DOCSLIB.ORG

Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Final Report)

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Final Report) RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEAT-4180: Issue 3 Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Final Report) A report produced for DGXI November1998 RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEAT-4180: Issue 3 Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Final Report) A report produced for DGXI November 1998 RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998 Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. N2O as a Greenhouse Gas 2 2.1 GLOBAL SOURCES AND SINKS 2 2.2 LIFETIME AND GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL 3 3. Sources of N2O in the EU 4 3.1 EMISSIONS OF N2O4 3.2 CHANGES IN EMISSIONS 1990 TO 1994 8 3.3 COMPARISON OF INVENTORY DATA 9 3.4 EMISSION SOURCES BY SECTOR 11 3.4.1 Emissions from Agriculture 11 3.4.2 Emissions from Industrial Processes 11 3.4.3 Emissions from Combustion of Fossil Fuels 12 3.4.4 Emissions from Transport 13 3.4.5 Emissions from Waste Treatment and Disposal 13 3.4.6 Miscellaneous Sources 13 3.4.7 Natural Emissions 13 4. Existing and Planned Policies and Measures 14 4.1 NATIONAL STRATEGIES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 14 4.2 EU INITIATIVES 18 4.3 SUMMARY OF PROPOSED POLICIES BY SECTOR 19 5. Options for Reducing Emissions from Agriculture 20 5.1 APPROACH TAKEN 20 5.2 EMISSION MECHANISMS 20 5.3 INFLUENCES ON EMISSIONS 21 5.4 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 22 5.4.1 Potential options 22 5.4.2 Feasibility of Options 23 5.4.3 Options not Considered Further in this Study 24 5.5 A PACKAGE OF OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 26 5.5.1 Methodology 26 5.5.2 Description of Options 27 5.5.3 Impact of Measures 29 5.5.4 Implications for Methane Emissions 29 5.6 POTENTIAL OF INDIVIDUAL MEASURES 30 Page iv RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL AEA Technology Environment RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998 5.6.1 Ensuring Application of Fertiliser Nitrogen (N) at Recommended Economic Optimum Levels. 31 5.6.2 Sub-optimal Fertiliser-N Applications 34 5.6.3 Changing to Spring Cultivars 36 5.6.4 Alternative Fertiliser-N formulation 37 6. Options to Reduce Emissions from the Chemicals Sector 38 6.1 ADIPIC ACID MANUFACTURE 38 6.1.1 End-of-pipe technologies 38 6.1.2 Alternative production processes 40 6.2 NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION 40 6.2.1 Optimising the production process 41 6.2.2 End of pipe technologies 41 6.2.3 Status and Effectiveness of Options 42 7. Options to Reduce Emissions from Combustion 44 7.1 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION 45 7.1.1 Optimise FBC Operating Conditions and Use SCR to Reduce NOx45 7.1.2 Use of Gas Afterburner 45 7.1.3 Catalytic decomposition of N2O46 7.1.4 Reversed Air Staging 46 7.1.5 Pressurised FBC 46 7.1.6 Use of Conventional Coal Technologies or IGCC 46 7.2 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH SNCR 47 7.3 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH STATIONARY FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION 47 7.4 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORT 50 7.4.1 Reducing Transport Demand and Increasing Transport Efficiency50 7.4.2 Improving Catalyst Performance 53 8. Cost Effectiveness of Measures 54 8.1 INTRODUCTION 54 8.2 CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 54 8.2.1 Cost Assumptions 54 8.2.2 Cost-effectiveness 55 8.3 THE POWER SECTOR 56 8.3.1 Cost Assumptions 56 8.3.2 Cost-effectiveness 57 8.4 VARIATIONS IN COSTS ACROSS EUROPE 58 8.5 THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR 59 8.5.1 Costs Associated with Individual Measures 59 8.5.2 Summary of Cost-Effectiveness and Reductions 64 8.5.3 Costs Associated with ‘Package of Options’ 65 Page v RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL AEA Technology Environment RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998 9. Projections of Future Emissions 73 9.1 ‘BUSINESS AS USUAL’ SCENARIO 73 9.1.1 Agriculture 73 9.1.2 Adipic and Nitric Acid Manufacture. 75 9.1.3 Transport 76 9.1.4 Other energy related emissions 77 9.1.5 Emissions from other sectors 77 9.1.6 Total Emissions 77 9.2 COST-EFFECTIVENESS AND APPLICABILITY OF MEASURES 79 9.3 EMISSIONS UNDER ‘WITH MEASURES’ SCENARIOS 82 10. Summary 88 10.1 BACKGROUND 88 10.2 CURRENT EMISSIONS 88 10.3 BUSINESS-AS-USUAL PROJECTIONS 89 10.4 MEASURES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 91 10.4.1 Agricultural Sector 91 10.4.2 Production Processes 93 10.4.3 Energy Sector 93 10.5 EMISSIONS UNDER A ‘WITH MEASURES’ SCENARIO 94 10.6 COMPARISON WITH OTHER N2O REDUCTION STUDIES 96 10.7 CONCLUSIONS 96 References Appendix 1 Costing Methodology Appendix 2 CORINAIR Data Appendix 3 Options to Reduce N2O Emissions from Agriculture in the EU Appendix 4 Costing of Options to Reduce N2O Emissions from Agriculture Appendix 5 Implications of CO2 Reduction Measures on Emissions of Other Greenhouse Gases Appendix 6 Transport Emissions Model Appendix 7 Comparison of N2O Reduction Studies Page vi RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL AEA Technology Environment RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998 1. Introduction This report is one of the final reports under a study completed by AEA Technology Environment for DGXI on the control and reduction of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors. Four gases were included in the study, the two direct greenhouse gases, methane and nitrous oxide, and the ozone precursors, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and non-methane volatile organic compounds. In the initial phase of the study, inventories of these gases for all Member States were reviewed and updated. In the second phase of the study, measures to control and reduce emissions of these gases were identified, their technical feasibility examined, and wherever sufficient cost and performance data was available, the cost-effectiveness of the measures (in terms of ECU (1995) per tonne of pollutant) was also estimated. This report assesses anthropogenic nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and strategies to control them. Section 2 discusses the properties of N2O, sources and sinks for the gas, and a global budget for emissions. Section 3 considers emissions within the EU, and sets these into context against global N2O emissions and emissions of the two other direct greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane). It also identifies the important emission sources within the EU. Section 4 summarises actions which are already proposed by Member States to reduce emissions. Sections 5 and 6 of the report consider in detail options for the reduction of emissions from the agricultural and chemical sectors, while Section 7 considers the options to reduce emissions from combustion processes. The cost-effectiveness of the different measures is then evaluated in Section 8. For the non-agricultural sectors, costs have been calculated using an annualised cost methodology. All costs are expressed in 1995 ECUs and have been calculated using an 8% discount rate to annualise costs to ensure consistency with previous work on the cost of carbon dioxide reduction options. Full details of the costing methodology, exchange rates, deflators and other factors used are given in Appendix 1. Section 9 contains projections of N2O emissions up to 2020 under a ‘business as usual’ scenario and under a ‘with measures’ scenario, and Section 10 contains a summary of the report. Page 1 RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL AEA Technology Environment RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998 2. N2O as a Greenhouse Gas Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important long-lived greenhouse gas that is emitted predominantly by biological sources in soil and water. It is also the primary source in the stratosphere of the oxides of nitrogen, which play a critical role in controlling the abundance and distribution of stratospheric ozone. Estimates from ice core measurements suggest that the pre-industrial atmospheric concentration of N2O was about 275 ppbv (with a range of 260 to 285 ppbv). By 1994 this had increased by about 15% to a level of 312 ppbv (IPCC, 1995). 2.1 GLOBAL SOURCES AND SINKS An estimate of the global sources and sinks of N2O made by the IPCC in 1994 is given in Table 2.1. Overall, the sources and sinks of N2O are not well quantified and many uncertainties remain. Natural sources are probably twice as large as anthropogenic ones. Table 2.1 Estimated Sources and Sinks of Nitrous Oxide (Tg N per year) Range Likely Observed atmospheric increase 3.1 - 4.7 3.9 Sinks Photolysis in the stratosphere 9 - 16 12.3 Removal by soils ? Total sinks 9 - 16 12.3 Implied total sources (atmospheric increase + total sinks) 13 - 20 16.2 Identified Sources Natural Oceans 1 - 5 3 Tropical soils Wet forests 2.2 - 3.7 3 Dry savannahs 0.5 - 2.0 1 Temperate soils Forests 0.1 - 2.0 1 Grasslands 0.5 - 2.0 1 Total identified natural sources 6 - 12 9 Anthropogenic Cultivated soils 1.8 - 5.3 3.5 Biomass burning 0.2 - 1.0 0.5 Industrial sources 0.7 - 1.8 1.3 Cattle and feed lots 0.2 - 0.5 0.4 Total identified anthropogenic sources 3.7 - 7.7 5.7 TOTAL IDENTIFIED SOURCES 10 - 17 14.7 Source: (IPCC, 1995) Page 2 RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL AEA Technology Environment RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998 The main anthropogenic sources globally are agriculture (from the use of fertilisers and from the development of pasture in tropical regions), biomass burning, and a number of industrial processes such as adipic acid and nitric acid production. These sources and their relevance in the EU are discussed further in Section 3.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Prebiological Evolution and the Metabolic Origins of Life
    Prebiological Evolution and the Andrew J. Pratt* Metabolic Origins of Life University of Canterbury Keywords Abiogenesis, origin of life, metabolism, hydrothermal, iron Abstract The chemoton model of cells posits three subsystems: metabolism, compartmentalization, and information. A specific model for the prebiological evolution of a reproducing system with rudimentary versions of these three interdependent subsystems is presented. This is based on the initial emergence and reproduction of autocatalytic networks in hydrothermal microcompartments containing iron sulfide. The driving force for life was catalysis of the dissipation of the intrinsic redox gradient of the planet. The codependence of life on iron and phosphate provides chemical constraints on the ordering of prebiological evolution. The initial protometabolism was based on positive feedback loops associated with in situ carbon fixation in which the initial protometabolites modified the catalytic capacity and mobility of metal-based catalysts, especially iron-sulfur centers. A number of selection mechanisms, including catalytic efficiency and specificity, hydrolytic stability, and selective solubilization, are proposed as key determinants for autocatalytic reproduction exploited in protometabolic evolution. This evolutionary process led from autocatalytic networks within preexisting compartments to discrete, reproducing, mobile vesicular protocells with the capacity to use soluble sugar phosphates and hence the opportunity to develop nucleic acids. Fidelity of information transfer in the reproduction of these increasingly complex autocatalytic networks is a key selection pressure in prebiological evolution that eventually leads to the selection of nucleic acids as a digital information subsystem and hence the emergence of fully functional chemotons capable of Darwinian evolution. 1 Introduction: Chemoton Subsystems and Evolutionary Pathways Living cells are autocatalytic entities that harness redox energy via the selective catalysis of biochemical transformations.
    [Show full text]
  • Measurement of Cp/Cv for Argon, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide and an Argon + Nitrogen Mixture
    Measurement of Cp/Cv for Argon, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide and an Argon + Nitrogen Mixture Stephen Lucas 05/11/10 Measurement of Cp/Cv for Argon, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide and an Argon + Nitrogen Mixture Stephen Lucas With laboratory partner: Christopher Richards University College London 5th November 2010 Abstract: The ratio of specific heats, γ, at constant pressure, Cp and constant volume, Cv, have been determined by measuring the oscillation frequency when a ball bearing undergoes simple harmonic motion due to the gravitational and pressure forces acting upon it. The γ value is an important gas property as it relates the microscopic properties of the molecules on a macroscopic scale. In this experiment values of γ were determined for input gases: CO2, Ar, N2, and an Ar + N2 mixture in the ratio 0.51:0.49. These were found to be: 1.1652 ± 0.0003, 1.4353 ± 0.0003, 1.2377 ± 0.0001and 1.3587 ± 0.0002 respectively. The small uncertainties in γ suggest a precise procedure while the discrepancy between experimental and accepted values indicates inaccuracy. Systematic errors are suggested; however it was noted that an average discrepancy of 0.18 between accepted and experimental values occurred. If this difference is accounted for, it can be seen that we measure lower vibrational contributions to γ at room temperature than those predicted by the equipartition principle. It can be therefore deduced that the classical idea of all modes contributing to γ is incorrect and there is actually a „freezing out‟ of vibrational modes at lower temperatures. I. Introduction II. Method The primary objective of this experiment was to determine the ratio of specific heats, γ, for gaseous Ar, N2, CO2 and an Ar + N2 mixture.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethylene Dichloride (Edc) Handbook
    ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE (EDC) HANDBOOK OXYCHEM TECHNICAL INFORMATION 11/2014 Dallas-based Occidental Chemical Corporation is a leading North American manufacturer of basic chemicals, vinyls and performance chemicals directly and through various affiliates (collectively, OxyChem). OxyChem is also North America's largest producer of sodium chlorite. As a Responsible Care® company, OxyChem's global commitment to safety and the environment goes well beyond compliance. OxyChem's Health, Environment and Safety philosophy is a positive motivational force for our employees, and helps create a strong culture for protecting human health and the environment. Our risk management programs and methods have been, and continue to be, recognized as some of the industry's best. OxyChem offers an effective combination of industry expertise, experience, on line business tools, quality products and exceptional customer service. As a member of the Occidental Petroleum Corporation family, OxyChem represents a rich history of experience, top-notch business acumen, and sound, ethical business practices. 1 Table of Contents Page Introduction to Ethylene Dichloride ............................................................................................................ 3 Manufacturing .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Ethylene Dichloride (EDC) — Uses ................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Fuel Properties Comparison
    Alternative Fuels Data Center Fuel Properties Comparison Compressed Liquefied Low Sulfur Gasoline/E10 Biodiesel Propane (LPG) Natural Gas Natural Gas Ethanol/E100 Methanol Hydrogen Electricity Diesel (CNG) (LNG) Chemical C4 to C12 and C8 to C25 Methyl esters of C3H8 (majority) CH4 (majority), CH4 same as CNG CH3CH2OH CH3OH H2 N/A Structure [1] Ethanol ≤ to C12 to C22 fatty acids and C4H10 C2H6 and inert with inert gasses 10% (minority) gases <0.5% (a) Fuel Material Crude Oil Crude Oil Fats and oils from A by-product of Underground Underground Corn, grains, or Natural gas, coal, Natural gas, Natural gas, coal, (feedstocks) sources such as petroleum reserves and reserves and agricultural waste or woody biomass methanol, and nuclear, wind, soybeans, waste refining or renewable renewable (cellulose) electrolysis of hydro, solar, and cooking oil, animal natural gas biogas biogas water small percentages fats, and rapeseed processing of geothermal and biomass Gasoline or 1 gal = 1.00 1 gal = 1.12 B100 1 gal = 0.74 GGE 1 lb. = 0.18 GGE 1 lb. = 0.19 GGE 1 gal = 0.67 GGE 1 gal = 0.50 GGE 1 lb. = 0.45 1 kWh = 0.030 Diesel Gallon GGE GGE 1 gal = 1.05 GGE 1 gal = 0.66 DGE 1 lb. = 0.16 DGE 1 lb. = 0.17 DGE 1 gal = 0.59 DGE 1 gal = 0.45 DGE GGE GGE Equivalent 1 gal = 0.88 1 gal = 1.00 1 gal = 0.93 DGE 1 lb. = 0.40 1 kWh = 0.027 (GGE or DGE) DGE DGE B20 DGE DGE 1 gal = 1.11 GGE 1 kg = 1 GGE 1 gal = 0.99 DGE 1 kg = 0.9 DGE Energy 1 gallon of 1 gallon of 1 gallon of B100 1 gallon of 5.66 lb., or 5.37 lb.
    [Show full text]
  • Inhibition of Premixed Carbon Monoxide-Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Flames by Iron Pentacarbonylt
    Inhibition of Premixed Carbon Monoxide-Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Flames by Iron Pentacarbonylt MARC D. RUMMINGER+ AND GREGORY T. LINTERIS* Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA This paper presents measurements of the burning velocity of premixed CO-HrOrNz flames with and without the inhibitor Fe(CO)s over a range of initial Hz and Oz mole fractions. A numerical model is used to simulate the flame inhibition using a gas-phase chemical mechanism. For the uninhibited flames, predictions of burning velocity are excellent and for the inhibited flames, the qualitative agreement is good. The agreement depends strongly on the rate of the CO + OH <-> COz + H reaction and the rates of several key iron reactions in catalytic H- and O-atom scavenging cycles. Most of the chemical inhibition occurs through a catalytic cycle that converts o atoms into Oz molecules. This O-atom cycle is not important in methane flames. The H-atom cycle that causes most of the radical scavenging in the methane flames is also active in CO-Hz flames, but is of secondary importance. To vary the role of the H- and O-atom radical pools, the experiments and calculations are performed over a range of oxygen and hydrogen mole fraction. The degree of inhibition is shown to be related to the fraction of the net H- and O-atom destruction through the iron species catalytic cycles. The O-atom cycle saturates at a relatively low inhibitor mole fraction (-100 ppm), whereas the H-atom cycle saturates at a much higher inhibitor mole fraction (-400 ppm).
    [Show full text]
  • 2012-2015 Ryan White Part B Program Comprehensive Plan
    2012-2015 Ryan White Part B Program Comprehensive Plan Table of Contents Acronyms ............................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 5 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 6 WV Comprehensive Planning Process .......................................................................... 6 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................... 7 1. Where Are We Now: What is our Current System of Care? ................................... 8 HIV/AIDS In West Virginia-Epidemiologic Trends ..................................................... 8 Unmet Need ................................................................................................................. 24 2010 Unmet Need Framework Report ......................................................................... 27 Early Identification of Individuals with HIV/AIDS (EIIHA) ...................................... 43 Prevention Programs .................................................................................................... 49 Partner Services ........................................................................................................... 50 Continuum of Care ......................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Nitrogen Oxides
    Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998 Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the ambient air consist 1994). The United States generates about 20 mil- primarily of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen di- lion metric tons of nitrogen oxides per year, about oxide (NO2). These two forms of gaseous nitro- 40% of which is emitted from mobile sources. Of gen oxides are significant pollutants of the lower the 11 million to 12 million metric tons of nitrogen atmosphere. Another form, nitrous oxide (N2O), oxides that originate from stationary sources, is a greenhouse gas. At the point of discharge about 30% is the result of fuel combustion in large from man-made sources, nitric oxide, a colorless, industrial furnaces and 70% is from electric utility tasteless gas, is the predominant form of nitro- furnaces (Cooper and Alley 1986). gen oxide. Nitric oxide is readily converted to the much more harmful nitrogen dioxide by Occurrence in Air and Routes of Exposure chemical reaction with ozone present in the at- mosphere. Nitrogen dioxide is a yellowish-or- Annual mean concentrations of nitrogen dioxide ange to reddish-brown gas with a pungent, in urban areas throughout the world are in the irritating odor, and it is a strong oxidant. A por- range of 20–90 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/ tion of nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere is con- m3). Maximum half-hour values and maximum 24- verted to nitric acid (HNO3) and ammonium hour values of nitrogen dioxide can approach 850 salts. Nitrate aerosol (acid aerosol) is removed µg/m3 and 400 µg/m3, respectively.
    [Show full text]
  • Nitrogen Oxide Concentrations in Natural Waters on Early Earth
    The First Billion Years: Habitability 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2134) 1042.pdf NITROGEN OXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN NATURAL WATERS ON EARLY EARTH. Sukrit Ran- jan1,*, Zoe R. Todd2, Paul B. Rimmer3,4, Dimitar D. Sasselov2 and Andrew R. Babbin1, 1MIT, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, CamBridge, MA 02139; [email protected], 2Harvard University, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, 3MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK, 4University of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK, *SCOL Postdoctoral Fellow. Introduction: A key challenge in origin-of-life the fact that UV photolysis would not have occurred studies is determining the environmental conditions below the photic depths of these molecules. on early Earth under which abiogenesis occurred [1]. Results: We find that the sinks due to Fe2+ and While some constraints do exist (e.g. zircon evidence UV are orders of magnitude stronger than the sink due for surface liquid water), relatively few constraints to vents. Inclusion of the effects of these sinks sup- - exist on the abundances of trace chemical species, presses [NOX ]<1 µM in the bulk ocean over the vast which are relevant to assessing the plausibility and majority of the plausible parameter space. Oceanic - guiding the development of postulated prebiotic NOX -dependent prebiotic chemistries must identify - chemical pathways which depend on these molecules. mechanisms to concentrate local [NOX ] above the - - - - Nitrogen oxide anions (NOX ; NO2 , NO3 ) are oceanic mean. However, [NOX ] could have reached - chemical species of special importance. NOX are in- prebiotically-relevant concentrations (³1 µM) in fa- voked in diverse prebiotic chemistries, from the origin vorable surficial aqueous environments, i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • Toxicological Profile for Ethylbenzene
    ETHYLBENZENE 151 5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 5.1 PRODUCTION Ethylbenzene is primarily produced by the alkylation of benzene with ethylene in liquid-phase slurry reactors promoted with aluminum chloride catalysts or by vapor-phase reaction of benzene with dilute ethylene-containing feedstock with a boron trifluoride catalyst supported on alumina (Cannella 2007; Clayton and Clayton 1981; HSDB 2009; Welch et al. 2005; Ransley 1984). Newer versions of the method employ synthetic zeolites in fixed-bed reactors as catalysts for alkylation in the liquid phase or narrow pore synthetic zeolites in fixed-bed reactors in the vapor phase (Welch et al. 2005). Other methods of manufacturing ethylbenzene include preparation from acetophenone, dehydrogenation of naphthenes, catalytic cyclization and aromatization, separation from mixed xylenes via fractionation, reaction of ethylmagnesium bromide and chlorobenzene, extraction from coal oil, and recovery from benzene-toluene-xylene (BTX) processing(Clayton and Clayton 1981; HSDB 2009; Ransley 1984; Welch et al. 2005). Commercial grades of ethylbenzene may contain small amounts of m-xylene, p-xylene, cumene, and toluene (HSDB 2009). Ethylbenzene is traditionally ranked as one of the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States. Table 5-1 shows the historical production volumes of ethylbenzene from 1983 to 2005 (C&EN 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 2006; Kirschner 1995). Table 5-2 lists the facilities in each state that manufacture or process ethylbenzene, the intended use, and the range of maximum amounts of ethylbenzene that are stored on site. There are currently 3,755 facilities that produce, process, or use ethylbenzene in the United States. The data listed in Table 5-2 are derived from the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI06 2008).
    [Show full text]
  • WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality : Selected Pollutants
    WHO GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY WHO GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY: WHO GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY: This book presents WHO guidelines for the protection of pub- lic health from risks due to a number of chemicals commonly present in indoor air. The substances considered in this review, i.e. benzene, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, naphthalene, nitrogen dioxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (especially benzo[a]pyrene), radon, trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethyl- ene, have indoor sources, are known in respect of their hazard- ousness to health and are often found indoors in concentrations of health concern. The guidelines are targeted at public health professionals involved in preventing health risks of environmen- SELECTED CHEMICALS SELECTED tal exposures, as well as specialists and authorities involved in the design and use of buildings, indoor materials and products. POLLUTANTS They provide a scientific basis for legally enforceable standards. World Health Organization Regional Offi ce for Europe Scherfi gsvej 8, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark Tel.: +45 39 17 17 17. Fax: +45 39 17 18 18 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.euro.who.int WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants The WHO European Centre for Environment and Health, Bonn Office, WHO Regional Office for Europe coordinated the development of these WHO guidelines. Keywords AIR POLLUTION, INDOOR - prevention and control AIR POLLUTANTS - adverse effects ORGANIC CHEMICALS ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE - adverse effects GUIDELINES ISBN 978 92 890 0213 4 Address requests for publications of the WHO Regional Office for Europe to: Publications WHO Regional Office for Europe Scherfigsvej 8 DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark Alternatively, complete an online request form for documentation, health information, or for per- mission to quote or translate, on the Regional Office web site (http://www.euro.who.int/pubrequest).
    [Show full text]
  • Reducing Nox Emissions on the Road
    EUROPEAN CONFERENCE OF MINISTERS OF TRANSPORT REDUCING NOX EMISSIONS ON THE ROAD ENSURING FUTURE EXHAUSTS EMISSION LIMITS DELIVER AIR QUALITY STANDARDS Reducing NOx Emissions on the Road FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Transport Ministers noted the conclusions and recommendations of this report at the meeting of the Council of the ECMT in Dublin on 17-18 May 2006, and asked the Secretariat to transmit the report to the UN/ECE with a request to expedite deliberations on improved vehicle certification tests for NOx emissions for adoption world-wide. This was duly done. The ECMT is grateful to Heinz Steven of the RWTÜV Institute for Vehicle Technology in Germany for the analysis presented in this paper. The report was prepared by the ECMT Group on Transport and the Environment in co-operation with the OECD Environment Policy Committee’s Working Group on Transport. © ECMT, 2006 1 Reducing NOx Emissions on the Road TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................................1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................3 1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................6 2. REVIEW OF EU AND UN-ECE REGULATIONS.....................................................................7 2.1 Cars and light duty vehicles ..........................................................................................7
    [Show full text]
  • Application of the Nox Reaction Model for Development of Low-Nox Combustion Technology for Pulverized Coals by Using the Gas Phase Stoichiometric Ratio Index
    Energies 2011, 4, 545-562; doi:10.3390/en4030545 OPEN ACCESS energies ISSN 1996-1073 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Article Application of the NOx Reaction Model for Development of Low-NOx Combustion Technology for Pulverized Coals by Using the Gas Phase Stoichiometric Ratio Index Masayuki Taniguchi *, Yuki Kamikawa, Tsuyoshi Shibata, Kenji Yamamoto and Hironobu Kobayashi Energy and Environmental Systems Laboratory, Hitachi, Ltd. Power Systems Company, 7-2-1 Omika-cho, Hitachi-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 319-1292, Japan; E-Mails: [email protected] (Y.K.); [email protected] (T.S.); [email protected] (K.Y.); [email protected] (H.K.) * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +81-29-276-5889. Received: 9 December 2010; in revised form: 14 February 2011 / Accepted: 16 March 2011 / Published: 23 March 2011 Abstract: We previously proposed the gas phase stoichiometric ratio (SRgas) as an index to evaluate NOx concentration in fuel-rich flames. The SRgas index was defined as the amount of fuel required for stoichiometric combustion/amount of gasified fuel, where the amount of gasified fuel was the amount of fuel which had been released to the gas phase by pyrolysis, oxidation and gasification reactions. In the present study we found that SRgas was a good index to consider the gas phase reaction mechanism in fuel-rich pulverized coal flames. When SRgas < 1.0, NOx concentration was strongly influenced by the SRgas value. NOx concentration was also calculated by using a reaction model. The model was verified for various coals, particle diameters, reaction times, and initial oxygen concentrations.
    [Show full text]