a, Kharkiv) infringement cases of the “money-changers.” ChǯȱśȱǻŘŖŗŘǼǱȱŗŜǯ On 20 September 1931, the Economic Board řś Vasyl Danylenko, “Rozkradannia produktiv ta promtovariv hosporhanamy ta of USPD issued a circular note No 404 that systemoiu Torhsynu,” v Natsionalna knyha pamiati zhertv holodomoru 1932–1933 rokiv v Ukraini: misto authorized the expropriation of golden and Kyiv, vidp. red. Vasyl Marochko (Kyiv: Feniks, ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ 2008), 66-73. 36 Mykola Shytiuk, “Nimetska hromada immediately made use of it. Their “actions” pivdnia Ukrainy v period masovykh represiiȱŘŖȮŚŖȬ on mass expropriation of foreign currency kh rr. ȱĴ,” u Nimetski poselentsi v Ukraini: istoriia ta sohodennia (Kyiv; Mykolaiv: Vydavnytstvo MDHU imeni Petra MohylyǰȱŘŖŖŜǼǰȱřśřȬŜşǯ 38 In Ĝ documents from the period, 37 Yuriy Kotliar ta Iryna Mironova, Karbovanets, despite their inconvertibility, were Holodomory 1921–1923 rr. ta 1932–1933 rr. na Pivdni referred to as Soviet currency. It might have been Ukrainy: etnichnyi ta mizhnarodnyi aspekty (Kyiv; done in order not to lead to confusion about the Mykolaiv: Vydavnytstvo MDHU imeni Petra ¢ȱȱǲȱȱęȱȱȱ Mohyly, 2008). ȱȱ¢ȱȁěȂȱ¢ǯ

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valuables largely scared people. In September crossing points.41 1932, the Economic Board of the USPD had In November, 1930, ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ “closed type” universal department store circular note in which they had to explicate located in Moscow, at the corner of Petrovka that the deprivation of household valuables and Kuznetskyi bridge. Early next year, was allowed only when their amount “had ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ a commodity speculative nature.” However, outside the capital city, primarily in big ȱęȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ cities. The expansion of the trade chain of impact on the situation. USPD continued stores required the organization to the practices of mass operations for the change its status. On 4 January 1931, expropriation of foreign currency.39 became the All-Union Association of the The monopoly of the political administration People’s Commissariat of Foreign Trade on the control over the turnover of currency (Narkomvneshtorg).42 The Provisions on ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ UA stipulated that the retail trade with on 18 July 1930. On that day, they established foreigners in the USSR became its monopoly ȱ ȁȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ on the Territory of the Soviet Union.” It was soon established in all republics, lands, and supposed to concentrate within their authority regions of the Soviet Union.43 all foreign currency sales transactions First, the USPD did not sense any threat with foreigners within the Soviet Union. from , even though they protested They started operating with the port trade against its establishment. In summer 1931, (ship chandlery).40 In October, 1930, rumors started spreading all over the country obtained the right from the joint-stock society about change of focus of the Association, ȱȱȱȱĚȱǻĚǼȱȱȱ while services to foreigners shifted to Soviet foreign vessels and sailors in Soviet ports, citizens. An American chemist Alkan Hirsch ȱȱęȱȱ ȱȱȱ recalled that people were looking forward to and foreign transit passengers invited to visit the moment when the door of opened the kiosks in the Intourist hotels in Moscow for them, and they could use those “small and Leningrad, or the sales sets at the border comforts.”44 The seminal decision that was life-changing for many was adopted by the People’s Commissariat for Finance of USSR 39 Elena Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii: on 14 June 1931. Since then, Soviet citizens, “” (Moskva: ROSSPEN, 2009), 38. 40 After a foreign vessel arrived at a on par with foreigners, were granted the Soviet port, the ship chandler boarded ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ right to shop for commodities in the stores order to replenish the stock of supplies, fuel, and of the network in exchange for old golden construction materials. They tried to interest the captain with the promise to pay the reward in the coins. However, it was only the beginning. ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱęǰȱ ȱ was an overt bribe. The ship chandler informed the sailors that a bar or a restaurant operated in 41 Vasyl Marochko, Holodomor 1932–1933 the port, as well as a shop with souvenirs, antiques, rokiv na Donbasi (Kyiv: Instytut istorii Ukrainy fur, and other commodities. The USPD prohibited NAN UkrainyǰȱŘŖŗśǼǰȱśŝǯ foreign sailors from taking along the foreign 42 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 19. currency in cash ashore. They were given 43 State Archive of Mykolayiv oblast’, bonds that could only be received in the collǯȱʇȬŗřśŞǰȱdescr. 1, ę 2, pageȱŗŖśȬŜǯ stores. 44 Hirsch, Industrialized Russia, 180.

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In May 1931, the director of the Moscow actively debated. Thus, in spring, 1932, the universal department store No. 1, Yefrem abovementioned Odessa Regional Kurland, suggested exchanging Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ goods for gold for household usage. The Ěȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ deputy chairman of the Board of the the international arena: UA, Mykhaylo Azovskyi, spoke in Smolensk in front of the store managers and stated: ...we buy it ǽȱȮȱǯȱ ǯǾȱhere at a price we set ȱȱǰȱ ȱȱ¡ȱȱǰȱ ȱěȱ Nowadays, comrades, suppose we take household ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ǯȱȱȱ ȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱǯ48 per capita, what does it imply with a population of ŗŜŖȱǵŚś ǰȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ any unfavorable market conditions. The Indeed, it implied that the government decided permit for transactions with the household to requisition from the population the family silver and pre-revolutionary silver coins had valuables they failed to hide in hideouts from ȱȱȱȱȱŘśȱȱŗşřŘǰȱ the USPD, and were not willing to give away when the Communist Politburo adopted to the state. the respective resolution.49 It must be noted On 3 November 1931, the Political Bureau that the organization’s employees were ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ recommended not to rush into enforcing it. It Communist Party of Bolsheviks (Communist ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ Politburo) assigned the People’s Commissariat ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ě ȱ ȱ for Foreign Trade of the USSR to organize recorded.śŖ in the stores the “mobilization” At the height of the transactions with gold of household gold in exchange for food and silver, the Narkomvneshtorg started ȱȱȱǯȱȱĜȱȱ discussing the possibility for to accept therefore came later, on December, 10, diamonds. Citizens were actively bringing when the Council of People’s Commissars State Archive), collǯȱʇȬŗŘŚŗǰȱdescr. 1, ę 3, page 30. of the USSR adopted the Resolution “On 48 Odessa State Archive, collǯȱʇȬŗŘŚŗǰȱdescr. 1, Granting to the All-Union Association ę 3, page. 30. 49ȱ was forbidden from accepting the Right to Do Transactions to Purchase silver Soviet coins. In order to bypass the ban, Precious Metals (Gold).”46 people resorted to such practices as melting them into bullions, or they molded them into simple The administration of the Odessa bijouterie. In April 1933, The People’s Commissariat for Finance of the USSR and the State Bank issued ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ¢ȱ a secret form to warn the stores against buying up 1931, they advised the Board of the All-Union silver bullions with manifest signs of being melted from the Soviet coins. It led to a drop in the rates Association to grant a permit for transactions ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ to buy a much wider range of valuables, ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗśȱƖǯȱCentral State Archive of Supreme Governing such as silver, platina, and even precious and Administrative Bodies of Ukraine, collǯȱ ŚŖśŗǰȱ stones.47 The issue of buying silver was descr. 1, ę 137, page 63; Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 121. śŖ Ruslan Pyrih, uporiad. Holodomor 1932– Śś Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsiiǰȱřśŘ. 1933 rokiv v Ukraini: dok. i materialy (Kyiv: Vydavnychyi 46ȱ ǯǰȱśŚŜ. dim “Kyievo-Mohylianska akademiia’, 2007), 47 State Archive of Odessa Region (Odessa 412.

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them to the buy-up points as parts of jewelry In Pursuit of Valuables ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ‘mobilize’ precious stones, the evaluators used ȱ ȱ ęȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ to accept them together with the golden ware organization went after valuables that people that contained them. The stones were not taken were hiding in the hideouts, such as rings, out of the jewelry, and were paid for at the rate earrings, cross pendants, household items ȱǯȱȱȱęȱȱ¢ǯȱ made of precious metals, and precious stones. ȱ Ĝ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Experts from the People’s Commissariat of the doubtful. On 10 May 1932, the deputy head Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate stated of the Association Yulian Boshkovych noted the following: that the cost of most of the stones was lower than that of gold. Therefore, he recommended ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǰȱ ȱ to chip them out or to adjust the total price ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ of the jewelry downwards.śŗȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱȱǰȱȱ£ȱȱȁěȂȱ permit to purchase the diamonds came in ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ August 1933.śŘ The diamonds were usually ȱǰȱȱȱȱ£ȱȱȱȱ set in platinic frames. That is why in October, ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ 1933, the Narkomvneshtorg, as supported ȱęȱȱȱȱȱ ¢ȱǻǻ Ǽȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱǰȱǰȱȱǰȱǯǼȱȱ Exchange Commission of the Council of ȱ Ȃȱ ȱ Ȯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ People’s Commissars of the USSR the draft ¢ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ resolution on buying this precious metal is why it must be collected with the help of the from citizens, too. The People’s Commissariat Torgsin system and sent to serve the interests of for Finance considered this proposal as the proletarian state.śŚ relevant, even though they recommended to be limited to platinic items of household No less illustrative was the text of the reporting goods, in order to prevent the plundering notice ‘On the operations of in Ukraine of the metal from state enterprises. over the 10 months of 1932’ that stated: started to buy up platinum in 1934.śř Gold, silver, and diamonds had been accepted until ...in terms of its economic situation, Ukraine has ŗśȱȱŗşřśǰȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ favorable conditions for broad-scale development of for oreign currency cash or by foreign currency ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ transfers from abroad continued until the ȱȱȱȱǯȱ ȱǰȱ¢ȱȱ moment of liquidation of the Association. The ȱȬ ǰȱȱ ȱȱȬȱȱ Ĝȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ was 1 ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ February 1936. However, the redemption of the ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱǰȱ ration books continued until summer the same ȱȱȱȱȱȱĴǯśś year. At the same time, people were cautious about the

śŗ Odessa State Archive, collǯȱʇȬŗŘŚŗǰȱ śŚ Central State Archive of Supreme descr. 1, ę 3, page 76. Governing and Administrative Bodies of Ukraine, śŘ Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 128. collǯȱśřşǰȱdescr. 17, ęȱřŜśǰȱpageȱśǯ śř Ibid., 129. śś Ibid., coll.ȱŚŖśŗǰȱdescr. 1, ę 168, page 3 rev.

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ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ keeping track of the stores. In fact, both access to the system stores, and no persecutions ȱ ȱęȱȱȱ¢ȱ therefore. In November 1932, an inspector who plans at the expense of the same source, i.e. ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢¢£ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ the savings of Soviet citizens. Some USPD Torgsin wrote from the city of Frunze (presently, agents tried to keep out of the visitors’ ǰȱ ¢¢£ȱǼǱȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ eyes. They followed the buyers, traced their conversation with the head of Economic Board of residence addresses, and subsequently ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ęǰȱ ¢ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱǰȱ and made the ‘valuables holders’ to ‘willfully’ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ surrender the valuables to the state. The Soviet authorities.śŜ engineer Rifat Gizatulin recounted:

A British expert in Soviet economic history, ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱǰȱȱȱȱȱęȱȱȱȱ Torgsin also helped identify persons who were 1930s, there were several options of prices ȱȱǯȱȱ ȱȱǰȱȱȱȱ ȱ for the same product in the USSR. They ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱĴȱȱ were determined by the retail, commercial the USPD, whereupon after some time, a car came stores, department stores for workers, and to the prospective fortune holder’s house, and the .śŝ In this way, the government some dispassionate people took him away to their basically legalized the use of foreign currency premises... and ‘worked’ on him until he reveled all along with the Soviet bills, thus allowing ȱȱȱ ȱȱǯśŞ their free circulation within one controlled organization. The USPD only had to deal Over the years of functioning of USPD, people with the borderlands where was not have developed a subconscious fear of the operating, and with the auxiliary functions ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝǯȱ ¢ȱ ȱ in organizing trade, such as to report on apprehensive of anyone wearing a military the foreign currency capacity in the region; uniform or acting suspiciously. The director of to select, approve, and check the Vyatka department store No. 3, Beloborodov, ěȱ ǻ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱȱ ȱȱȱĴȱȱȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ǽǲȱ ȱ ȱ authorities of NKVD: for security during transportation of ȱ ȱ ǲȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱȱ¢ȱěȱȱȱȱȱ suppliers; to search for persons receiving that they must come to Torgsin stores not in ȱȱĴȱȱ¢ȱ ȱ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ in detention facilities; and to combat theft is necessary in order not to disturb the trust of within the system. citizens.śş ȱ ȱ ŗşřŗǰȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ recorded from visitors to about the This address was fully in line with the order illegal acts of the USPD, whose agents were śŞ Rifat Gizatulin, Nas byilo na chelne: Dokum. povestvovanie (Moskva: Izd. avtora, 1993), śŜ Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, śŜǯ ŗśȬŜǯ śŝ Alec Nove, An Economic History of the 59 Semenova, “Deyatelnost Vyatskogo USSR (London: The Penguin Press, 1969), 203-204. otdeleniya,” 38.

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ȱȱȱǯȱŖŖřŘśȱȃȱȱȱȱ ǯȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŘŜȱ USPD Bodies and Troops,” dated 23 September ran into our store, all in arms, and arrested an 1933, which stated the following: unknown citizen in the store.62

Numerous facts noted recently imply the cases of Visitors, primarily villagers, who observed the ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ ěǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ stores. Ĝǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ They came back home, and told the stories of ȱ¢ȱǰȱȱȱ ǰȱ what they had seen to their fellow villagers, ¡ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ thus encouraging false impressions of . would inevitably lead to lower performance of In 1932, the director of the Pskov unit of the ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ĝǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ reported the ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ following: “...customers from remote areas do counterrevolutionary elements.60 ȱȱȱȱȱǰȄȱ ȱȱěȱ of the association from Tashkent informed Some USPD agents, despite any guidelines, ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ran into the stores in their military uniforms, to conceal their names and real residence and with guns, dispersed the visitors, and addresses.63ȱ Ĵȱ had become publicly arrested the customers. They a risky venture for people, with no security deliberately ignored the fact that people guarantee. Customers covered long distances purchased the goods in the stores to the neighboring district or city not to be Ĝ¢ǰȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ recognized by anyone, and whenever they thereon.61 The Chairman of the Board, came across somebody they might know, they ȱ ¢ǰȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ would immediately leave the store. the People’s Commissar for Trade of USSR ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ£ĵȱȱǰȱŗşřŘǰȱ ȱ valuables or goods were reported by the he complained about the following: managers of the ȱȱȱěȱ parts of the Soviet Union. On 8 June 1932, ȱŘŝȱȱŗşřŘǰȱȱĜȱȱȱ ¢ȱȱ the State Political Department of the ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢¢ǰȱ Ukrainian SSR received a complaint against came into our store No. 3 in Kyiv and immediately ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ conducted a personal search of our customers in receipts from customers of the Kharkiv ȱȱĜǰȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ store No. 3 that they had received ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯǯǯȱ ȱ £ǰȱ for the household gold and golden coins ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ şȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ they handed over. Upon visiting a point of to Torgsinȱ ŘȂŖŖŖȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ sales after one such ‘campaign’ of USPD, the and were further arrested by the SPD for this... ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ǰ Fadey Zazulynskyi, stated: “there is no one 60 Oleg Smyislov, General Abakumov. Palach ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ili zhertva? (Moskva: Veche, 2012), 67. 61 Vasyl Danylenko, vidp. uporiad., counter, while others left.” He demanded Holodomor 1932–1933 rr. v Ukraini za dokumentamy HDA SBU: anotovanyi dovidnyk (Lviv: Tsentr 62 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 210. doslidzhen vyzvolnoho rukhu, 2010), 91 ta 96-7. 63 Ibid., 210.

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ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ revenues receipts to from 700 down to documents they seized from the customers. ŗŖŖȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱŘśǰȱŗşřŚȱȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ the Chernihiv department store left the store any accusations of being involved in the without any proceeds at all.67 ‘robbery’ and put the blame on the unknown ȱŗřȱ¢ȱŗşřśǰȱȱȱȱȱ£¢ȱ hooligans, but later they did admit their fault. store (Chernihiv region) complained Besides, the manager of the local about the actions of militia. According to his ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ report, on February 6, a plainclothes militia ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱĴȱȱȱ chance to come to his store to redeem the a woman who had just bought some goods. receipts they seized from the customers.64 When she refused, he applied force. The store Despite the complaints, the illegal acts against manager tried to protect the customer, and the ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ŗśȱ after long argument he made the militiaman ȱ ŗşřŘǰȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ leave the facility. After several minutes, a the customers trying to buy peas in a local supervisor of the local market burst into store, and seized from them a receipt for the store and accused the administration of 20 Karbovanets in gold and 360 Karbovanets ȱȱęǯȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ in Soviet bills, and repeatedly “caused panic be successfully straightened out after the among the customers.”Ŝś In his report account arrival of the militia head who promised to see dated 13 December 1932 , The store manager ȱȱĴȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ of the Kyiv store, Polinovskyi, stated happen again.68 that: Despite the promises of the administration, the customers of the stores [...] ȱ ęȱ £ȱ ȱ ȱ or buy-up points for valuables did not feel ǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱǰȱŗşřśǰȱȱȱȱȱ and ordered to him to follow them. The customer Chernihiv store No. 2, Danylovskyi, received ȱȱĚȱȱȱ ǰȱ¡ȱȱǰȱȱ ȱ almost 378 g of silver and began asking a ǯȱȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ customer inquisitively about the origin of the the street, and I noticed that the crowd started to precious metal. He then seized the valuables panic and that nobody stayed in the store or near with no due execution of documents. This the store.66 time, the store administration promptly responded to the abuse of power and As a result, the points of sale of the system later dismissed him from the position.69 ȱ ěȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ The nuns of Moscow nunnery who tried ęǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşřŗǰȱ to hand over to two large silver the campaign of Kherson USPD against the ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ exchangers resulted in the reduction of daily were detained by the local criminal militia.

64 State archive of Kharkiv Region (Kharkiv 67 Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŗřŜşǰȱ State Archive), collǯȱʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱdescr. 13, ę 3, descr. 1, ę 172, page 62; Osokina, Zoloto dlya page 84. industrializatsii, 216. Ŝś Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱ 68 Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŗřŜşǰȱ descr. 13, ę 3, pageȱŞŖȮŞŗǯ descr. 1, ę 112, pageȱřȮŚǯ 66 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 210. 69 Ibid., ę 110, page 33.

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ȱȱ ȱ ȱĴȱȱȱ not to wear the uniform.72 interrogation: ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ assumed by usual swindlers. The head of the ¢ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Moscow City ȱĜǰȱȱȱĴȱȱȱ and me, we hid all the church valuables from the store managers, warned them: ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ When searching the suspect’s apartment, the ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ NKVD investigators found two silver icons, ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ over 40 pounds in weight, silver candleholders, ȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǰȱȱȱ incense-burners, and chalices.70 customers leave the store, they stop them and ȱȱǯ”73 The “Subsidiary Facility” of the USPD The subconscious fear of the USPD, with their The administration were trying to punitive actions, can be felt in many memories avoid the image of a “subsidiary facility” of eye-witnesses. The American reporter of USPD, even though it was hard to resist. William Reswick recollects that some of his Rumors spread around the country at a fast friends and acquaintances in the Soviet Union speed that the system “was established to “would rather starve than go to those stores assist the USPD” and that it was a “trap for under the intent eye of the spies.”74 A resident persons handing over the gold.”71 One of the of the village of Pivnivshchyna, of Horodnia countermeasures of to overcome this district, Chernihiv region, Kostiantyn Bovtun image was the recommendation to the System (b. 1924) recounts: ěȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ 21 November 1932, the head of the Kharkiv ȱȱŗşřřǰȱ ȱ ȱĴȱȱȱȱȱ ȱĜȱȱȱȱȱęȱ ȱǯǯǯȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱ that read: My mother was very weak and also scared by all of ȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ us not to keep the coin and to throw it away. But ¢ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ£ȱ of Torgsinȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱǯȱ ȱȱǰȱ ȱ ȱ in the store. We consider it inadmissible, as it ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Sumy branch who are always rather cautious ȱ ǻȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ money). My mother took the coin to Torgsin to

72 Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱ descr. 13, ę 3, page 47 and the reverse. 70 “Nun Uncovers Old Treasure,” Arizona 73 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 224. Republicǰȱ¢ȱŗŝǰȱŗşřśǰȱŘǯ 74 William Reswick, I dreamt revolution 71 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, Řŗśǯ ǻǱȱ ¢ȱ¢ȱ¢ǰȱŗşśŘǼǰȱřŖşǯ

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¡ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱȱ ȱ they received data about persons who were we survived.ŝś bringing gold in there frequently. They were summoned to the State Political Department The lack of any systemic approach in the acts and required to willfully give away the gold. of USPD enhanced concerns among citizens Otherwise, torture was applied.”77 Anastazia ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Tzymbaliuk left a rather detailed story about why some customers were arrested by the her experience of interacting with the NKVD Department, while others were not. In this ĜǱ respect, the Russian researcher Osokina ȱ¡ȱȱȱĴȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ ȱ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱ members: ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ could hardly carry it back home. And it was the ȱȱȱ ȱȱǰȱȱȱ ȱ ȱȱ ȱȱǯȱȱȱǰȱ ȱȱȱǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ in their crimson caps and with crimson lapels, and ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ęǰȱ ǰȱ they searched the house. Well, what kind of search ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ it was. They just kicked here, and peeped there, ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱȱ ȱǯȱ¢ȱ ȱȱ ȱȱȱ not the proletarian stratum and the middle class, search for. I would not complain that they were not not the poor men who truly need to hand over the ǯȱ¢ȱȱȱ¢ǰȱǰȱȱȱǯȱȱ ȱȱTorgsin, if they have any, with no fear or at all, God forbid. They were polite and delicate. apprehension.76 ¢ȱȱ ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱǯȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ Such impressions were false, as the ǯ System emphasized social equality in their – We must take your husband away with us, - one announcements. In other words, they were of them said. ready to welcome anyone holding hard ǯǯǯ¢ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ currency. ȱȱ¢ȱǯȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱĜȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ ȱǯȱȱ ȱǰȱȱ in not only a competitor, but also a two weeks, and there was no news from or about valuable source of information about the jewel my husband.78 ǯȱ¢ȱęȱȱȱȱ¢ȱěȱ the names of customers who were actively During the third week after disappearance bringing in jewels or hard currency. A resident of her husband, a woman was summoned to of the town of Nizhyn (Chernihiv region) ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Khaya Yevzerova recollected: “At that time, the “how much gold they had” and compared ěȱȱȱ£¢ȱȱȱȱ the received testimony to the husband’s story. were trying to take away as much gold from Later, her house was visited by the NKVD people as possible. Through the stores, ěȱȱȱȱǯȱȱĜȂȱ¢ȱ

ŝś L. Kusa, uporiad., Spohadiv bil nevhasymyi: Svidchennia pro holod 1932–1933 rr. (Shchors: 77 Viktor Emelyanov, Kollektivizatsiya na Shchorska tsentralna biblioteka im. 40-richchia Nezhin-schine (Hronika sobyitiy) (Nezhin, 2001), 111. Peremohy, 2008), 69. 78 Chynchenko, “Vtrachene zoloto,” 139- 76 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 219. 140.

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ȱęȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ Torgsinȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ lady made an important comment that not all ȱ ǯȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ seized valuables were documented: customers and listened carefully to every person, ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱŚȱ I read it over (they had it all prepared in advance). ȱ¢ȱȱȱǯȱȱ ȱȱ ȱ ȱ¢ȱȱȱǲȱǰȱǰȱȱ ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȬ Ĵȱȱ ęȱǰȱȱǯǯǯȱǰȱ ǰȱ ȱȱǵȱ ȱȬȬȱȱȱȱȱȁ ¢ȱ “Appropriated out to the ownership of the state – ȱȱęǯȄȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯǯǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱȱęǰȱȱ ȱǯȄȱǰȱȱ ěȱȱ ǯȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ ¢ȱȱ ¢ȱ¢ȱ ȱȱȱǰȱȱȱ that the person would lose his or her mind from the the three to us? – I asked happily. heat. Then they would also put out a cup of water Ȯȱȱ¢ǰȱȬȱȱȱȱǯȱȮȱȱȱȱ as soon as they could, so that the person could see it ¢ȱȱȱęȱǰȱȱ ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ but not reach and drink it. Many of those who came ¢ȱȱȱ ǯȱ¢ȱ¢ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ back home would fall down on the bed sick and ǵȱ ȱ¢ȱȂȱȱǰȱ ȱ ȱȱȱ ¢ȱ¢ȱ ȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ ¢ȱȱȱȱ husband, and later… maybe, we also ‘invite’ you.79 ȱȱȱȁȂȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ the survivors were forbidden to tell about.82 Mass arrests of the customers to the stores were recorded all over the Soviet Union. In ȱŗŚȱȱŗşřśǰȱȱȱȱȱ the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic alone, ȱ ǰȱ ¢¢ȱ ǰȱ ěȱ the arrests took place in Kyiv, Chernihiv, some explanations as to the lawfulness of Zaporizhia, Dnipropetrovsk, and Odessa in collecting data about the System customers December 1932.80 For example, the Chernihiv ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝǯȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ Unit of the State Political Department intently they were indeed authorized to do so, but demanded hard currency contributions from he recommended it be done via the store the currency holders, claiming that since they managers and to not ask the cashiers and scare had some currency for , they should ěȱ ǯ83 The response of the have some for them too.81 The methods the administration was belated, while the System ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱęȱǯ from humane. What happened upon the arrest The USPD expressed interest in the of a prospective valuables holder is described property, mostly in the vehicles. On 26 May in a diary by a resident of the town of Pryluky 1931, a complaint arrived addressed to the (Chernihiv region), Serhiy Sydorikov (b. 1896): deputy chairperson of the Board of the All- Union Association ǰ Vasyl Zhdanov. 79 Chynchenko, “Vtrachene zoloto,” 142-143. 80 Vasyl Marochko ta Olha Movchan, It came from the administration of the Holodomor 1932–1933 rokiv v Ukraini : khronika (Kyiv: ¢ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ Vyd. dim “Kyievo-Mohylianska akademiia,“ 2008), 173. about the resolution of the local Presidium of 81 Yurii Volosnyk, “Diialnist ‘Torhsynu’ ta nepmany Ukrainy: povsiakdenni vyprobuvannia pidpryiemtsiv v umovakh forsovanoi 82 Archive of the Security Service of Ukraine industrializatsii pershoi polovyny 1930-kh rokiv,” in Chernihiv oblast’, ęȱŗśŗŚşȬʆǯ Visnyk Kharkivskoho natsionalnoho universytetu imeni 83 Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱ V. N. Karazina. Seriia: Istoriia 47 (2013): 102. descr. 13, ęȱ 20, p. 60.

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the City Council about transferring the of USPD in the period of establishment car into the full disposition of the of ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ SPD. The personnel were denied the awareness on the grounds, its further actions right to use the vehicle to go out of the city, implied the deliberate ignoring of any and obliged to make the vehicle available resolutions or orders. immediately upon request of the Department ȱȱȱȱ ¢ȱȱȱęȱȱ Dangerous Help from Abroad without any prior notice. The only thing they managed to get from the Department was the The risk group included possible recipients promise not to use the car without any ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ special need.84 Chairperson of the Board of the All-Union The tension in the relations between the Association ǰ Stashevskyi, in his two organizations soon grew into open internal report to the People’s Commissar confrontation. The Association demanded ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ £ĵǰȱ the authorities to adopt a ban for USPD for in December 1932, informed about unlawful any anti- acts. Instead, they only were arrests by local USPD authorities, criminal given the guidelines to restrict their operations. investigation services, and militia of the Thus, the Political Department recommended ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ǯŞś ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ silver items only on the condition that the explained their acts by the impossibility to savings were “of manifestly exploitative ȱȱȱȱȱȱěȱ ¢ǰȱ nature,” and prohibited the depersonalization but this statement could not withstand any of the seized valuables. Early in 1932, the ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ government obliged the USPD not to Ĵǯȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ compromise the with their raids. The directly into the organization’s accounts, i.e., administration of the Peoples’ Commissariat ¢ȱ ȱȱęǰȱ ȱȱȱ for Trade that the Association was were sanctioned and even encouraged by the subordinate to held negotiations with the government. As authorized by the Soviet Economic Department of USPD. The key authorities, organized an advertising outcomes of the negotiations provided the campaign in mass media and encouraged ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵǯȱ ȱ ¢ȱ foreign citizens to send hard currency to their explicated that had a lawful right to sell relatives and compatriots in the Soviet Union. ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȁěȂȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱȱĴȱȱŘşȱȱŗşřŚǰȱȱ ȱ ȱ¡ȱ ȱȱȱȱĜȱ informed Sweden: of the People’s Commissariat for Finance, State Bank, and the People’s Commissariat ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ for Justice. However, these measures failed ȱ ǯȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ěǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱ ȱǽǯǯǯǾȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱ complaints about the operations of the ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ86 USPD kept increasing. While the actions

84 Mykolaiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŗřśŞǰȱ Şś Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 209. descr. 1, ę 1, p. 123. 86 Andrey Kotlyarchuk, V kuznitse

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The Board of the All-Union Association ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ informed the government about (such as International Red Aid). In the worst case ȱĴȱ ȱȱȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ could entail some political ‘troubles’.89 ¢ȱȱȱȱȱĴȱǯȱ In its turn, the administration of provincial The receivers of hard currency from ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ abroad were primarily suspected of anti- nuances of operations with the help of revolutionary activities or espionage. A story announcements where they reassured: ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱĜȱȱȱȱ Army, Yevhen Solovyov, is very characteristic ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ řȱ ȱ ŗşřśǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ resolution of the prosecutor of the town of ȱȬ ¢ȱȱ ȱȱǯ87 Pryluky (Chernihiv region), he was placed in detention for “disseminating anti-Soviet The administration of the Association was not propaganda,” for connections with foreign too approving of such steps, as they could anti-revolutionary organizations in Latvia, ¢ȱęȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Argentina, France, and for receiving monetary points of sales of the system. Such uncertainty aid from them. The investigators intently brought confusion and misunderstanding ȱȱȱȱȱȱĴȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ śȱ ǯȱ ȱ £ǰȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ £ȱ Ȭȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ assistance through the ȱ Ĝǯȱ ȱ not substantiate the accusation that Solovyov ǰȱȱȱŗşřŚȱȱĴȱȱȱ had ties with foreign organizations, but he to the Starving People in Ukraine published did not manage to avoid the accusations of in an information weekly “Ukrainian Week” a anti-Soviet propaganda. The court found disproof of “false rumors claiming there were Solovyov guilty and sentenced him to seven no ways to send the aid to the starving people.” years in prison.90 Similar cases were recorded ȱ ĴȂȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱȱȱ¢ǯȱȱĜȱȱ that for four months they successfully received an appeal from a citizen R.Pinchuk transferred money and sent food packages who informed the following: to Soviet citizens through the System.88 ǰȱ ȱ ŗŝȱ ȱ ŗşřśȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǰȱ řǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǽŗşřŘȱ Ȯȱ ǯȱ ǯǾǰȱ ȱ Řȱ periodical informed that German magazines ǯǯǰȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ warned the readers against sending any arrested by 5th division of militia. The reason for the packages to the Soviet Union via : ȱ ȱȱ£ȱȱȱ¢ǯȱȱȱ ǯǯǯȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ not have any hard currency, except for the money ȁ¢Ȃȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ I received from America from my children, and all Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ Stalina»: shvedskie kolonistyi Ukrainyi v totalitarnyih eksperimentah XX veka (Moskva: ROSSPEN, 2012), 89 “V nimetskykh chasopysakh...,” Ukrainskyi ŗŗśǯ tyzhden. ȱŗŝǰȱŗşřśǰȱŚǯ 87 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, Řŗśǯ 90 Archive of the Board of the Security 88 “Hetmanska Uprava... (Zahalna Service of Ukraine in Chernihiv Region, ę 2017- khronika),” Ukrainskyi tyzhden, Kviten 2, 1934, 3. ʆǰȱŗŖŘȱpp.

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and also to the address of the State Bank... I hereby investigators of the SPD. Eventually, on petition the Torgsin Board to take measures to free 22 June 1934, the priest was arrested and ¢ȱǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ banished to Central Asia.93 the money I receive from America.91 Monetary aid was also received by entire ǯȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ěȱ The USPD did not deny that they forced organizations took care of it: people to surrender their hard currency for ȱ ęǯȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ǯȱ ŘŖřȱ ȱ ȱ Aid to the Brothers in Distress, Fast and Economic Department of USPD, dated 26 Brilliant, Commission to Send Parcels to the ¢ȱŗşřŘȱęȱȱȱȱȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ were addressed to. It is obvious that the Abroad. On 19 December 1933, the authorized administration of the political department representative of SPD in the Rozdilna District ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ the local level, obliging them to seize the ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ Ĵȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȃ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ evidence for the re-selling of hard currency ¢ȱȱ ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱ (speculative activities), or when they arrested Torgsin and that is why they remain absent from ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ĵȱ work.94 the infringements, but these measures did ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ěȱ ǯȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ Initially, Soviet authorities approved of such detainee ‘willfully’ agreed to give away the foreign currency proceeds, but in the end of hard currency to the USPD, the person was ŗşřřǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ǯȱ usually released.92 The reason for such a rapid shift of focus During the searches in the so called “former was aptly described by a German diplomat persons,” they often found the Hencke who noted that the Soviet Union bonds. In the reports on the results of special needed hard currency, but at the same time, operations, they are mentioned on the they treated such aid as a “blow to the prestige same level as foreign currency, anti-Soviet of a socialist state.”şś In the reporting note by connections, and espionage, thus aggravating ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱĴȱȱȱ the components of crime. For example, similar Communist Party of Bolsheviks of Ukraine, accusations were raised to the Roman Catholic Pavlo Postyshev to Josef Stalin, dated 3 priest Mykhaylo (Michael) Koeller from the June 1934, it was stated that with Adolf village of Speyer, not far from Mykolaiv. In Hitler coming to power in Germany, cash order to help his starving fellow villagers, he Ĵȱ ȱ śȱ ȱ ŗŖȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ to Soviet Union. “This sort of provocative addresses of the needy and handed out the 93 Nataliia Rublova, uporiad., “Vlada i food purchased in for the received kostol v radianskii Ukrainiǰȱ ŗşŗşȮŗşřŝȱ rr.: Rymo- ȱĴǰȱȱȱȱȱŗŖȱǯȱ katolytska tserkva pid represyvnym tyskom totalitaryzmu,” Z arkhiviv VUChKƺHPUƺNKVDƺ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ KHB 2 (2003): 404-6. 94 Rublova, “Vlada i kostol,” 270. 91 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 210. şś Hencke, ȱȱȱ ǰ 92 Ibid., 213-214. 16.

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‘aid’ on the part of Fascists from Germany,” arrived in the Pulyny district of the then Kyiv - Postyshev stated, - “started acquiring region. Most of them were transferred directly an exceptionally large scale and covered via . According to the estimates of the almost all our German areas.” Since autumn SPD, from April 1933 to April, 1934, almost ŗşřřǰȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŚşŖȱ ŖŖŖȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ the Kyiv, Odessa, Dnipropetrovsk regions to the addresses of German colonists residing and to the Donbass. At the same time, German in Odessa, Kyiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk consulates in Kyiv and in Kharkiv organized regions, and in Moldova.99ȱȱřŗȱȱŗşřśǰȱ ȱȱȱȱȱěȱȱȱ the Chairman of the Board, Levenson, villages and collective farms with appeals for along with the administration of the State help. Similar recommendations were received Bank, made a strong-willed decision to return ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ £ȱ . After the money arrived, the German ȱȱ ¢ȱȱ ĵȱȱ consulate in Kyiv organized visits to German 1 April100 It is no wonder that Soviet Germans ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ¢ȱ were not happy about this decision and asked handed out the “Hitler aid” (as they referred questions why Jews would receive American to it).96 dollars and no one was angry at them for that, The authorities, with the help of party while Germans were scolded for the marks.101 ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȃ Ȅȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ against such cases. The Secretary of the ȱ ¢ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵǰȱ £ȱ ǰȱ the true nature of the Soviet authorities and suggested that at the local level they aimed for the USPD that did not always manage to the “willful” refusal of donations from abroad successfully combine the economic relevance ȱȱęȱȱ ȱȱǰ97 while of transactions and foreign policy priorities. ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱĴȱȱȱ Communist Party of Bolsheviks of Ukraine, Crime and Punishment Postyshev, demanded a ban on trips of consuls to villages and arrested the disturbers USPD was directly engaged in the process (propagandists, correspondents, organizers of approving candidates for key positions of pleas to Hitler) for anti-revolutionary in . On 2 February 1934, the deputy activities.98ȱ ȱ Ĝ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ chairman of the All-Union Association of measures was reduced to zero with a large , Hryhoriy Moust, sent explanatory ȱ ȱ Ĵǯȱ ȱ ¡ǰȱ ȱ statements to the heads of republican, county, ȱ ŗşřŚǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ řȱ ŖŖŖȱ Ĵȱ ȱȱĜȱȱȱȱ and guidelines on organizing the special 96 Aleksandr Yakovlev, red., Lubyanka. Stalin i VChKȮGPUȮOGPUȮNKVD. Arhiv 99 Yakovlev, Lubyanka, 816-817. Stalina. Dokumentyi vyisshih partiynoy i 100 Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱdescr. 13, ¢ vlasti. Yanvar 1922 – dekabrȱ ŗşřŜ ę 20, p. 28. (Moskva: MFDǰȱŘŖŖřǼǰȱśŘŝǯ 101 Viktor Pichukov, “Sotsialnyiy obraz evreya 97 Andriy Kudryachenko, “Sotsialno- v crede selskih nemtsov BSSR mezhvoennogo politicheskie aspektyi Golodomora v Ukraine perioda” (Materialyi I Mezhdunarodnoy nauchnoy po svidetelstvam togdashnih nemetskih konferentsii Belorussko-evreyskiy dialog v kontekste diplomaticheskih uchrezhdeniy,” Personal 1 (2004): mirovoy kulturyi, Minsk, Aprel 28-30, 2008), 314, 23. ǱȦȦǯǯ¢ȦȦŗŘřŚśŜŝŞşȦŘřşŗŚȦŗȦ 98 Yakovlev, LubyankaǰȱśŘŝȬŞǯ dialog.pdf.

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inspectorate. He recommended reaching special inspectorate, and store managers tried an agreement with the local SPD about ȱ ęȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ candidates for the heads of the inspectorate.102 work of the ȱȱȱęȱȱȱȱȱ¡ȱ agencies that helped enhance cooperation ȱȱȱ ȱȱĜȱȱ, ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝǰȱ Ziskand, who reported that they approved ȱǰȱȱȱęȱȱ the candidacy for the position of the head requests to the SPD investigators asking to of local special inspectorate L. Voloshyn, a reveal or to prosecute those guilty of stealing member of the All-Union Communist Party, goods, hard currency, etc. Thus, head ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ĝǯ103 In ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ǰ ǰȱȱěȱȱȱȱȱ £¢¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ held administrative positions in . For SPD, dated 10 December 1932, complained instance, before coming to the position of the about forwarders who were “opening tiers of ȱȱȱȱȱĜȱȱ, herrings a.o., and took some for themselves, Avram Nudelman, had served in the SPD and handed out to Soyuztrans and railway ȱǻŗşŘŗȮŗşŘŘȱǼǰȱȱȱȱȱȃȱ workers, making up for the shortages with ęȄȱǻŗşŘřȮŗşŘŚȱǼǯȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱęǯȄ107 The scale of losses , he started a job as a deputy head of ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşřśǰȱ ȱ ȱ Board104ȱ ǻŗşřřȮŗşřŚȱ ǼǯŗŖś In April 1934, a ȱĜȱȱ ȱȱȱşśȱȱȱǰȱ secret division of the All-Union Association řȱȱȱȱǰȱřȱȱȱǰȱŗŝǯśȱȱȱ of warned the heads of regional ȱǰȱŗȱȱȱǰȱŝȱȱȱǰȱśȱĴȱ Ĝȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ ǰȱŝȱĴȱȱǰȱȱŚȱȱȱ without prior approval of their candidacy sports shoes.108 from local USPD bodies.106 However, even The USPD took active part in arrests of such thorough checking did not guarantee employees who were suspected of that therecommended persons could provide theft of goods or appropriation of cash. In ȱ ȱ Ě ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ April 1932, a cashier of the Odessa organization. store, Eibinder, was arrested and accused of The ȱ ěǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ misappropriating 20 dollars. Even though a evaluators of valuables were not above chances twice as large amount was seized from the to enrich themselves at the expense of the suspect during the search, he did not plead System or the customers. Therefore, the USPD, guilty. He explained that he received the money found six years ago from his sister 102 Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱ from Argentina to pay for the gravestone descr. 13, ę 13, pageȱśǯ 109 103 Ibid., 17. installation for the family grave. Such cases 104 On 10 July 1934, the resolution of the were taken up rather slowly by the courts. On Central Executive Ĵ of USSR established the all-Union NKVD that instead of the liquidated USPD included the newly established Main 107 Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱ Directorate of State Security (MDSS) descr. 13, ę 3, p.ȱŝśǯ ŗŖś Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʆȬŜŗŜǰȱ 108 Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŘŖŜřǰȱ descr. 1, ę 88, pageȱŞśǲȱę 668, page 1. descr. 1, ęȱśŝŞǰȱp.ȱŗśśǰȱŘŚśȬŜǯ 106 Kharkiv State Archive, collǯȱʇȬŚŜŚŖǰȱdescr. 13, 109 Odessa State Archive, collǯȱʇȬŝŗŖǰȱdescr. 1, ę 13, p. 26. ęȱŘřśǰȱp.ȱśŘǯ

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20 October 1934, the deputy prosecutor of the ȱ ȃȱ ȱ ŗŜǯʧʒǯřŞȄȱ ȱ ȱ USSR Andriy Vyshynskyi stated: personal data sheet might imply that he was arrested and exterminated in the years of mass ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ repressions.113 The main defendant in the case and second quarters of this year, while some was Moust, the deputy chairman, but from cases had been initiated last year. Due to this August to November 1934, the acting head of ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ Ĝ¢ȱ ȱȱŗśȱŖŖŖȱ ȱȱ of court repressions decreases, whereas the gold over a year of employment, according to abusers in some cases have a chance to hide ǰȱ¢ȱȱŗşřśǰȱȱ ȱȱ from criminal prosecution.110 and expelled from the party, arrested and taken to the bench.114 The former chairmen ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşřśǰȱ of the Board of the All-Union association of there were 11 unresolved cases in Chernihiv ȱ ¢ȱ ǻȱ ŗşřŘȱ Ȯȱ ȱ region regarding caused damages or theft ŗşřŚǼȱȱȱǻȱŗşřŚȱȮȱ¢ȱ in the points of sales; seven of them 1936) also failed to survive the “great terror.” had been initiated in 1933 and 1934. The On 8 June 1937, Stashevskyi was arrested pace was especially slow in Romny, Shostka, and accused of being involved in a “Polish Hlukhiv, and Konotop.111 Some cases were Military Organization” that is assumed to closed for unclear reasons, or transferred to have conducted partisan and espionage ¢ȱĴǰȱ ȱ ȱȱȱ activities against the USSR in the 1920s to avoid punishment. However, there were and 1930s. On 21 August 1937, the Military also cases when the suspects did not lived Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR to the judgement day, such as in the case of sentenced him to capital punishment and the director of the Hlukhiv store, execution the same day.ŗŗś Levenson was shot Kovshulia, who was accused of theft of on 22 August 1938 in Lefortovo prison. It is ȱȱȱĚǯ112 assumed that he was named in the case about After was liquidated, most of its the “counter-revolutionary organization of managers fell into the grindstones of Stalin the Rightists in the system of The Peoples’ repressions. The former deputy Chairman Commissariat for Trade.”116 The only person of the Board of the All-Union Association of among the chairmen of the Board of ǰȱ£¢ȱǻ ¢ȱŗşřŘȱȮȱ¢ȱŗşřśǼȱ who survived the mass repressions in 1937 was among the suspects in the case about and 1938 was Moysey Shkliar (January 1931 “misappropriation of public resources” that Ȯȱ ȱ ŗşřŘǼǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ŗşřśȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ of Party Control. According to Osokina, the 113 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsiiǰȱśśŗȬřǯ 110 “O zloupotrebleniyah v sisteme V/O 114 N. Migalinskiy, “Esche o ‘dele’ Torgsina,” ‘Torgsin’,” Za sotsialisticheskuyu zakonnost 12 (1934): Vneshnyaya ¢ȱŚǻŗşřśǼǱȱŗřȬŚǲȱN. Migalinskiy, 48. “Presech hischeniya v Torgsine (Delo Musta, 111 Chernihiv State Archive, coll.ȱ ʇȬŗřŜşǰȱ Kosatko i dr.),” Vneshnyaya ¢ȱ řǻŗşřśǼǱȱ ŞȬşǲȱ descr. 1, ę 110, page 46. Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 294-300. 112 Central State Archive of Supreme ŗŗś Elena Osokina, “Borets valyutnogo fronta Artur Governing and Administrative Bodies of Ukraine, Stashevskiyȱ ǻŗŞşŖȮŗşřŝǼǰȄȱ Otechestvennaya istoriya collǯȱŚŖśŗǰȱdescr. 1, ęȱŗśŖǰȱpage 3, 39 on the reverse.; 2(2007): 33-47; Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʆȬŜŗŜǰȱ descr. 1, 103-18. ę 379, pageȱśŗǯ 116 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 182-6.

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the director of the All-Union Export-Import We kindly request you to issue weapons to us – 2 Association for Trade with Xinjiang (West of them, one for the store, and another one for the China). Later he worked as a commercial agent ¢ȱȱǰȱȱ ¢ǯȱȱ in Xinjiang. In the end of war, Shkliar shifted ȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱ to work in the Currency Exchange Board of but there are no weapons for security.121 the Peoples’ Commissariat for Trade of the USSR where he was head of the division of the In fact, the security guards did not share the Currency Exchange Board of the Ministry of administration’s opinion about it and refused Foreign Trade of the USSR. He died during his to use weapons instead of clubs and whistles, retirement in 1974.117 ȱĴȱȱȱȱ goods, The points of sale of the Association required but the guns as such.122 ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱȱěȱȱȱȱȱȱ place, security was supposed to be provided the system stores personally, but in the role ¢ȱȱǰȱȱ¢ȱĚ¢ȱȱȱȱ of customers, when they handed over to buy- so. The branches were only guarded by the back centers the valuables seized from citizens institutional paramilitary militia in the early ǯȱȱǰȱȱĜȱȱȱ ȱ days of operations. In November, 1932, USPD, Ivan Demydenko, was charged with they were substituted by “civilian” guards.118 the appropriation of funds, collaboration In his report to the head of Odessa Regional with social enemies, and with anti-Soviet Ĝȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ speeches against collectivization. According sector, Lando, stated: “All security guards are to witnesses, he and his wife bought clothes, ęȱȱȱ ȱǰȱȱȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȄ119 Low Association stores. At a closed court hearing ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ¢ȱ of the Special Session of Kharkiv Regional Ĵȱ¢ȱȱȱśśȱȱŜśȱȱȱ ȱ ǻŗřȱ ȱ ŗşřŚǼǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȯȱ jobs, but they did not stay in the positions long dismissal from job, ban on work in the SPD either. The guards were supposed to be armed agencies, reimbursement of the cost of the with weapons, but before guns could be given stolen valuables, and forced labor for a term out to them, they had to receive a special of one year.123 license to carry weapons.120 In December To conclude, we shall try to assess the 1932, the director of Vyatka department store, ¡ȱĜ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ Beloborodov addressed the operational sector and . The volume of proceeds of the of USPD with the request: Political Department can be only estimated in rough terms, since today we only have 117 Osokina, Zoloto dlya industrializatsii, 64-70. fragments of data available on it. According 118 Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʇȬŘŖŜřǰȱ descr. 1, ęȱ śŞǰȱ page 11; Osokina, Zoloto dlya to a Russian researcher Osokina, the “average industrializatsii, 267. Ȅȱ ȱ ¢¢ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ 119 Odessa State Archive, collǯȱʇȬŗŘŚŗǰȱdescr. 1, ę 114, page 107. 120 Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱ ʆȬŜŗŜǰȱ 121 Semenova, “Deyatelnost Vyatskogo descr. 1, ę 379, pageȱ śśǲȱ collǯȱ ʇȬŗřŜşǰȱ descr. 1, otdeleniya,” 37. ęȱ ŘŖśǰȱ page 328; collǯȱ ʇȬśśşşǰȱ descr. 1, ę 20, 122 Chernihiv State Archive, collǯȱʆȬŜŗŜǰȱ pageȱ ŗśřǲȱ Unit for Preservation of Docuemnts of descr. 1, ę 379, page 78 on the reverse. the Chernihiv State Archive in the town of Nizhyn, 123 Archive of Security Service of Ukraine in collǯȱʇȬŗřŝşǰȱdescr. 1, ę 78, page 1. Chernihiv region, ęȱşşŝȬʆǰȱŜŘȱp.

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ȱ ¢ȱ ŗşřŖȱ ȱ ŗŖȮŗŘȱ ȱ ǯȱ tension between them, as the main source of In the formation years for , it certainly proceedsfor them were the savings of Soviet could not fully compete with the Department, citizens. However, the customers but in 1931, the total proceeds of the system received a chance to legally buy the required (7 mln Karbovanets in gold) were not commodities that were usually in short supply, much lower than the performance of the and to get rid of the dangerous valuables. Political Department. Since 1932, the yields of This method of retrieving hard currency went much further than the USPD’s and the jewels was much more “humane” capacity. In 1932, the All-Union Association ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ of acquired from population valuables USPD. worth 49.3 mln Karbovanets in gold (13.7 mln By creating the , the state conceded Ȯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ȭęȱ ȱ Ǽǰȱ ȱ ŗşřřȱ Ȯȱ ŗŗśǯŘȱ ȱ ǻŘŚǯŜȱ Ǽǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗşřŚȱȮȱŜśǯşȱȱǻŗřǯŞȱǼǰȱȱŗşřśȱȮȱŚŝǯŝȱȱ use their foreign currency as a payment (6.9 mln124).ŗŘś instrument, but failed to provide security for them to do so. The government tried to make Conclusions the best use of the strong points of each organization as they realized that was This brief overview of in the historical a temporary digression. Cases of ’s research discourse showed that the history of association with one of the divisions of relations of the system with the USPD (NKVD) USPD speak to the fact that the government remains understudied. Before the fall of the was not ready to give preferences to ǰȱȱ¢ȱę¢ȱȱ either of the methods of subtracting upon the topic, while early specialized works valuables. Therefore there was a lack of any on the association came out as late as in the ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ mid-1990s. Department on the grounds. In very possible The role of USPD (NKVD) in the life of way tried to avoid such statements, ȱ ȱ ȱ ęǱȱ ȱ ȱ even though any acts of USPD in the ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ęȱ stores or near the stores only added to the ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ǰȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ assurance of the contrary to the wider public. abuse, issuance of gun licenses, competing However, even under such circumstances, for prospective customers among holders the agencies managed to reach certain of hard currency. Since each organization compromises when each organization played needed to reach their own planned targets its part in the general terms of plundering the for hard currency, there was a certain citizens. Nevertheless, customers kept visiting at their own risk and peril until 124 Data for 9 months of ŗşřśǯ ŗŘś Osokina, Zoloto dlya its liquidation in February 1936 industrializatsiiǰȱ śŚřǲȱ State Archives of Supreme Bodies of Power and Government of Ukraine, collǯȱ ŚŖśŗǰȱ descr. 1, ę 24, pageȱŗŞşʲǲȱę 84, page 28; ę 137, page 61; Chernihiv State Archive, collǯʇȬŗřŜşǰȱ descr. 1, ę 107, page 96.

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яќѢѡȱѡѕђȱюѢѡѕќџ Mykola Horokh graduated from the History Faculty of Chernihiv Taras Shevchenko State Pedagogical University (2007). In 2013, he received a Ph.D. in History with thesis untitled “Establishment and Functioning of the Torgsin ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǻŗşřŘȮŗşřŜȱ ǼǯȄȱ Since 2007, he has worked in at the Chernihiv V.V. Tarnovskyi Historical Museum (since 2014 as a senior research fellow). He has published 60 articles in specialized historical journals, conference collections, newspapers, most of ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȃȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ƿȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱǻŗşřŘȮŗşřŜǼȄȱǻǼȱ Ȭȱȱęȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ the Torgsin system.

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