“The Gendered Battlefield” Women in the Australian Defence Force Donna. V. Bridges A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Applied Social and Human Sciences University of Western Sydney 2005 I dedicate this thesis to my grandfathersgrandfathers:::: Bill Bridges who died while serving in the British Air Force in WW2 Jack Bolger who served with the British Army in the Middle East in WW2 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support and generosity of the women from the Australian Defence Force who devoted their time and energy to provide me with their valuable contributions. To them I am endlessly grateful. The Australian Defence Force showed interest in this research by providing practical assistance. Their openness to the project made the research processes and outcomes richer and more constructive. Special thanks go to John Matthieson and Lieutenant Colonel Linda Campbell, both worked closely with me and helped me immeasurably. Linda Campbell is owed untold gratitude for her consistent guidance, her advice, and tireless commitment to the project. I also owe thanks to the intellectual community I am part of at the University of Western Sydney. Thanks must go first to my supervisors: Doctor Debbie Horsfall, for her faith in me always, her constancy and her vigilant and challenging supervision, Associate Professor Moira Carmody for her astute observations in theory and writing, and her support in my communications with the ADF. The support of Vivian Mulder in all my dealings with the University, and administration, is greatly appreciated. Postgraduate colleagues have been an inspiration, providing good advice and lots of encouragement. Special thanks go to Lesley Salmon and Susan Ambler who have been very good friends, inspiring work mates and who have helped me enjoy the process of thesis writing. Some very special people have given me an extraordinary level of encouragement and assistance while I have worked on this research. These unique and affectionate friends have added their valuable contributions to the process of thesis writing. Firstly I would like to thank Tracey Willow who supported me in the decision to embark on this project and who has many times read what I have written, offering feedback and criticism. Her faith in me has always been an inspiration. Emily Coleing has offered kind and motivating words, home cooked meals, an incredible amount of her time and energy as well as a great deal of editorial assistance (and a fabulous sense of humour). My thanks go also to Margaret Buchanan. I couldn’t have finished this thesis without her strength, patience and energy. She has challenged me with her brilliant mind and particularly during the final writing phase of the thesis her sense of fun and her warmth have provided great relief. Other friends and family have been interested and supportive for all the years I have been working on this research. Thanks to Chris Wolfe, Veronica Stevenson, Cath Dunn, Deborah Dare, Sharon Payne, Lana O’Sullivan, Erin Thomas and Anita Thompson. My family has been a wonderfully encouraging and an enduring support during my years study; special thanks go to my parents Johanna and Graeme Cuttriss, my sisters Michele Pownall and Cindy Fairfax, my grandmother Johanna Bolger, and my little brothers Grant, Ben, Simon and Tim (for keeping me in book vouchers for all those years). My family is proud of my achievements and their pride has sustained me. This endeavour is as much theirs as it is mine. Statement of Authentication The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. ………………………………. (Signature) Contents Summary ii Abbreviations iv Introduction 1 1 Threads into the Labyrinth 16 2 Methodology 37 3 The Making of History 64 4 Integration: Barriers and Breakthroughs 82 5 Myths Under Siege: Masculinist Ideologies 149 6 Women in Combat: Gender Under Fire 204 7 Peacekeeping: The Future of a Gender Balanced Force 239 Conclusion 265 Bibliography 277 Appendix (A) 306 Appendix (B) 316 “The Gendered Battlefield” - i - 2005 Summary ‘The Gendered Battlefield: Women in the Australian Defence Force’ This thesis seeks to understand and critically discuss gender inequalities in the Australian Defence Force (ADF) as a barrier to full integration. This is achieved through an exploration of current literature, policy and legal documents, and from the point of view of a sample of ADF women. The purpose of this thesis is to determine whether constructions of gender devalue, exclude and therefore oppress women in the ADF and to determine whether constructions of gender legitimise the subordinate position of female personnel within the ADF. The study locates the ‘voices’, the experiences, and opinions of a group of female ADF personnel in order to hear from the ‘central’ players. The thesis contributes to current debates by: providing a platform for female members of the ADF to relate their experiences and opinions, thereby, giving a voluntary voice to women who are often not heard from in the debates; providing a feminist perspective -which in the Australian context is scant, as Australian feminisms have been reluctant to approach this controversial area; providing a critical perspective that is complementary to in-house research, through conducting the research from a position outside the ADF. The aims of the research are to explore the culture of the ADF, with the purpose of illustrating the underlying causes of barriers to full integration. It aims to understand where unequal treatment arises from, how inequity manifests, how this impacts on women, and how ADF resources are ultimately misused by the excluding of women from certain employments. Multiple methods were employed at all stages of the research. Thirty women were interviewed in in-depth semi-structured interviews. Analysis of relevant literature, documents and policy, media, and historical evidence was conducted. Content analysis of themes arising from the literature and from the emergent interviews’ themes was integral in shaping this thesis. “The Gendered Battlefield” - ii - 2005 Original thesis questions arose from literature and were further impacted upon by ADF policy, reports and media reviews. Questions changed again during and after interviewing as the women led me in new directions. Coming from a pacifist position I originally wanted to know why women would want to join the ADF, this question was easily answered through the beginning phases of the research. The questions became more complex and grew into this thesis through my interaction with women. Through the research fieldwork I was led in the direction of focusing on the gendered nature of Defence culture. Government and ADF policy on combat exclusions I found to be a barrier to integration that impact upon career progression in the ADF. The research further revealed a disturbing realisation that Australian women continue to be denied full citizenship rights and responsibilities due to the inequities of restrictions on military service. The research led to the finding that women are excluded from roles in the ADF based on the mythology that women’s service is inferior to that of males. Military debates concerning women’s integration revolve around this mythology. Issues presented in the arguments for cohesion, physical strength, and protectionism are military myths that seek to continue to exclude from positions of leadership, prestige and power in the ADF. Women’s current and potential roles in combat and peacekeeping are presented in the thesis as ultimate case studies revealing how women are denied equal employment rights in the ADF. “The Gendered Battlefield” - iii - 2005 Abbreviations AAMWS Australian Army Medical Women’s Service AANS Australian Army Nursing Service ADF Australian Defence Force ADFA Australian Defence Force Academy ADHREC Australian Defence Human Research Ethics Committee AFWV Australian Federation of Women Voters ANZAC Australian and New Zealand Army Corps AWAS Australian Women’s Army Service CDF Canadian Defence Force CEDAW Convention of the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women DCO Defence Community Organisation DEO Defence Equity Organisation DSPPR Directorate of Strategic Planning Personnel and Research NSWANSR New South Wales Army Nursing Service Reserve P.O.W. Prisoner of War RAAF Royal Australian Air Force RAAFNS Royal Australian Air Force Nursing Service RAN Royal Australian Navy RAANS Royal Australian Naval Nursing Service RMC Royal Military College RSL Returned & Services League UN United Nations US United States of America UWSHREC University of Western Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee WAAAF Women’s Australian Auxiliary Air Force WAC Women’s Auxiliary Corps WRAAC Women’s Royal Australian Army Corps WRAAF Women’s Royal Australian Air Force WRANS Women’s Royal Australian Naval Service WW1 World War One WW2 World War Two “The Gendered Battlefield” - iv - 2005 Introduction “The Gendered Battlefield” - 1 - 2005 I was in England, on exchange, a female officer in the British army was commanding a troop of 120 men when the Falklands Island war was declared. Her squadron deployed and she was on the aircraft ready to go and someone came and said ‘ma’am government has said no women are going’. She had led these men for two years, she knew every single one of them, she had been the one planning all the exercises, and she had been their leader. And she was removed from the aircraft and a cadet that had just graduated was put in her place. He didn’t know any thing about them, he hadn’t even done his basic signals course, nothing, and it was just based on gender that she didn’t go on operational service (Cath)1. Exclusions on women’s military service undermine women’s authority and put them in a position where they are viewed as incapable of doing their jobs (Chapman, 1999; Hancock, 1993; Nemitschenko, 2001; Peach, 1996).