RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEAT-4180: Issue 3
Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Final Report)
A report produced for DGXI
November1998 RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEAT-4180: Issue 3
Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Final Report)
A report produced for DGXI
November 1998 RESTRICTED COMMERCIAL Options To Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions - Final Report: November 1998
Options to Reduce Nitrous Oxide Emissions
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. N2O as a Greenhouse Gas 2
2.1 GLOBAL SOURCES AND SINKS 2 2.2 LIFETIME AND GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL 3
3. Sources of N2O in the EU 4
3.1 EMISSIONS OF N2O4 3.2 CHANGES IN EMISSIONS 1990 TO 1994 8 3.3 COMPARISON OF INVENTORY DATA 9 3.4 EMISSION SOURCES BY SECTOR 11 3.4.1 Emissions from Agriculture 11 3.4.2 Emissions from Industrial Processes 11 3.4.3 Emissions from Combustion of Fossil Fuels 12 3.4.4 Emissions from Transport 13 3.4.5 Emissions from Waste Treatment and Disposal 13 3.4.6 Miscellaneous Sources 13 3.4.7 Natural Emissions 13
4. Existing and Planned Policies and Measures 14
4.1 NATIONAL STRATEGIES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 14 4.2 EU INITIATIVES 18 4.3 SUMMARY OF PROPOSED POLICIES BY SECTOR 19
5. Options for Reducing Emissions from Agriculture 20
5.1 APPROACH TAKEN 20 5.2 EMISSION MECHANISMS 20 5.3 INFLUENCES ON EMISSIONS 21 5.4 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 22 5.4.1 Potential options 22 5.4.2 Feasibility of Options 23 5.4.3 Options not Considered Further in this Study 24 5.5 A PACKAGE OF OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 26 5.5.1 Methodology 26 5.5.2 Description of Options 27 5.5.3 Impact of Measures 29 5.5.4 Implications for Methane Emissions 29 5.6 POTENTIAL OF INDIVIDUAL MEASURES 30
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5.6.1 Ensuring Application of Fertiliser Nitrogen (N) at Recommended Economic Optimum Levels. 31 5.6.2 Sub-optimal Fertiliser-N Applications 34 5.6.3 Changing to Spring Cultivars 36 5.6.4 Alternative Fertiliser-N formulation 37
6. Options to Reduce Emissions from the Chemicals Sector 38
6.1 ADIPIC ACID MANUFACTURE 38 6.1.1 End-of-pipe technologies 38 6.1.2 Alternative production processes 40 6.2 NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION 40 6.2.1 Optimising the production process 41 6.2.2 End of pipe technologies 41 6.2.3 Status and Effectiveness of Options 42
7. Options to Reduce Emissions from Combustion 44
7.1 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION 45 7.1.1 Optimise FBC Operating Conditions and Use SCR to Reduce NOx45 7.1.2 Use of Gas Afterburner 45 7.1.3 Catalytic decomposition of N2O46 7.1.4 Reversed Air Staging 46 7.1.5 Pressurised FBC 46 7.1.6 Use of Conventional Coal Technologies or IGCC 46 7.2 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH SNCR 47 7.3 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH STATIONARY FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION 47 7.4 OPTIONS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORT 50 7.4.1 Reducing Transport Demand and Increasing Transport Efficiency50 7.4.2 Improving Catalyst Performance 53
8. Cost Effectiveness of Measures 54
8.1 INTRODUCTION 54 8.2 CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 54 8.2.1 Cost Assumptions 54 8.2.2 Cost-effectiveness 55 8.3 THE POWER SECTOR 56 8.3.1 Cost Assumptions 56 8.3.2 Cost-effectiveness 57 8.4 VARIATIONS IN COSTS ACROSS EUROPE 58 8.5 THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR 59 8.5.1 Costs Associated with Individual Measures 59 8.5.2 Summary of Cost-Effectiveness and Reductions 64 8.5.3 Costs Associated with ‘Package of Options’ 65
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9. Projections of Future Emissions 73
9.1 ‘BUSINESS AS USUAL’ SCENARIO 73 9.1.1 Agriculture 73 9.1.2 Adipic and Nitric Acid Manufacture. 75 9.1.3 Transport 76 9.1.4 Other energy related emissions 77 9.1.5 Emissions from other sectors 77 9.1.6 Total Emissions 77 9.2 COST-EFFECTIVENESS AND APPLICABILITY OF MEASURES 79 9.3 EMISSIONS UNDER ‘WITH MEASURES’ SCENARIOS 82
10. Summary 88
10.1 BACKGROUND 88 10.2 CURRENT EMISSIONS 88 10.3 BUSINESS-AS-USUAL PROJECTIONS 89 10.4 MEASURES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS 91 10.4.1 Agricultural Sector 91 10.4.2 Production Processes 93 10.4.3 Energy Sector 93 10.5 EMISSIONS UNDER A ‘WITH MEASURES’ SCENARIO 94 10.6 COMPARISON WITH OTHER N2O REDUCTION STUDIES 96 10.7 CONCLUSIONS 96
References
Appendix 1 Costing Methodology
Appendix 2 CORINAIR Data
Appendix 3 Options to Reduce N2O Emissions from Agriculture in the EU
Appendix 4 Costing of Options to Reduce N2O Emissions from Agriculture
Appendix 5 Implications of CO2 Reduction Measures on Emissions of Other Greenhouse Gases
Appendix 6 Transport Emissions Model
Appendix 7 Comparison of N2O Reduction Studies
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1. Introduction
This report is one of the final reports under a study completed by AEA Technology Environment for DGXI on the control and reduction of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors. Four gases were included in the study, the two direct greenhouse gases, methane and nitrous oxide, and the ozone precursors, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and non-methane volatile organic compounds. In the initial phase of the study, inventories of these gases for all Member States were reviewed and updated. In the second phase of the study, measures to control and reduce emissions of these gases were identified, their technical feasibility examined, and wherever sufficient cost and performance data was available, the cost-effectiveness of the measures (in terms of ECU (1995) per tonne of pollutant) was also estimated.
This report assesses anthropogenic nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and strategies to control them.
Section 2 discusses the properties of N2O, sources and sinks for the gas, and a global budget for emissions. Section 3 considers emissions within the EU, and sets these into context against global N2O emissions and emissions of the two other direct greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane). It also identifies the important emission sources within the EU. Section 4 summarises actions which are already proposed by Member States to reduce emissions.
Sections 5 and 6 of the report consider in detail options for the reduction of emissions from the agricultural and chemical sectors, while Section 7 considers the options to reduce emissions from combustion processes. The cost-effectiveness of the different measures is then evaluated in Section 8. For the non-agricultural sectors, costs have been calculated using an annualised cost methodology. All costs are expressed in 1995 ECUs and have been calculated using an 8% discount rate to annualise costs to ensure consistency with previous work on the cost of carbon dioxide reduction options. Full details of the costing methodology, exchange rates, deflators and other factors used are given in Appendix 1. Section 9 contains projections of N2O emissions up to 2020 under a ‘business as usual’ scenario and under a ‘with measures’ scenario, and Section 10 contains a summary of the report.
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2. N2O as a Greenhouse Gas
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important long-lived greenhouse gas that is emitted predominantly by biological sources in soil and water. It is also the primary source in the stratosphere of the oxides of nitrogen, which play a critical role in controlling the abundance and distribution of stratospheric ozone. Estimates from ice core measurements suggest that the pre-industrial atmospheric concentration of N2O was about 275 ppbv (with a range of 260 to 285 ppbv). By 1994 this had increased by about 15% to a level of 312 ppbv (IPCC, 1995).
2.1 GLOBAL SOURCES AND SINKS
An estimate of the global sources and sinks of N2O made by the IPCC in 1994 is given in Table 2.1. Overall, the sources and sinks of N2O are not well quantified and many uncertainties remain. Natural sources are probably twice as large as anthropogenic ones.
Table 2.1 Estimated Sources and Sinks of Nitrous Oxide (Tg N per year) Range Likely Observed atmospheric increase 3.1 - 4.7 3.9 Sinks Photolysis in the stratosphere 9 - 16 12.3 Removal by soils ? Total sinks 9 - 16 12.3 Implied total sources (atmospheric increase + total sinks) 13 - 20 16.2
Identified Sources Natural Oceans 1 - 5 3 Tropical soils Wet forests 2.2 - 3.7 3 Dry savannahs 0.5 - 2.0 1 Temperate soils Forests 0.1 - 2.0 1 Grasslands 0.5 - 2.0 1 Total identified natural sources 6 - 12 9 Anthropogenic Cultivated soils 1.8 - 5.3 3.5 Biomass burning 0.2 - 1.0 0.5 Industrial sources 0.7 - 1.8 1.3 Cattle and feed lots 0.2 - 0.5 0.4 Total identified anthropogenic sources 3.7 - 7.7 5.7 TOTAL IDENTIFIED SOURCES 10 - 17 14.7
Source: (IPCC, 1995)
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The main anthropogenic sources globally are agriculture (from the use of fertilisers and from the development of pasture in tropical regions), biomass burning, and a number of industrial processes such as adipic acid and nitric acid production. These sources and their relevance in the EU are discussed further in Section 3. Sources whose magnitude have not been estimated in Table 2.1, or may have been underestimated, are tropical agriculture, biomass burning, and temperate grasslands.
The major natural sources of N2O are soils and oceans. In soils two processes - nitrification and denitrification - can lead to the release of N2O. The flux of the N2O is affected by both the type of soil and environmental conditions. Quantifying emissions from soils is thus difficult, due to the heterogeneity of terrestrial ecosystems and the variability of the factors that control the fluxes. In the case of oceans, it is still unclear whether N2O is produced primarily from nitrification in near surface waters or denitrification in oxygen deficient deep waters.
N2O is primarily removed from the atmosphere in the stratosphere by photolysis (breakdown by sunlight). This reaction is a primary source of the oxides of nitrogen (in the stratosphere), which play a critical role in controlling the abundance and distribution of stratospheric ozone. A secondary removal process (which accounts for about 10% of removal) is through a reaction with excited oxygen atoms. There is some evidence that soils may represent a small sink for the gas (IPCC, 1995), but, to date, there is not enough data to evaluate this.
2.2 LIFETIME AND GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL
The best estimate of the atmospheric lifetime of N2O is 120 years. The direct radiative forcing -2 -2 of N2O is estimated to be 0.14 Wm (compared to values for CO2 and CH4 of 1.56 Wm and -2 0.47 Wm ) and it has the global warming potential (GWP) relative to CO2 shown in Table 2.2. The GWP of the other direct greenhouse gas methane, which has a much shorter lifetime of 12.2 years is also shown in Table 2.2 for comparison.
The long atmospheric lifetime of N2O has implications for achieving stable atmospheric concentrations of the gas. If emissions were held constant at today’s levels, the atmospheric concentration of N2O would rise from 311 ppbv to about 400 ppbv over several hundred years, increasing its incremental radiative forcing by a factor of four over its current level. In order for atmospheric concentrations to be stabilised near current levels, anthropogenic sources would need to be reduced by more than 50% (IPCC, 1996).
Table 2.2 Global Warming Potentials of Nitrous Oxide and Methane Gas Direct Effect for Time Horizons of : 20 years 100 years 500 years
N2O 280 310 170 Methane 56 21 6.5
Source: IPCC, 1996
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3. Sources of N2O in the EU
3.1 EMISSIONS OF N2O
National estimates of N2O emissions by sector for EU Member States in 1990 and 1994 are shown by country in Tables 3.1a and b. Overall, EU emissions fell by 6% from 1114 kt to 1049 kt. As shown in Table 3.2, emissions of N2O within the EU are much lower than emissions of the other direct greenhouse gases, CO2 and CH4. Even after allowing for its higher global warming potential, anthropogenic emissions of N2O are still a relatively minor contribution to total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the EU, and are equivalent to about 10% of
CO2 emissions. Anthropogenic EU emissions of N2O are about 12% of estimated anthropogenic global emissions (9 Mt1) reported in Table 2.1.
Table 3.2 Anthropogenic Emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O in the EU in 1994 Direct GHG Emissions (kt) GWP Global Warming Equivalence - in 1994 (100 years) emissions * GWP (equivalent kt of CO2) CO2 3,215,558 1 3,215,558 CH4 21,930 21 460,530 N2O 1049 310 325,190
Source: Member States and EU Second Communications to the FCCC.
1 1 tonne of N2O emissions expressed in terms of N (as in Table 2.1) is equivalent to 1.57 tonnes of N2O.
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Table 3.1a Estimated Emissions of N2O in EU Member States in 1990 (kt) ABDKFIN1 FR GER GRE IRE IT LUX NLS P SP SW UK EU15 Agriculture 3 11 33 9 55 96 8 23 75 0 22 7 64 0 104 511 Production processes 1 11 0 3 90 83 1 3 22 0 32 2 10 3 95 356 Transport 310241110405123441 Public heat and power 02112151129010101672 Industrial combustion 02014400900052331 Other fuel combustion 130147111200131236 Land use change and forestry 3000180012100000042 Waste 00003400101300012 Other 11002600004000014 Total 12 31 34 17 182 226 14 29 173 1 64 14 94 9 215 1114
Table 3.1b Estimated Emissions of N2O in EU Member States in 1994 (kt) ABDKFIN1 FR GER GRE IRE IT LUX NLS P SP SW UK EU15 Agriculture 3 11 30 9 52 86 8 19 76 0 26 7 58 0 98 484 Production processes 112037781131903228273313 Transport 411261921507133761 Public heat and power 03122131219000101659 Industrial combustion 02014400600053328 Other fuel combustion 131155211000131233 Land use change and forestry 3010180012200000044 Waste 00004400101300013 Other 11002600005000014 Total 13 32 34 18 169 218 14 26 157 1 70 14 87 10 188 1050 Notes: 1 No breakdown of no-transport fuel related emissions given, so emissions allocated on basis of average split between public heat and power, industrial combustion and other fuel combustion.
Sources: Member States and EU Second Communications to the FCCC.
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The proportion of anthropogenic emissions arising from individual sectors in 1994 is shown in Figure 3.1 and Table 3.3 for the EU as a whole, and in Figure 3.2 for individual Member States. Within the EU there are two major sources, agriculture and industrial processes (adipic and nitric acid production), and these accounted for 76% of anthropogenic emissions in 1994 (46% and 30% respectively). Emissions from fossil fuel combustion in all types of boilers, power plant and industry accounts for 12%, and road transport a further 6%. Each of these sources are discussed in more detail below in Section 3.3.
Table 3.3 Emissions of N2O by Sector in 1994 in the EU (kt) Sector kt % of total Agriculture 484 46% Production processes 313 30% Transport 61 6% Energy Industry 59 6% Industrial combustion 28 3% Other fuel combustion 33 3% Land use change and forestry 44 4% Waste 13 1% Other 14 1% Total 1049 100%
Source: Member States and EU Second Communications to the FCCC.
Figure 3.1 Anthropogenic N2O Emissions in the EU in 1994 (Total = 1049 kt)
Transport 6% Production processes Public heat and power 30% 6%
Other fuel combustion 6%
Land use change and forestry 4%