LETTER FROM SECRETARY-GENERAL

Esteemed participants,

I have always found great pleasure in serving the MUN community through the years I have spent participating in conferences. I had the chance to meet and discuss with many distinct individuals and truly enjoyed their presence. It is indeed meaningful for me to be now, satisfying my responsibilities, as the Secretary-General of a conference dedicated to United Nations values, a culture of debate, and a community of eager participants from diverse backgrounds.

A large and highly qualified academic team from various fields of disciplines have been working rigorously since last June in order to establish a framework and theorize on the conference theme. Now, I can confidently say that, we will be providing you with excellent academic material, and a properly equipped debate environment.

We chose the theme of the conference to be “Freedoms: Struggle of the subject in the margin to come to voice”, structuring the central focus of the committee discussions. With an agenda devoted to freedoms, we intend to disrupt the silence placed on the subjects in the margin. Acknowledging the fact that, many individuals still face alienation, oppression, and ignorance; being further pushed into isolation and silence; their struggles are either completely dismissed or severely romanticized beyond giving them proper recognition as subjects. We cannot turn a blind eye to this issue remaining unaddressed: This year, HASMUN’18 moves to provide a space of openness to all those who desire to discuss, share their views on, and theorize with us ways of re-vision.

I believe that words are meaningful, they are an action in themselves; therefore, I invite you for critical articulation and seek your participation and collaboration. Let us come together, discuss, and produce a discourse against hegemony.

Let us continue to do our part.

Tuna ÖĞÜT Secretary-General of Kadir Has University Model United Nations Conference 2018

LETTER FROM UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL

Dear participants,

My name is Edanur Göçmen, I am a senior Sociology and International Relations student at Istanbul Bilgi University. It is my utmost pleasure to serve you as the Under-Secretary-General responsible for the United Nations Human Rights Council in HASMUN 2018.

This year United Nations Human Rights Council is dealing with a very significant – yet not questioned or/and elaborated on with details – problem namely discrimination and violence against black people in the United States of America. The problem itself has different dimensions and aspects to be regarded, which are very significant and need your help in order to be solved. This study guide had been prepared to give the background information and general knowledge about the agenda item both in theoretical ground and empirical examples. Delegates are expected to fulfil their knowledge with their further researches.

I would like to express my gratitude everyone whom and in particular to Secretary-General, Tuna Öğüt, for giving me a chance to serve as an Under-Secretary General for this committee and for being the most supportive, most companionable and master of hir domain Secretary- General I have ever worked with. In the second place, I would like to thank Director-Secretary- General, Deniz Nalbant, for her great support for this conference. Lastly, I would like to appreciate to my lovely assistants Berat B. Zorlu and Mehmet Emin Akyar for their constant support and effort on preparing this committee and study guide.

I hope you enjoy the conference while debating and finding effective solutions.

If you have any questions regarding the committee and the topics, please do not hesitate to contact me via [email protected]

Sincerely,

Edanur Göçmen

Under-Secretary-General responsible for United Nations Human Rights Council LETTER FROM UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL ASSISTANT

First and foremost, I wish like to welcome you all to the annual HASMUN 18’ conference; you have my most heartedly salutations. I’ve been participating to Model United Nations ever since i was, though rather forcefully, first introduced to them way back in 2012 in which I have found great interest in. Not to mention the myriad dear memories I’ve had the opportunity to witness,

I’ve come to this day in which has granted me the right to witness an organization of such a caliber; along my colleagues on our cause of preparing a committee, that we have spent ridiculous amounts of time working on it, I only hope to see our delegates’ satisfaction from the wonderful experiences that they will be getting along my hardworking teammates, if you will.

Regarding the matter of our central theme in our committee; the racial discrimination on African

American in a periodic manner. It has been almost few centuries since constitutions formed in order to wipe off such an ideology such as racism, yet it’s ill presence is still upon our the people of our world; perhaps, even more than it should have ever been in the medium of the present day. Us, the academic staff as a whole of this committee, have been increasingly attempting to pull attention towards this fact during the preparations of this particular committee. It’s undoubtedly easy, to call in “racism” to be a bad thing and carry on yet, it requires virtue and courage to produce work particularly on this matter if to serve for a cause that could, potentially, wipe out such an understanding of community for good in the long run.

We hope, from the bottom of our honest consciousness, to see our delegates to stand up for such a cause and speak their minds without any hinderances and doubts for the sole purpose of ridding of the racist perception with, not by oppression, but by reason.

Berat B. Zorlu Under-Secretary-General Assistant responsible for United Nations Human Rights Council LETTER FROM UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL ASSISTANT

Hello everyone,

My name is Mehmet Emin Akyar and I am a junior at Hüseyin Avni Sözen Anatolian High

School. As a person who cares about human rights at all levels including LGBT rights, black rights, women rights and much more, I am more than pleased to be helping to the making of this very committee.

During the time of preparation both the academy and organization team worked hard to make this conference and committee amazing. Without making the guide than it already is I would like to state on last thing and that is my love for the team members. Edanur Göçmen was one of the members of the committee board when I was a first-timer. To work under her guidance and to experience her love and friendship at all levels was nothing but amazing. The same goes for Berat Zorlu, a very kind soul that I met on this journey. Also, our honourable Tuna Öğüt and Deniz Nalbant whom I knew from HASMUN’17. They are the most amazing duo I have seen and I know that they are very interested in human rights in general. So, I would like to thank them for creating such amazing committees in order to make sure that every human being is equal.

Mehmet Emin Akyar

Under-Secretary-General Assistant responsible for United Nations Human Rights

Council TABLE OF CONTETNS

INTRODUCTION TO UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL i

RACE, RACISM AND RACIAL DISCRIMINATION 1

MIGRATION, REFUGEEHOOD AND CITIZENSHIP 3

VIOLENCE AND DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BLACK PEOPLE IN

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 9

a. Brief Historical Background 9

b. Contemporary Situation 27

c. Reasons Leading the Violence and Discrimination 43

RECONSIDERATION OF TODAY AND FUTURE:

RESPONSIBILITIES, OBLIGATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES 47

a. State Level 47

b. International Level 48

c. Social Movements 52

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 52

FURTHER DOCUMENTS 53

INTRODUCTION TO UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL

The Human Rights Council of the United Nations is, most essentially, an inter- governmental institution that concerns the entirety of the 47 member-states of the union. All of which are responsible for the protection and promotion of "human rights" through cooperation. The Universal Declaration of HR and its instruments that are associated with it allows the recognition of each state as a party, with the emphasis on the significance of the interrelated nature of HR law and international humanitarian law, and all of which focuses on the second of the two. Furthermore, this particular body of the United Nations had been generated in order to replace the UN Commission on Human Rights.

The main aspiration of this particular council is to make effort on the promotion of universality, interdependence, invisibility of HR, inherent cooperation, to be entirely transparent intergovernmental process and -most essentially- to be realistic. However, their focus on these matters not only concerns Member States but also Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and national "Human Rights" institutions. Subject matters concerning this council are, in a general perspective, specific HR situations involving certain countries, affecting a lot of Member States in the meantime, groups of certain people and individuals.

By the usage of a system of "Universal Periodic Review" they asses and mitigate any and all HR issues within the entirety of UN: "Complaint Procedure", which is a panel of experts and advisors who produce advice on the most thematic problems. In the meantime, the "Complaint Procedure" grants the ability for the individuals and organizations to bring forth specific HR issues. In addition, the council functions alongside the "UN Special Procedures" in which can be utilized in a way to advise and publicly report on specific HR issues in certain nations; the "procedure" operates through a group of reporters, independent experts and special representatives.

In conclusion, to recognize the fact that the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is vastly different from the other institutes that are in UN which are also concerned with similar topics is highly essential; UNHRC functions alongside other UN bodies yet its main focus is on the intercommunication of Human Rights specifically.

i RACE, RACISM AND DISCRIMINATION

Race and ethnicity play a pivotal role in our lives, informing how we see ourselves and the world. Communities built around racial and ethnic identity can offer internal sources of resilience. But these parts of our identity may also have adverse social implications, influencing our chances of receiving quality medical care, getting a job offer or a loan, or being wrongly stopped by the police. Despite the social significance of race, the clusters of common physical characteristics and the labels we use to describe it can change greatly over time. Ethnicity, meanwhile, may correspond with cultural practices such as the foods we enjoy, the languages we speak.1 To emphasis more on the difference between race and ethnicity, Benedict Anderson’s elucidation with “imagined community” can also be regarded. According to Anderson, race and ethnic groups, like nations, are now widely considered to be imagined communities, socially conceived and considered, manufactured and inflected groups formations. Racism, on the other hand, can be defined as the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics. This constructed superiority or inferiority to another also includes the essential assumptions, discourses. To put it in other words, the problem of the essentialist construction is structuring, maintaining and re-defining the discrimination and setting concrete walls surrounding the concepts, notions, discourses with related entities. Besides, acknowledging essential discourses as unquestionable truths create the justification and normalisation of the related discriminations and any further less favourable actions. Racial separatism - is the belief, most of the time based on racism, that different races should remain segregated and apart from one another - may be a good example for justification and normalisation of racial discrimination. So, in general racial discrimination is when a person is treated less favourably than another person in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin or immigrant status.2 Facing with discrimination should not be based on one reason. Intersectionality also need to be considered. For instance, a woman can face a discrimination due to her gender, her race and her immigrant status at the same time. Apart from the dimensions of the discrimination, there are four types of discrimination: direct

1 “Race and Ethnicity”. n.d. Psychology Today. Accessed on January 26, 2018. (www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/race-and-ethnicity) 2 “Racial Discrimination”. 2014. Australian Human Rights Commission. Accessed on March 1, 2018. (https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/Racial%20Discrimination_2014_Web.pdf) 1 discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment and victimisation. Taking direct discrimination into consideration, it refers to a situation where a person is treated worse in comparison with the other people in similar position by another person. On the other hand, indirect discrimination refers to a discrimination or forced to be disadvantaged, by an organisation alongside with their policy. In the third place, harassment is a type of discrimination when a person faces a humiliation, offences and degrading treatment. Lastly, victimisation is a situation where a person is treated badly due to mentioned one’s complain about a discrimination based on the person’s identity namely race, ethnicity, colour and so on. The gaze of the discrimination itself, whether focusing on colour, race or other identity, creates hatred/vilification and dehumanization as a justification mechanism or as a tool to normalise the discourses. Focusing on racial vilification (sometimes referred to as racial hatred), racial vilification is any act or form of behaviour that happens publicly which could ridicule or threaten another person on the basis of race, religion, colour and so on. Vilification cannot be simplified as discrimination since the person or the people that the discrimination is made against does not have to be in the presence of the place where vilification is done. For example, if a tennis club is unconcerned and it refuses to remove Credit: Abolish Human Abortion (Blog) the racist words on the wall of the changing rooms, the act falls under the term of racial vilification. So racial vilification shows us that racial discrimination does not have be directly against a person or a group, it can also be an act of letting it happen or supporting, using it.3

3 School Sport Academy. 2018. “Discrimination.” Accessed on March 14, 2018. (http://www.schoolsportacademy.com/tag/discrimination) 2

MIGRATION, REFUGEHOOD AND CITIZENSHIP

In the simplest way, the term migrant can be defined as “any person who lives temporarily or permanently in a country where he or she was not born, and has acquired some significant social ties to this country.”4 But regarding the current complexity of being a migrant, this definition may be a narrow perspective on the concept of “migrant”. To give an instance, according to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Migrants, the migrant workers defined as the “person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national.” So, this definition shows that, a person can be considered as a migrant even if he/she was born in the mentioned country. For a broader definition of migrant, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) defines migrant as any person who is moving or has moved across an international border within a State away from his/her habitual place of residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is. As a second broader definition of migrant is made by United Nations Convention on the Rights of Migrants, which is follow as “The term 'migrant' in article 1.1 (a) should be understood as covering all cases where the decision to migrate is taken freely by the individual concerned, for reasons of 'personal convenience' and without intervention of an external compelling factor.”5. This definition of migrant points out that the terms migrant and refugee are separate distinct categories, even if in the practise the evidences turn into a blur. Concordantly, this issue is mentioned within the UNHCR Emergency Book. As it is stated, a migrant –the one who moves across an international borders or internal borders for different motives such as economy or to escape a natural disaster– is fundamentally from a refugee who is forced to flee to save his/her life or preserve his/her freedom. Regarding the above-mentioned definitions, consequently migration refers to “the movement of people across a specified boundary for the purpose of establishing a new or semi- permanent residence.”6 It includes the movement of stateless persons, displaced persons, refugees as well as the economic migrants. With refers to this definition, internal migration

4 Council of Europe. n.d. “Migration and Integration – some basic concepts.” Accessed on March 7, 2018. http://www.coe.int/t/democracy/migration/default_en.asp 5 “Measures to improve the situation and ensure the human rights and dignity of all migrant workers.” 1998. Report of the working group of intergovernmental experts on the human rights of migrants submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1997/15. COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS Fifty-fourth session, Intergovernmental working group of experts on the human rights of migrants. 6 INDEPTH Resource Kit for Demographic Surveillance Systems. n.d. “Migration definition”. Accessed on March 23, 2018. (http://www.indepth- network.org/Resource%20Kit/INDEPTH%20DSS%20Resource%20Kit/Migrationdefinition.htm) 3 refers to the movement from one place to another within a country; and international migration means that the territorial relocation of someone from one country to another. Besides, migration typologies are mainly characterised by the level of choice involved in the decision to leave. On one hand, voluntary migrants exercise maximum degree of choice during the migration where on the other hand involuntary migrants exercise minimum degree of choice during their migration since they are forced to do it. Thus, involuntary migration is also called forced migration. There are three types of forced migration: conflict-induced displacement, development-induced displacement, and environmental-induced displacement. Conflict- induced displacement is based on the forced migration of the people where the State authority is unwilling or/and unable to protect such as during the time of war, civil war, persecution toward a specific group regarding their race, ethnicity, religion and so on and so forth. Development-induced displacement refers to the movement of people who are “compelled to move as a result of policies and projects implemented to supposedly enhance ‘development’”7 Thirdly, environmental and disaster displacement includes the people who are displaced by the reasons of environmental change, natural disasters, or human-made disasters. In accordance to this, there are also several types of forced migrants which are stipulated and detailed below. • Refugees In Article 1 of the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, refugee is defined as the one who “is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.” From this standpoint, refugeehood refers to the state of being a refugee where refugee status refers to also the rights and obligations of the refugee which can defined as the recognition of a third country national or a stateless person as a refugee by a State. Here, the terms of rights and obligations under the recognition of a State is important, because the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is only able to recognise someone as a refugee and try to make States recognised the mentioned people as refugees. To put it in other words, only States can grant the protection, not UNHCR. Also, there are different terms for the recognised refugees depending on whether they are recognised by the UNHCR or not. The persons who are recognised as refugees by UNHCR are defined as mandate refugee. On the other hand, convention refugee refers to “a person who meets the refugee definition in the

7 Forced Migration Online. “What is forced migration?.” Accessed on March 29, 2018. (http://www.forcedmigration.org/about/whatisfm) 4

1951 Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. This definition is used in Canadian law and is widely accepted internationally.”8 Acknowledging that stateless person is defined as a person that not recognised as a citizen by any States, the distinction between the refugee and the stateless person should be made carefully. Because some refugees may be stateless but not all stateless persons are refugees. The core principle for protecting the refugees is non-refoulement. According to the Notes on Non-Refoulement by UNHCR in 1977 this term in universal level provides that, “no Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.”9 and also “No person referred to in Article 1, paragraph 1, shall be subjected to measures such as rejection at the frontier or, if he has already entered the territory in which he seeks asylum, expulsion or compulsory return to any State where he may be subjected to persecution.”10 Prima facie is a Latin expression meaning at the first sight. Within the concept of refugee law, prima facie means the group determination since the refugee status determination is basis on individual. It states in the UNHCR’s Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status as: “While refugee status must normally be determined on an individual basis, situations have also arisen in which entire groups have been displaced under circumstances indicating that members of the group could be considered individually as refugees. In such situations the need to provide assistance is often extremely urgent and it may not be possible for purely practical reasons to carry out an individual determination of refugee status for each member of the group. Recourse has therefore been had to so called “group determination” of refugee status, whereby each member of the group is regarded prima facie (i.e. in the absence of evidence to the contrary) as a refugee.”11

8 Canadian Council for Refugees. n.d. “Refugees and Immigrants: A glossary”. Accessed on February 15, 2018. (http://ccrweb.ca/en/glossary) 9 UNHCR. n.d. “Note on Non-Refoulement (Submitted by the High Commissioner) Note on Non-Refoulement (Submitted by the High Commissioner) EC/SCP/2”. Accessed on February 17, 2018. (http://www.unhcr.org/excom/scip/3ae68ccd10/note-non-refoulement-submitted-high-commissioner.html) 10 “Note on Non-Refoulement (Submitted by the High Commissioner) Note on Non-Refoulement (Submitted by the High Commissioner) EC/SCP/2”. UNHCR. Accessed on February 17, 2018. (http://www.unhcr.org/excom/scip/3ae68ccd10/note-non-refoulement-submitted-high-commissioner.html) 11 Article 44 in Handbook and Guidelines on Procedures and Criteria For Determining Refugee Status. 2011. UNHCR. 5

• Internally displaced people (IDPs) The internally displaced people (IDPs) are represented within the 1992 report of the United Nations Secretary-General as “persons who have been forced to flee their homes suddenly or unexpectedly in large numbers, as a result of armed conflict, internal strife, systematic violations of human rights or natural or man-made disasters, and who are within the territory of their own country.”. This definition is also the widespread definition of the IDPs. • Development displaces Development IDPs are the people who forcibly ousted from their habitat through the policies of the States, governmental intervention generally for the purpose of the change in related to the require of development. Transportation infrastructure, urban renewal, and natural resource extraction may be some examples for these kinds of policies or projects. • Environmental displaces Environmental IDPs, in other words disaster IDPs are displaced people because of the natural disasters or climate change in their homeland. “This category includes people displaced as a result of natural disasters (floods, volcanoes, landslides, earthquakes), environmental change (deforestation, desertification, land degradation, global warming) and human-made disasters (industrial accidents, radioactivity).”12 • Asylum seekers Asylum seeker can be defined as the people who have moved across an international border to seek safety from persecution or serious harm in a country other than his or her own country under the 1951 Refugee Convention. Also, for calling someone as an asylum seeker his or her claim for refugee status should has not yet been determined. The asylum seekers who do not qualify as refugees are under the international protection which is also called subsidiary protection. Regarding the Syrian’s situations within Turkey, they have temporary protection given by the Turkish Government which grants several of rights to the Syrian displaced people. • Smuggled people Smuggled people are moved illegally for profit. Those who have been forcibly displaced from their homeland and also the ones who left from their homeland in the

12 Forced Migration Online. n.d. “What is forced migration?.” Accessed on March 29, 2018. (http://www.forcedmigration.org/about/whatisfm) 6

search for new economic and social opportunities may be smuggled migrants. The more most favourable States make it harder to enter from their borders for the asylum seekers, the more migrants of all kinds are persuaded by the services of smugglers. • Trafficked people In Article 3 of the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, trafficked people defined as follows: “‘Trafficking in persons’ shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs…”13 From this standpoint, highlighting with the concepts of “coercion” “fraud” “deception” “purpose of exploitation” made trafficked people differ from smuggled people within the context of international law.

Migrant

Voluntary Forced Migrant Migrant

Developme Environmental Asylum Smuggled Trafficked Refugee IDPs nt IDPs IDPs Seeker People People

De facto De jure

Convention refugee

Mandate refugee

Types of migrants

13 “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime”. Accessed on March 25, 2018. (http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/ProtocolTraffickingInPersons.aspx) 7

Differently from the migrant and refugee, in general terms citizen can be defined as a native or naturalized person who owes allegiance to a government and is entitled to protection from it.14 And the status of being a citizen, citizenship, therefore implies inclusion of a person who is recognised under law and/or customs with a legal membership to a State. Under the status of citizenship, both the citizen and the State has responsibilities and obligations where citizen also enjoys the rights under law. However, the definition of citizenship also excludes some groups such as migrants. Consequently, a different dimension of relationship between the State and the people living in that mentioned State – who are not recognised as the citizen – is mentionable. The legal recognition of the status (including the process of having the status) of being a citizen can differ from country to country. For instance, U.S. citizens are defined as follow: • individuals born in one of the several states of the United States, District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, or Virgin Islands; • individuals born in an outlying possession of the U.S. (American Samoa or Swain’s Island) on or after the date the U.S. acquired the possession (US non-citizen national); • foreign-born children, under age 18, residing in the U.S. with their birth or adoptive parents, at least one of whom is a U.S. citizen by birth or naturalization; and • individuals granted citizenship status by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) (naturalized U.S. citizens). Moreover, according to U.S. law, to receive benefits of the citizenship status, an individual must be either a U.S. citizen or an eligible qualified alien.15

Ethiopian (Borana, Southern Ethiopia) immigrants to the US, c 1909, Ellis Island, NYC. Credit: (Photographer) Augustus F. Sherman, Chief Registry Clerk16

14 Mariam Webster. n.d. “Definition of Citizen.” Accessed on February 25, 2018. (https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/citizen) 15 DHHS. n.d. “Definition of U.S. Citizen (FSM).” Accessed on March 30, 2018. (http://www2.dhhs.nh.gov/fsm_htm/305_01_definition_of_u_s__citizen_fsm.htm) 16 Laurence, Andrew. n.d. "Early Ethiopians in America." Bawza. Accessed on April 7, 2018. (bawza.com/2013/12/12/early-ethiopians-in-america/) 8

VIOLENCE AND DISCRIMINATION AGAINST BLACK PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA a. Brief Historical Background

Atlantic Slave Trade and Abolition of Slavery

For four hundred years, Africans were snatched from their homes and deported into the Americas where they were put to work in mines and plantations. Their labour served as a bed- stone to the tremendous wealth still enjoyed in Europe and the Americas. The discovery of the New World boosted the European economy and marked the starting point of what one can call the "African nightmare”. The exploitation of the new land required millions of skilled laborers capable of standing the tropical climate which encompasses the vast region from the US South down to Brazil. The enslavement of Indians rapidly proved to be inefficient because the native population was hard to control and it was profoundly affected by the diseases brought from the Old world. The solution to the need of labour was the forced transportation to the colonies of poverty-stricken people, euphemistically called "indentured servants" or "engagés" in French. Europeans could not obviously count on their own "proletarians" who did not have the suited skills especially when tropical agriculture was concerned. The final solution came from Africa where Europeans discovered a potential slave market at the time of their arrival in the middle of the fifteenth century. As a result of the slave trade, five times as many Africans arrived in the Americas than Europeans. Slaves were needed regarding their cheap labour on plantations – specifically sugar plantations – and in mining. The majority was shipped to Brazil, the Caribbean, and the Spanish Empire. According to the figures published by Hugh Thomas, round 13 million Africans were deported among whom 11 million arrived alive in the Americas. Less than 5% travelled to the Northern American States formally held by the British. Senegambia, the Slave Coast (Bight of Benin), and the Bight of Biafra exported each approximately 15.4% of the total of the slaves. Central Africa, where the slave trade lasted longer, contributed approximately for 29%. One million people (7.7%) were taken from South East (Mozambique & Madagascar). The principal carriers were the Portuguese and their Brazilian colony (42.3%), followed by the British (23.6%), the Spanish and their Cuban colony (14.5), the French and their West Indian colony (11.4%), and the Dutch (4.5). Other smaller carriers including the Danes and the Americans share the rest of the trade.17

17 Whitney Plantation. n.d. "The Atlantic Slave Trade." Accessed on December 16, 2017. (http://whitneyplantation.com/the-atlantic-slave-trade.html) 9

Britain marks 200 years on March 25 since it enacted a law banning the trans-Atlantic slave trade, although full abolition of slavery did not follow for another generation.

Following are some key dates in the trans-Atlantic trade in slaves from Africa and its abolition.

1444 - First public sale of African slaves in Lagos, Portugal

1482 - Portuguese start building first permanent slave trading post at Elmina, Gold Coast, now

Ghana

1510 - First slaves arrive in the Spanish colonies of South America, having travelled via Spain

1518 - First direct shipment of slaves from Africa to the Americas

1777 - State of Vermont, an independent Republic after the American Revolution, becomes first sovereign state to abolish slavery

1780s - Trans-Atlantic slave trade reaches peak

1787 - The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade founded in Britain by Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson

1792 - Denmark bans import of slaves to its West Indies colonies, although the law only took effect from 1803.

1807 - Britain passes Abolition of the Slave Trade Act, outlawing British Atlantic slave trade.

- United States passes legislation banning the slave trade, effective from start of 1808.

1811 - Spain abolishes slavery, including in its colonies, though Cuba rejects ban and continues to deal in slaves.

1813 - Sweden bans slave trading

1814 - Netherlands bans slave trading

1817 - France bans slave trading, but ban not effective until 1826

10

1833 - Britain passes Abolition of Slavery Act, ordering gradual abolition of slavery in all

British colonies. Plantation owners in the West Indies receive 20 million pounds in compensation

1833 - Great Britain and Spain sign a treaty prohibiting the slave trade

1819 - Portugal abolishes slave trade north of the equator

1819 - Britain places a naval squadron off the West African coast to enforce the ban on slave trading

1823 - Britain’s Anti-Slavery Society formed. Members include William Wilberforce

1846 - Danish governor proclaims emancipation of slaves in Danish West Indies, abolishing slavery

1848 - France abolishes slavery

1851 - Brazil abolishes slave trading

1858 - Portugal abolishes slavery in its colonies, although all slaves are subject to a 20-year apprenticeship

1861 - Netherlands abolishes slavery in Dutch Caribbean colonies

1862 - U.S. President Abraham Lincoln proclaims emancipation of slaves with effect from

January 1, 1863; 13th Amendment of U.S. Constitution follows in 1865 banning slavery

1886 - Slavery is abolished in Cuba

1888 - Brazil abolishes slavery

1926 - League of Nations adopts Slavery Convention abolishing slavery

1948 - United Nations General Assembly adopts Universal Declaration of Human Rights, including article stating, “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.”

11

Jim Crow Laws

segregated water cooler An African American man drinking at a water cooler for “coloured” people at a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City in 1939. Russell Lee/Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (image no. LC-DIG-fsa-8a26761)

Jim Crow Laws was the segregation and disenfranchisement laws. It also represented a formal, codified system of racial apartheid that dominated the American South for three quarters of a century beginning in the 1890s.18 Until 1950s Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow Laws not only affected a segregation within the institution but also in public sphere. Theoretical speaking, under this law black and white people were supposed to treated “separate but equal”. However, by these segregation and disenfranchisement laws, the discrimination based on colour and mostly race was felt by the people in their daily life. Discrimination based on law was embodied also with the “White only” and “Colored” signs, which was also a reminder of a hierarchical order between the constructed identities within the society.

18 American Experience. n.d. "Jim Crow Laws." Accessed on October 15, 207. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/freedom-riders-jim-crow-laws/) 12

Credit: Library of Congress Jim Crow Laws was codified on local and state levels and most famously with the “separate but equal” decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Instances of this separations – which are given as photographs – are also listed in quotes below as:

“It shall be unlawful for a negro and white person to play together or in company with each other in any game of cards or dice, dominoes or checkers.” Birmingham, Alabama, 1930

“Marriages are void when one party is a white person and the other is possessed of one-eighth or more negro, Japanese, or Chinese blood.” Nebraska, 1911

“Separate free schools shall be established for the education of children of African descent; and it shall be unlawful for any coloured child to attend any white school, or any white child to attend a coloured school.” Missouri, 1929

“All railroads carrying passengers in the state (other than street railroads) shall provide equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races, by providing two or more passenger cars for each passenger train, or by dividing the cars by a partition, so as to secure separate accommodations.” Tennessee, 189119

19 The National Museum of American History. n.d. "Separate is not equal." Accessed on October 29, 2017. (americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/1-segregated/jim-crow.html) 13

In 1954 the Supreme Court reversed Plessy in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. It declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional, and, by extension, that ruling was applied to other public facilities.20

World War I

During World War I, two important key points within the history has occupies a significant place to understand the black movements, representations and the struggle they had. One may be considered as during the World War I, which is Harlem Hellfighters and the second occasion is the Great Migration which is started and gained its momentum after the World War I.

Harlem Hellfighters

Nearly twenty years later of the codification of Jim Craw Laws, a significant occasion due to the representation – without the reference of hierarchical references – has occurred during the World War I. First organized in 1916 as the 15th New York National Guard Infantry Regiment and manned by black enlisted soldiers with both black and white officers, the U.S. Army’s 369th Infantry Regiment, popularly known as the “Harlem Hellfighters”, was the best known Black American unit of World War I Federalized in 1917, it prepared for service in Europe and arrived in Brest, France in December. The next month, the regiment became part of the 93rd Division (Provisional) and continued its training, now under French instructors. In March, the regiment finally received its Federal designation and was reorganized and reequipped according to the French model. That summer, the 369th was integrated into the French 161st Division and began combat operations.

Dubbing themselves “Men of Bronze”, the soldiers of the 369th were lucky in many ways compared to other African, Black, American military units in France in 1918. They enjoyed a continuity of leadership, commanded throughout the war by one of their original organizers and proponents, Colonel William Hayward. Unlike many white officers serving in the black regiments, Colonel Hayward respected his troops, dedicated himself to their well- being, and leveraged his political connections to secure support from New Yorkers. Whereas Black American valour usually went unrecognized, well over one hundred members of the regiment received American and/or French medals, including the first two Americans –

20 Encyclopaedia Britannica. n.d. "Jim Crow law, United States [1877-1954]" Accessed on October 17, 2017. (https://www.britannica.com/event/Jim-Crow-law) 14

Corporal Henry Johnson and Private Needham Roberts – to be awarded the coveted French Croix de Guerre.

Spending over six months in combat, perhaps the longest of any American unit in the war, the 369th suffered approximately fifteen hundred casualties but received only nine hundred replacements. Unit histories claimed they were the first unit to cross the Rhine into Germany; they performed well at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood, earning the epithet “Hell Fighters” from their enemies. Nevertheless, the poor replacement system coupled with no respite from the line took its toll, leaving the unit exhausted by the armistice in November. Although the 369th could boast of a fine combat record and a regimental Croix de Guerre, the unit was plagued by acute discipline problems resulting from disproportionate casualties among the unit’s longest-serving members and related failures to assimilate new soldiers. After considerable effort by Colonel Hayward, the 369th was welcomed home with a parade in February 1919 and reabsorbed into the National Guard.

In World War II, the formation was organized as the 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment (no relation to the also all-black 369th Infantry in the 93rd Infantry Division), and served in Hawaii and at various locations along the West Coast. The unit survives today as the 369th Support Battalion of the New York Army National Guard.21

In spite of the feat of the Harlem Hellfighters during the World War I, according to Paul T. Murray’s article called “Blacks and the Draft: A History of Institutional Racism”22, Afro- Americans were faced a discrimination and prejudice in the process of selection for military service. In summary, Murray’s claim was focusing on Afro-Americans being discriminated in different levels and by various actors. To give an example such situation, Murray stated as follows: “Not only were individual appointees prejudiced against blacks, but the Selective Service System itself encouraged discrimination”.

21 Black Past. n.d. "369th Infantry Regiment “Harlem Hellfighters”." Accessed on October 28, 2017. (www.blackpast.org/aah/369th-infantry-regiment-harlem-hellfighters) 22 Murray, Paul T. 1971. “Blacks and the Draft: A History of Institutional Racism”. Journal of Black Studies. Sage Publications. 2(1): 57-76. 15

Great Migration

After the World War I, the immigration from Europe to the United States of America has come to an end due to the shortage of industrial labourers in industrialised urban areas in the North, Midwest and West based on war itself and its conditions. The African-American community who lives in South and face a harsh segregation laws alongside with the unsatisfying economic opportunities took advantage of need for industrial workers and started to migrate to North, Midwest and West urban cities. Furthermore, even if the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) had been officially dissolved in 1869, the intimidation, violence and even lynching of black Southerns has continued by the continuing underground activities of KKK. With respect to these reasons, by the end of the 1919, 1 million blacks had left the South either by train, boat, bus or car. This migration flow continued until 1970s and resulted as the relocation of nearly 6 million African- American from rural South which is also the reason of the naming this migration as the Great Migration. New arrivals to the urban cities mostly found jobs in factories where the working conditions were arduous and sometimes dangerous. Besides, while the significant demographic impact is observed based on creating their own cities within big cities, black people confronted racial prejudice as well as economic, political and social challenges to create black urban culture. From this standpoint, it is possible to say that the urbanisation of the black people firstly increased the visibility of black people. Secondly, the more visibility and the population of black city-dwellers increased the more claims for their rights – in different fields – increased and started to be heard. Emergence of artistic movements such as New Negro Movement (which will be called later on as Harlem Renaissance) and increase in political activism among African- Americans can be stated as good examples.23

World War II

While the discrimination and violence against black people was deepening through the continuing attacks in rural and urban areas, the harsh segregation laws and discourses created, re-formed and maintained within the society, the existed conditions during the World War II initiated a change. This changed firstly occurred within the army by the Executive Order 9981 announced in 1948 to end discrimination in military. In the pathway of this change, it is possible

23 History.com Staff. n.d. "Great Migration." Accessed on March 3, 2018. (https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/great-migration) 16 to say that during World War II, the African-American enlistment was all-time high with having more than 1 million black people serving for the army. Yet, the military was heavily segregated with the instances of exclusion of blacks from Southern boards, the discriminatory deferment criteria, the separate induction calls, and the treatment of black nationalists. To give an example, Murray gives examples to the reasons of increase in the rate of black people’s rejection as the literacy standards and the Army General Classification Test (AGCT) designated in June 1943 to measure mental ability. Furthermore, as Murray states even the number of the black official capacities were increased in comparison with the World War I, on local level black members was occupies 1.1% of the total number of the draft board members. On the top of this institutional discrimination against black people, there is another dimension based on religion as it is seen when the FBI agents arrested 80 Black Muslims and charged them with encouraging sympathy for Japan.24

After the end of World War II, President of U.S. Harry Truman placed civil rights high on his agenda. Truman established a Committee on Civil Right which reported to him in 1947. The document had points that urged Truman to take steps to rid the country out of racism and racial violence. The last trigger that make Truman to establish the Executive Order 9981 came from black activist and leader Philip Randolph. To end the segregation within the fight on June 26, 1948, Randolph announced the formation of the League for Nonviolent Civil Disobedience Against Military Segregation. By the formation, Randolph indirectly declared that black people will stop serving in the armed forces if the segregation in it is not ended. As it is mentioned above, the purpose of this groups is stated by Randolph as forcing President to issue an order ending segregation in the Armed Forces. As a result, On July 26, 1948, Truman issued Executive Order 9981 calling for "equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the Armed Services without regard to race, colour, religion, or national origin." Knowing that such legislation would not pass through Congress, Truman used his power to end the military segregation. Though the order did not specifically end segregation, Randolph apparently was satisfied and withdrew from the League. Even if this occasion can be considered as a victory, it is not possible to say that the discrimination within the military had eliminated. But, this victory gave a green light to further gains in terms of equality that will be made in the future.25

24 Murray, Paul T. 1971. “Blacks and the Draft: A History of Institutional Racism”. Journal of Black Studies. Sage Publications. 2(1): 57-76. 25 ThoughtCo. 2018. "How Executive Order 9981 Desegregated the U.S. Military." Accessed on Accessed March 16, 2018. (www.thoughtco.com/executive-order-9981-us-military-desegregation-45360) 17

To a certain extent, World War II not only gave rise to the improvements in the military but also it gave a momentum for the civil rights movement concerning all aspects of life. Initially, as the economy within the context of war conditions is considered, first gain was occurred in the field of economy. Before World War II, most of blacks were labourers who works for low-wage and in bad conditions as farmer, factory worker, domestics or servants. In the early years of 1940s, there was a booming in the war-related jobs but yet blacks were not given the better paying job. Furthermore, as it is discussed above, blacks were also discouraged from enlistment to the military by different dimensions of discrimination and rigid segregation policies. With reference to their unsatisfactory economic conditions, thousands of blacks threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights. Consequently, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941 which opened national defence jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, colour or national origin.26

26 History.com Staff. n.d. "Civil Rights Movement." Accessed on December 12, 2017. (www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-movement) 18

Civil Rights Movement

The campaign for Black American rights – usually referred to as the Civil Rights Movement or the Freedom Movement – went forward in the 1940s and 1950s in persistent and deliberate steps. In the courts the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) successfully attacked restrictive covenants in housing, segregation in interstate transportation, and discrimination in public recreational facilities. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court issued one of its most significant rulings. In the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (Kansas), the court overturned the “separate but equal” ruling of the Plessy v. Ferguson case and outlawed segregation in the country’s public-school systems. White citizens’ councils in the South fought back with legal manoeuvres, economic pressure, and even violence. Rioting by white mobs temporarily closed Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, when nine black students were admitted to it in 1957, prompting Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower to dispatch federal troops to protect the students.

Direct nonviolent action by Black Americans achieved its first major success in the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott of 1955–56, led by the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. This protest was prompted by the quiet but defiant act of a Black American woman, Rosa Parks, who refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus to a white passenger on December 1, 1955. Resistance to Black American demands for the desegregation of Montgomery’s buses was finally overcome when the Supreme Court ruled in November 1956 that the segregation of public transportation facilities was unconstitutional. To coordinate further civil rights action, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was established in 1957 under King’s guidance.27

In the light of the above-mentioned processes within the Civil Rights Movement, some turning points need to be specified and mentioned to understand the counter-movements against the remaining discriminations despite of issued anti-discriminatory laws.

27 Encyclopaedia Britannica. n.d. "The Civil Rights Movements." Accessed on December 17, 2017. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/African-American/The-civil-rights-movement) 19

Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott Taking what is mentioned above on Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott into consideration, Rosa Parks who was later called “the first lady of civil rights” and “the mother of the freedom movement” was arrested for not giving her seat to a white person in a bus. For violating segregation laws, she was fined $10 plus $4 for court fees. As an outcome of this unlawful event, black people in Montgomery boycotted the buses for a time span of 13 months. A woman who refused to move had set into motion that is way beyond the control of the authorities. She turned into a symbol and torchbearer in freedom movements and on the road to achieve equal rights. She later attended the March on Washington and continued being a leader on achieving equal Rosa Parks rights. The boycott lasted until the Supreme Credit: Biography.com Court forbid segregation on buses on November 13, 1956 albeit the violence did not stop once again. Snipers fired into buses and bombs were tossed into churches which were known to be mostly visited by black people.28

Little Rock Nine, 1957

United States Supreme Court issued Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in May 17, 1954 where segregation in America’s public school ruled as unconstitutional. Until then, due to the strict segregation laws black and white children were required to attend separate schools. From this standpoint, as a test of Brown v. Board of Education group of 9 black students were matriculated formerly all-white high school, Central High School, in Little Rock, Arkansas in September 1957. This group of students soon become famous as the Little Rock Nine.

28 Shipp, E. 2018. "Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies." Nytimes.com. Accessed on March 17, 2018. (https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/25/us/25parks.html?pagewanted=2) 20

Credit: Little Rock Nine enter Central High School escorted by troops from the 101st Airborne Division, September 1957. (©Burt Glinn/Magnum Photos) Washington University Libraries, Henry Hampton Collection On the first day of classes at Central High School, September 4, 1957, Arkansas National Guard was called in order to block the black students’ entry to the high school. Later that month, the President of that time, Dwight D. Eisenhower sent in federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine for their entry to the school.29

Civil Rights Act of 1957

After the Executive Order 9981, things have started to change but the process was very slow. Black people were still discriminated and they experienced violence in different levels. Moreover, the segregation of the public sphere between black and white people was still observable with respect to separate water fountains, bathrooms, schools and so on and so forth. To stop above instanced discriminative acts, a bill was introduced in Congress in 1956. However, it was not enacted because of the resistance of the Southern senators who defend an

29 History.com Staff. n.d. "Little Rock Nine." Accessed on March 6, 2018. (https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/central-high-school-integration) 21 opinion based on inequality of black people and white people. In 1957, the bill was once again introduced with simple changes. In the span of that one year, there had been acts to change the ideas of the Southern senators. Although it was not very successful, the bill was signed into law on September 9, 1957 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The proposer of the bill was Attorney General Herbert Brownell.30 To specify more on the bill, it included five parts focusing on different issues. Initially, Part I created a six-member bipartisan Commission on Civil Rights. The Commission was required to investigate if the citizens are being deprived of their right to vote or counting of their vote due to their race, religion or ethnicity. Furthermore, the Commission was obliged to “study and collect information concerning legal developments constituting a denial of equal protection of the laws under the Constitution.”31 It was also decided that the Commission would terminate within two years. However, after 61 years of duty, the Commission continues to investigate civil rights violations and gather information since acts of discrimination continues to happen these days. Within the context of Part II, an additional Assistant Attorney General is established. Successively, Attorney General William Rogers ordered the creation of the Civil Rights Division inside the Department of Justice. Part III added further precautions in order to protect people’s rights and amended the ones that are already existing by conferring federal court jurisdiction over civil suits that could provide a better solution for civil rights violations. Part IV contained a very significant enforcement power. This part prohibited any form of intimidation, threat or violation for the purpose of interfering with the right of any person to vote as he may choose. Lastly, Part V of the act was to limit the authority of the courts to enforce part IV of the act. It explicitly preserved the right of the courts “by civil contempt proceedings, without a jury, to secure compliance with or to prevent obstruction of as distinguished from punishment for violations of” any court order.32

Woolworth’s Lunch Counter On February 1, 1960, four African-American students staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s Lunch Counter in Greensboro, North Carolina. To focus on segregation issue, Woolworth’s policy was refuse serving to anybody but whites. From this standpoint, by the time four African-American students, whom soon will be famous as Greensboro Four, politely

30 Crdl.usg.edu. 2018. "Civil Rights Act of 1957." Accessed on March 18, 2018. (http://crdl.usg.edu/events/civil_rights_act_1957/?Welcome&Welcome) 31 Encyclopedia.com. 2018. "Civil Rights Act of 1957." Accessed on March 18, 2018. (https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/law/law/civil-rights-act-1957) 32 Encyclopedia.com. 2018. "Civil Rights Act of 1957." Accessed on March 18, 2018. (https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/law/law/civil-rights-act-1957) 22 asked for service, their request was refused and they were asked to leave referring to lunch counter’s policy but they remained in their seats. Consequently, when the police arrived on the scene, police were unable to take action due to lack of provocation.33 By continuing their passive resistance and peaceful sit-down demand – where they influenced by Mohandas Gandhi’s techniques on non-violent resistance –, the Greensboro Four stayed put until the store is closed. Their sit-in movement spread to college towns throughout to South and into the North and by February 5 there were 300 students to protest inequality while by the end of March, the movement had spread to 55 cities in 13 states. To put it in other words, this sit-in movement, encouraged youth especially students to get involved in Civil Rights Movement either sit-in movements or any other forms of peaceful protests against segregation between black and white people within the hotels, libraries, beaches and any other establishments even though many of them were arrested due to trespassing, disorderly conduct or disturbing the peace. Also, the national media coverage of the sit-ins brought increasing attention to the Civil Rights Movement.

Credit: Los Angeles Times34

33 History.com Staff. n.d. "Greensboro Sit-In." Accessed on February 6, 2018. (www.history.com/topics/black- history/the-greensboro-sit-in) 34 Woo, Elaine. 2014. "Franklin McCain dies at 73; one of the 'Greensboro Four'." Los Angeles Times. Accessed on February 15, 2018. 23

By the summer 1960, success of the sit-in movements brought the integration of the dining facilities across the South. Moreover, this movement led the foundation of Student Non- Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Raleigh, North Carolina in April 1960. Since then SNCC served as one of the leading forces within the Civil Rights Movement.

March on Washington Plans for the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom started in 1962 and continued until August 28, 1963 – which is the day march happened. The idea was put forth by Philip Randolph, founder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car porters. During the march, crowd of a quarter million people gathered in Washington, D.C., a lot of influential people talked and sang songs. Above all else, there was a significant sixteen-minute-long speech by Martin Luther King Jr. that would be remembered since then. King Jr. agreed to speak last since other speakers did not want to for the reason that the news crews would head out be forehandedly. While King Jr. was making his speech – which was written already – Mahalia Jackson stoop up and yelled “Tell’em about the dream Martin, tell’em about the dream!” referring to his speeches he made earlier about his dreams. This speech and march altogether pave the way to Civil Rights Act on 1964 and Voting Rights Act on 1965.35

Credit: Asterisk 36

35 Washington, M. .2018. "March on Washington - Black History." Accessed on March 22, 2018. (https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/march-on-washington) 36 Asterisk. n.d. "The 1963 March on Washington in 10 Images." Accessed on March 14, 2018. (www.theasterisktoday.com/galleries/the-1963-march-on-washington-in-10-images/) 24

Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended segregation in public places and banned discrimination on employment due to any reason. The act was first proposed by John F. Kennedy and it had a strong opposition from Southern members, as it had happened during the discussions of The Civil Rights Act of 1957 did. It could not be signed into law in Kennedy’s time of presidency so it was signed into law by the next president after him, Lyndon B. Johnson. In the following years Congress expanded and amended the act and passed additional legislations such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The act ended segregation in public places and lowered discrimination in employment albeit it did not end it.37

Voting Rights Act of 1965

After the violence that had occurred in the Montgomery march, the march was prevented by Alabama state troopers with the usage of nightsticks, whips and tear gas, citizens of United States were outraged. Lyndon B. Johnson, the president at the time, called for a voting rights legislation. Although black men were allowed to vote on paper, some people tried to take this right of theirs by doing a variety of things. The biggest of these acts is the literacy test. Black people that attempted to vote often faced with a discrimination that would stop them from voting by the election officials. They were mostly told that they had gotten the date or the place wrong or that they had insufficient literacy skills or they filled the application form incorrectly. After the events, Johnson told the congress that these events should be stopped. In order to do so the voting rights bill was passed in the U.S Senate by a 77-19 vote and after a month of debating, discussion the U.S House of Representatives passed the bill by a 333-85 vote on July 9, 1965. The bill was signed into law on August 6, 1965 on the presence of civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. With the act, the use of literacy tests was banned.38

37 Hisory.com Staff. 2018. "Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Black History." Accessed on March 24, 2018. (uhttps://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act) 38 History.com Staff. 2009. "Voting Rights Act of 1965." History.com. Accessed on March 27, 2018. (www.history.com/topics/black-history/voting-rights-act) 25

Assassinate of Civil Rights Movement Leaders

By the late 160s, the well-known and inspirational civil rights leaders had been assassinated namely Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Nationalist and religious leader, also known as the former Nation of Islam leader and organisation of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated while he was speaking at a rally on his organisation in New York City, on February 21, 1965. He was shot to death by Nation of Islam members since disagreements between Malcolm X and members of the Nation of Islam occurred.

On April 4, 1968 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated on second-floor balcony of Lorraine Motel by a sniper’s bullet. On the news of his death, in more than 100 cities, emotionally-charged lootings, riots, burnings were sparked. President of that time, Lyndon B. Johnson, urged Americans to “reject the blind violence” that had killed King, whom he called the “apostle of nonviolence.” Furthermore, this mobilisation put even more pressure on the President Johnson, so he called on Congress to speedily pass the civil rights legislation then entering the house of representatives for debate. 39 Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X meet for the first and only time on March 26, 1964, in Washington, DC.

Fair Housing Act of 1968

Even if there were legislations which outlawed the discrimination regarding race, sex, national origin and religion in housing patterns by Supreme Court such as Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) and Jones v. Mayer Co. (1968) the discrimination against black people was still. Soon after Martin Luther King, Jr.’s death, on 11 April 1968, with the last legislation enacted during civil rights era namely Fair Housing Act of 1968 continuing housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion – including discrimination in the processes of sale, rental and financing of housing – was prohibited.

39 History.com Staff. n.d. "Martin Luther King, Jr.." Accessed on March 17, 2018. (www.history.com/topics/black-history/martin-luther-king-jr-assassination) 26

b. Contemporary Situation

Despite the fact that the Civil Rights Movement era brought legislations to end segregation, black voter suppression, discriminatory employment and housing practices the discrimination itself make its presence felt in different levels and dimensions. As well as the discrimination, the counter-movements are still can visible and effective for finding further possible solutions. To focus more on the discriminatory acts and established counter-movements some concepts, notions and acts will be analysed, restrictively institutional discrimination, police brutality, white supremacy, social movements. On the top of these, intersectionality will be emphasised on due to clarify the different dimensions of oppressions, violence and discrimination against black people in the United States of America.

Institutional Discrimination

Initially, taking institutional discrimination into consideration, in general term it refers to the unequal and discriminatory mistreatment of an any given individual or group of individuals by the active society and its institutions as a whole, through unequal selection, intentional or not; as opposed to individuals making a free and "conscious" choice to discriminate. It comes from systemic stereotypical beliefs that are held by the vast majority living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the common train of thought. Such discrimination is typically referenced into the active procedures, policies, laws, or objectives of such institutions. Individuals of minority groups, such as populations of African descent in the U.S., are at a much higher risk of coming across these types of socio-structural disadvantages. Among the severe and long-lasting negative effects of institutionalized discrimination on affected populations are as follows and not limited to; increased suicide rates, suppressed attainment of wealth and decreased access to health care. According to London Deanery, there are three features distinguish institutional discrimination from other random individual forms of bad treatment followed as:

1. Triggered by social identity: the discrimination impacts on groups (or individuals because they are members of that group). 2. Systematic – it is built into to laws, rules and regulations. For example, selection criteria for jobs or courses, laws such as the Minimum Wage, pension regularities, etc. It is reflected in organisational cultures. i.e. ‘the way we do things round here’, including the use of authority and discretion, e.g. how training opportunities are allocated, how

27

flexibility in learning practices is authorised. It is reflected in ways of describing ‘normality’, e.g. long working hours, culture/expectations. 3. Institutional discrimination results in patterns: incidents of discrimination may appear isolated or random but where institutional discrimination occurs they are part of a wider pattern of events which often may be hidden. Patterns of discrimination can often be surfaced by effective organisational information relating to social identity.40 Institutional discrimination can occur in any phase of the employment process. This includes during the recruiting and hiring phase or when it affects promotions or involves firings. If a company refuses to hire people of a certain ethnicity or religion, this is institutional discrimination. Additionally, if a company refuses to promote individuals of a certain family status despite being qualified for the position, institutional discrimination is taking place.

Though however, there are instances that are not as overt as the aforementioned. It is feasible that a hiring supervisor from a particular history of upbringing may unconsciously, unintentionally, or perhaps both, view members of another ground as "less qualified". Through this way, it does not have to be intentional to occur. Institutional discrimination can be often rather difficult to detect; It may also be taking place in instances of:

• Unfavourable or unpleasant tasks consistently assigned to members of a certain group of ethnicities.

• Arranging the workplace or office floor plan based on race, religion, gender or age.

• Unequal application of disciplinary measures.

• Unequal pay between workers who share the same responsibilities.

• Difficulty or obstruction with using the rights afforded by the "Family and Medical Leave Act".41

Institutional discrimination against minorities and races can relate back to the housing market and the effect it has on the value of houses in certain neighbourhoods based on what race lives in the house. Housing in the United States is valued differently based on the racial makeup of the neighbourhood. There can be two identical houses, but the assessed value of each house can depend on the racial makeup of the people within the community. This then creates institutional discrimination by homeowners who then have an incentive to prevent

40 Aronson, E., T.D. Wilson, and R. M. Akert. 2010. Social Psychology (7th edition). New York: Pearson. 41 Law Offices of KSJ Staff. n.d. "What Is Institutional Discrimination?." Law Offices of Kesluk, Silverstein & Jacob. Accessed on March 21, 2018. (https://www.californialaborlawattorney.com/areas-of- practice/discrimination/institutional-discrimination) 28 minorities from moving into white neighbourhoods. One startling conclusion from this line of research is the frequency with which discrimination is reported. These surveys show that discrimination is still prevalent in our society today. All though we aren’t in the civil rights movement era anymore and people ignore what’s going on around them discrimination against minorities is still a large problem.42 Discrimination in different neighbourhoods creates a problem in the housing market because it decreases the value of houses that are worth more compared to a neighbourhood one mile down the street just because that neighbourhood is more dominant white.

Institutional discrimination is a big problem in the work force for women. Women are coming out of college with the same degrees as men yet they are always behind men. They are still to this day paid less than men to the dollar also known as the gender pay gap. Just like there is regulations so minorities don’t get discriminated against there is the same laws for women’s equal rights however they still aren’t followed. If getting paid less and treated like they are inferior to men isn’t bad enough women are also stereotyped and viewed more as an object to men then co-workers. Especially, this particular form of discrimination and inequality should no longer be a problem today in the workplace however it still seems to be very common and it’s a problem that needs to be focused on more so I solution to this problem can be solved.

Institutional discrimination has been a problem in the United States for a long time; it is now going on subconsciously because it has been built into our major corporations, school systems and workplaces. Not many people pay attention to it because it’s not as obvious. However, it isn’t helping our economy grow by suppressing a group not letting them thrive in workplaces as well as discriminating against minorities in the housing market.

As aforementioned, Institutional discrimination begins with the recruitment process. Most jobs, especially the better ones, are not openly advertised. Knowledge of their existence is usually limited to friends and colleagues of those in power in the institutions, and in turn their friends and associates. Since such patterns of association tend to be homogenous, knowledge of job opportunities rarely gets to members of other groups. Even open advertisement may be limited in results if it is put in places of limited readership.43 Concomitantly, many jobs depend on recommendations; people are often reluctant to take the chance of recommending someone

42 "Institutional Discrimination." Writing About Writing (blog). Accessed on March 28, 2018. (blogs.longwood.edu/stairmn/institutional-discrimination/) 43 Freeman, Jo. n.d. "Institutional Discrimination." Joe Freeman.com (blog). Accessed on March 27, 2018. (www.jofreeman.com/womensociety/institidiscrim.htm) 29 who might be thought "unacceptable" for whatever reason. To break these patterns, it is necessary not only to "open up" the recruitment process, but to actively seek members of previously excluded groups and work with their organizations to find competent applicants.

Once applicants have been found, other elements of institutional discrimination usually come into play. First of all, the qualifications actually necessary to perform a particular job are usually only a part of those necessary to get a job. One's compatibility, affinity, correspondence to an "institutional image," and general ability to "fit in" to the already existing social structure are often the actual criteria upon which selections are made. Test scores and degrees are other selectors that are not always valid measures of ability. As real qualifications are often hard to determine, these and other artificial criteria of selection are usually used in order to provide some logical basis for elimination. Those criteria in turn are rationalized as being reasonable ones and a certain investment is made in their continuation.

Serious analysis must be made of what skills are actually necessary to perform a particular job and what are valid ways of determining them. In jobs or promotions requiring interviews, problems of "style" often interfere with accurate perception of ability. Unless they have special training or sensitivity, it is difficult for most interviewers to escape their own social conditioning that members of many social groups are assumed to be inferior. The fact that members of such groups may have a style of life, speech, dress, action and even thought which differs from that of white middle-class men often creates "noise" which obscures real ability. Too often merit is confused with conformity to the personal standards of those already in positions of power.

Much institutional discrimination results from judgments made on secondary rather than primary characteristics. Race and sex may be consciously eliminated as concerns, but criteria such as educational background, employment history, supervisory experience, age, income, etc., which have been affected by group membership, can be effective substitutes.44 One must realize that people who have not had the same life-chances will not have the same life results. Institutions have great power to reward and penalize. They provide material goods, opportunities, resources, services, and psychological satisfactions. While these benefits are never distributed perfectly equitably, it has been declared contrary to public policy for them to be allocated on the basis of race, sex, religion or national origin. Since most institutions have

44 Freeman, Jo. n.d. "Institutional Discrimination." Joe Freeman.com (blog). Accessed on March 27, 2018. (www.jofreeman.com/womensociety/institidiscrim.htm) 30 been structured to discriminate in the past, the change in policy will not lead to a change in results unless there is also a change in the institutions, it is very easy to discriminate without really trying. It is very necessary to put in the required effort to stop.

Police Brutality

Police brutality can be defined as the use of illegitimate force of the force enforcement over a civilian. Forms of police brutality have ranged from assault and battery (e.g., beatings) to mayhem, torture, and murder. Some broader definitions of police brutality also encompass harassment (including false arrest), intimidation, and verbal abuse, among other forms of mistreatment.45 Regarding state as an actor which have the monopoly and the legitimacy of using force, in a Weberian point of view, then a police brutality can be justified in some terms within the discursive formations established around discriminatory narratives.

civil rights movement Civil rights demonstrator being attacked by police dogs, May 3, 1963, Birmingham, Alabama. Credit: Bill Hudson/AP Images

45 Moore, Leonard. n.d. "Police brutality in the United States." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 10, 2017. (www.britannica.com/topic/Police-Brutality-in-the-United-States-2064580) 31

To analyse police brutality in the United States of America, the variety of groups who are subjected to illegitimate use of force by police officers need to be concerned. Acknowledging the differences between groups and the violence and discrimination they have/had been subjected to, black people’s subjection occupies a great majority among the victims of police brutality. As it is above-mentioned, police brutality can be justified as police having an authority to use of force on behalf of the state. In addition to this, further justifications can be made in terms of another gazes, discourses within the context of discrimination. To make it more clarified, in the example of United States of America, the police brutality against black people is/was justified based on different levels as race, colour, religion and so on.

“Police Brutality Must Go.” Harlem, 1963. Photo: Gordon Parks

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Some of the instances of police brutality and their counter-moves and counter-arguments can be exampled as follows:

Rodney King and Los Angeles Riots, 1992

Case of Rodney King seemed like an open-and-shut case. The George Holliday video, played on television so often that an executive at CNN called it "wallpaper," showed three Los Angeles police officers – as their supervisor watched – kicking, stomping on, and beating with metal batons a seemingly defenceless Black American named Rodney King. Polls taken shortly after the incident showed that over 90% of Los Angeles residents who saw the videotape believed that the police used excessive force in arresting King. Despite the videotape, a jury in Simi Valley concluded a year later that the evidence was not sufficient to convict the officers. Within hours of the jury's verdict, Los Angeles erupted in riots. When it was over, fifty-four people had lost their lives, over 7,000 people had been arrested, and hundreds of millions of dollars worth of property had been destroyed.46

With reference to the situation within the Los Angeles, the 1980s brought rising unemployment, gang activity, drugs and violent crime to the poorer neighbourhoods of Los Angeles. Aggressive efforts to exert control by the Los Angeles Police Department fostered a belief among minority communities that its officers were not held liable for abusive police actions. In August 1988, as part of LAPD Chief Daryl Gates’s “Operation Hammer” drug sweeps, more than 80 officers tore apart a pair of apartment buildings on Dalton Street in South L.A., leaving dozens homeless. In January 1990, a skirmish between the LAPD and Nation of Islam members following a traffic stop resulted in the death of 27-year-old Air Force veteran Oliver Beasley.47

Trayvon Martin

Trayvon Martin was born in Florida on February 5, 1995. An athletically-inclined teen with an eye towards aviation, Martin had no criminal record when he was shot and killed by neighbourhood watch member George Zimmerman on February 26, 2012, in Sanford, Florida. Zimmerman's initial release and later arrest sparked a national debate Credit: Trayvon Martin over racial profiling and the role of armed neighbourhood watch

46 Linder, Douglas O.. n.d. "LAPD (King Beating) Trial (1992)" Famous Trials (blog). Accessed on December 17, 2017. (www.famous-trials.com/lapd) 47 History.com Staff. 2017. "Los Angeles Riots." History.com. Accessed on January 23, 2018. (www.history.com/topics/the-los-angeles-riots) 33 members in law enforcement. On July 13, 2013, a jury acquitted Zimmerman of murder. The Trayvon Martin Foundation was established in 2012, with thousands having taken to the streets across America to protest the circumstances surrounding the teen's death.48

Freddie Gray

On April 12, 2016 the arrest of Freddie Gray took place in Baltimore. According to the court document, Gray was arrested on a weapons charge, more specifically illegally carrying a knife. Also, as it is seen within the police report, another reason of Gray’s arrest was caught the attention due to running unprovoked from the police officers. Gray gave up without the use of force. However, the state prosecutor Marilyn Mosby stated that Gray was falsely accused and arrested.49

Considering the timeline of the arrest, at 8:39 officers approached to the Gray and at 8:40 Gray was arrested. At 8:42, van is requested by the police and at 8:54 van departs with Freddie Gray inside. While he was being placed in the van, there was no medical problems of Gray. Between the arrest and arrival to the police station, 8:54 to 9:24, police van makes a total of four stops. After the arrival, at 9:24 Gray needed urgent medical attention. Thus, the police officers called for paramedics before the arrival already to take Gray to hospital. One week later, on April 19, Freddie Gray died in the hospital. His death reason was determined as heavy damage to his spinal cord. It was estimated that what happened to him happened inside that police van.50

As Baltimore being in the first place, after Gray’s death, protests arouse in America demanding elucidation of death by chanting continuously “No justice, no peace!”. On the later Tuesday evening, Gray’s devastated mother has collapsed in tears on where his son was arrested to go to his death. Also, the social media movement which turned to be one of the most successful social movements #BlackLivesMatter has been overly used in these protests which lasted for a long time. After the events William Murphy, the family attorney said: "Now am I sceptical of the police investigation? You bet. Do I have reason to be sceptical? Yes. I am a normal human being who understands the history of the relationship between white police and

48 The Biography.com website. 2016. "Trayvon Martin Biography." A&E Television Networks. Accessed on April 2, 2018. (https://www.biography.com/people/trayvon-martin-21283721) 49 BBC. 2016. "Freddie Gray's death in police custody - what we know." BBC.com. Accessed on December 20, 2017. (www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-32400497) 50 Laughland, Oliver and Jon Swaine. 2015. "ix Baltimore officers suspended over police-van death of Freddie Gray." The Guardian. Accessed on December 18, 2017. (www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/apr/20/baltimore- officers-suspended-death-freddie-gray) 34 black people in this country," he said. "That's enough to make me sceptical.", stating a thought that was in the minds of the protestors.51

Michael Brown and the Ferguson Shooting

A year ago, Ferguson, Missouri, was a relatively quiet working-class suburban city of St Louis. But that quickly changed when a white officer killed an unarmed black teenager - casting the relationship between the town's Black American population and its majority white police under a harsh international spotlight.

After Darren Wilson shot and killed 18-year-old Michael Brown on 9 August 2014, speculation over the details followed as distrust between citizens and city authorities reached new heights.

Considering the evidence, a grand jury decided not to indict Wilson in November 2014 - sparking further unrest.

Months later in March of this year, two thorough US Department of Justice reports on the shooting filled in the blanks and exposed institutionalised racism and hardship in Ferguson Police Department.52

Eric Garner

Mr. Garner’s death was the start of a succession of police killings that captured national attention and ignited debate over race and law enforcement. From Michael Brown in Ferguson, Mo., to Walter Scott in North Charleston, S.C., to Freddie Gray in Baltimore, the deaths of black men at the hands of the police have faced a level of scrutiny that would have been unlikely just a year ago, before Mr. Garner died and before a grand jury in December declined to bring charges in his death. Of the unarmed black men killed by the police, most were shot. Mr. Gray died after being handcuffed without a seatbelt in a Baltimore police van. Mr. Garner, who was unarmed, died at the bare hands of officers.53

51 McLaughlin, Eliott C. and Ed Payne. 2015. "Arresting officers provide statements in Freddie Gray death." CNN. Accessed on December 3, 2017. (edition.cnn.com/2015/04/22/us/baltimore-freddie-gray-death/index.html) 52 Gander, Kashmira. 2015. "Michael Brown shooting: What happened in Ferguson?." Independent. Accessed on March 12, 2018. (www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/michael-brown-shooting-what-happened-in- ferguson-10450257.html) 53 Baker, Al., J. David Goodman and Benjamin Mueller. 2015. "Beyond the Chokehold: The Path to Eric Garner's Death." The New York Times. Accessed on January 24, 2018. (www.nytimes.com/2015/06/14/nyregion/eric-garner-police-chokehold-staten-island.html) 35

Baton Rouge Shooting

The Baton Rouge Shooting happened in 2016 5th of July, one day after the Independence Day. Alton Sterling who was a criminal that police officers chased on the street was on the ground with a police officer on top of him. While he was standing 2 officers took him down according to a 911 call that there is an armed man outside the store. While they suppressed him one of the officers pull out his gun and with the reason that he was reaching for his gun he shot him publicly to his death. Blane Salamoni shot him to kill for six times. The video of the shooting can be found on the internet since it was recorded by a bystander who also happened to be the store owner Abdullah Muhlafi who was a friend of Sterling and let him sell CDs out front of his store. After learning further information, Baton Rouge mayor-president Sharon Weston Broome called for Salamoni’s resignation, a demand which she did not back down from.54

After the incident both of the police officers were not fired until one of them got fired on 30 March 2018. Police Chief Murphy Paul told a news conference that officer Blane Salamoni was dismissed for violating departments standards on the use of force and for losing his temper.55

A boy sits next to a memorial outside the Triple S Food Mart where Alton Sterling was fatally shot by police in Baton Rouge, Louisiana on 7 July 2016. Photograph: Jonathan Bachman/Reuters

54 Lartey, Jamiles. 2018. "Alton Sterling shooting: two police officers will not be charged with any crime." The Guardian. Accessed on April 2, 2018. (www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/mar/27/alton-sterling-shooting-two- police-officers-will-not-be-charged-with-any) 55 BBC. 2018. "Alton Sterling: Cop dismissed over deadly Baton Rouge shooting." BBC.com. Accessed on April 2, 2018. (www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43604048) 36

White Supremacy

As a form of racism, white supremacy is the ideology based on a belief where the superiority of white people is considered as the fact regarding the scientific data – which can also be considered as scientific racism. This scientific data which differs and canonise white people also creates “the Other” which is inferior. To be more specific and set an example, social Darwinist science peoples of that time was trying to discover the superiority of white people by making experiments and observations focusing on bodies. This approach also created narratives within the context of biological determinism where people of certain race or colour are linked with “essential” characteristics.

One of the most prominent examples of the white supremacy within the United States of America can be conceived as Ku Klux Klan. The ideology of the Ku Klux Klan, which was founded in 1866, derives from the thought of white purity and supremacy. The Klan believes that white Americans are threatened by the non-white Americans, saying that they blur their clarity. However, the Klan members’ ideology is revolved not only around the purity of the white race but also around the Christianity. Thus, by determining the borders of the appropriate identity, the Other as the enemy will be also established. Put it in other words, the Others who are not classified under the roof of their identity are considered as their enemy. Apart from the defined enemies, government itself can be defined as enemy for letting the impure one continues to live. To achieve its goals, criminal activities that KKK had can be listed as: enslavement, terrorism, murder and assault regardless the race, sex, age, religion so on and so forth – with the exceptions of white Christians. Members of the KKK were not from the higher ranks or diplomats since it is believed that political and social fight would not be enough to purify the nation. So, they acted as the “raiders” to pure it with violence.56 Continuing with the members, 1920s was Klan’s golden age and at its peak point Klan had more than 4 million members nationwide.57

56 Gale, Thomson. 2008. "Ku Klux Klan." Encyclopaedia of Race and Racism. Accessed on January 27, 2018. (www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ku-klux-klan#B) 57 History.com Staff. n.d. "Ku Klux Klan." Accessed on January 26, 2017. (https://www.history.com/topics/ku- klux-klan) 37

A Ku Klux Klan gathering in Muncie Indiana in 1922. Credit: William Arthur Swift/Courtesy of Ball State University

By the 1950s and 1960s Klan had its resurgence. Some of the events organised by the Ku Klux Klan can be listed as follows:

1951 – Members of the Ku Klux Klan firebombed the home of Executive Director of NAACP Florida Harry Tyson Moore and his wife, Harriet, on Christmas Eve. Both are killed in the blast. The murders are the first high-profile Southern Klan killings among many during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s — most of which either go unprosecuted or result in acquittals by all-white juries.

1963 – Members of the Ku Klux Klan bombed the predominantly Black 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama and it killed four little girls.

1964 – The Mississippi chapter of the Ku Klux Klan firebombed twenty predominantly Black churches, and then (with the aid of local police) murdered civil rights activists James Chaney,

Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner.58

58 Head, Tom. 2018. "Timeline History of the Ku Klux Klan." ThoughtCo.. Accessed on February 26, 2018. (www.thoughtco.com/the-ku-klux-klan-history-721444) 38

Social Movements

Among all the civil rights movements in the United States of America, black people’s movements occupy a significant position due to their mobilisation, mass gatherings, protests and their successive achievements. Recently, #BlackLivesMatter is one of the most prominent and most successful social media movements which is also crucial to understand the importance of such movements.

To start with its background information, The #BlackLivesMatter movement has been created in 2012 after 17-year-old Trayvon Martin's killer, George Zimmerman, was acquitted and Martin was posthumously placed on trial for his own murder.59 The creators of this social movement 3 black feminist activist, Alicia Garza, Opal Tometi and Patrisse Cullors, saw a necessity to create a platform to discuss anti-Black racism and foster social action and engagement especially focusing on ending police brutality. In a short span of time, this social media movement gain its support and become visible not only on social media – Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram – but also in the streets for a call for political-social change. The attraction of the movement had gained and the discussions alongside with the movement on social media do not constitute an end in and of itself (of the discussed problem – here police brutality), but rather one of multiple means of addressing a bigger problem.60 Furthermore, while Black liberation movements in the past have been centred around straight cis-gender Black men, #BlackLivesMatter seeks to reach across intersectionalities and affirm the lives of queer and trans people, disabled people, black-undocumented people, people with records, Black women and all who have been historically marginalized in Black liberation movements.61

Credit: Bloggaz With Attitude

59 Huang, Irena. 2016. "The Importance of #BlackLivesMatter." Odyssey. Accessed on March 27, 2018. (www.theodysseyonline.com/the-importance-of-blacklivesmatter) 60 Freelon, Deen. 2016. "The Measure of a Movement: Quantifying Black Lives Matter’s Social Media Power." American University. Accessed on April 6, 2018. (https://www.sas.upenn.edu/andrea-mitchell- center/sites/www.sas.upenn.edu.dcc/files/Freelon%20-%20Measure%20of%20a%20Movement.pdf) 61 Huang, Irena. 2016. "The Importance of #BlackLivesMatter." Odyssey. Accessed on March 27, 2018. (www.theodysseyonline.com/the-importance-of-blacklivesmatter) 39

Intersectionality

Credit: The Daily Dot62 Intersectionality, in general, refers to the interconnective relationship between oppressive institutions – such as racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, ableism, xenophobia, ageism and so on – and the fact that they cannot be observed and analysed separately. From this point of view, thinking intersectionality along with the violence and discrimination against black people in the United States in America, may it possible to diverse the black community into different levels and analysing the level of discrimination, oppression and violence in different levels. For instance, taking the U.S. Education Department’s Civil Rights Data Collection for the 2013-14 school year, suspension rates of the number of students from kindergarten to 12th grade (K-12) into consideration the layers can be seen clearly as follows: About 1.1 million black K-12 students were suspended, a rate 3.8 times that of white students. Black pre-schoolers were 3.6 times more likely to be suspended than whites, the data showed. Black K-12 students also were 1.9 times more likely to be expelled from school than white students. K-12 students with disabilities were more than as twice likely to be suspended as students without disabilities.63 Black people who emigrate to the United States of America can also be a good example of intersectionality. Even though the migrants have a right to safety and security, humane treatment in detention, equal protection and due process, asylum, family unity, non-

62 Higgins, Marissa. 2017. "Every question about the Women’s March on Washington answered." The Daily Dot. Accessed on January 27, 2018. (www.dailydot.com/irl/womens-march-washington-schedule-events/) 63 Reuters Staff. 2016. "Black students more likely to be suspended: U.S. Education Department." Reuters. Accessed on December 7, 2017. (www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-education-suspensions/black-students- more-likely-to-be-suspended-u-s-education-department-idUSKCN0YT1ZO) 40 discrimination, freedom from slavery, just working conditions, cultural continuity, education, health care and housing through the relevant UN Documents and other legal documents – such as Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, U.S. Constitution Amendments V, VI, & XIV, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families – and the U.S. government obligated to respect, protect, fulfil, meet the minimum standards, non-discrimination, protect most vulnerable, monitor and report Black migrants still face a discrimination and violence for being Black and for their status of “migrant” or “refugee”.

According to the preceding graph, as the number of immigrants increases, the degree of violence and discrimination against Black immigrants will increase due to the increase in their visibility within the urban life.

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c. Reasons Leading the Violence and Discrimination

Throughout the time of presence of Black people in the United States of America, the violence and discrimination they subjected to was still with changes in the form of the violence and discrimination or/and the way of acts. From this standpoint, some reasons of unfavourable acts – even if they had changed throughout the time – against Blacks can be explained by theories of discrimination or theories of prejudice. Initially, taking social categorisation theory into consideration, this theory refers to the placement of people into groups based on their race, colour, gender, religion and so on and so forth. Consequently, the plurality of the groups creates the differentiation between each other as well. To put it in other words, within the plurality as

43 a consequence of intersubjectivity, “the Other” will be constructed due to the social grouping. At this very point, there are two important issues which is needed to be discussed. First, the categorisations between “us” and “the others”, quick determinations and general conclusions about others can be made easily due to the essential specialities. This approach of attributing essential specialities to a specific group and having a judgement on them may create firstly a hierarchic relationship between “us” and “the others”. To make it more clarified, attributing an essential speciality to a specific group can create a hierarchic relationship due to the questions of “What is the essential speciality?” and “Who will decide on whom about what is essential or not?”. By these questions and their answers, a dominance between groups can be constructed through the essential specialities of the social categories. Racism in that sense can be a good example for this since it is based on accepting one of the socially constructed categories, race, as superior than the other socially constructed category as another race. Moreover, this acceptance is maintained and re-constructed within the societies as long as the narratives within the context of discursive formations last. Second, constructed groups and the hierarchic relationship between them can be used/is used for the justification and normalisation of the hierarchic relationship. In other words, in the process of categorisation of people some measurements are used such as scientific data in the context of racism. Thus, it is tended to believe that – as if it is scientific – the essential specialities of the groups which leads to the creation of superiority of one give the authority to the superior over the inferior – as it can be seen in “white men’s burden”. With regards to above-mentioned statements, dominant theoretical explanations of racial disparities in criminal offending overlook a key risk factor associated with race: interpersonal racial discrimination. Building on recent studies that analyse race and crime at the micro-level, we specify a social psychological model linking personal experiences with racial discrimination to an increased risk of offending.64 However, acknowledging the social categorisation theory as a process where people are categorised due to their race, gender, colour and so on and as a theory which shapes the gaze of the people to “the Other”, this does not mean that not seeing the categories will solve the problem. Considering the debates on “Colour-blindness”, initially it is possible to say that Martin Luther King, Jr.in his famous speech “I have a dream” mentioned a society where there is no discrimination regarding the colour of the people as “I have a dream that my four little children

64 Burt, Callie Harbina., Ronald L. Simons and Frederick X. Gibbonsc. 2012. "Racial Discrimination, Ethnic- Racial Socialization, and Crime: A Micro-sociological Model of Risk and Resilience." US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. Accessed on February 16, 2018. (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3777442/) 44 will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character.”. From this standpoint, as some interpretations – whether true or false – of King’s wish to have a colour-blind society to achieve the justice, the colour-blindness in fact does not bring the justice or egalitarian point of view. According to Jason Antrosio, being colour-blind will not resolve racism. Despite the fact that race is socially constructed and that true colour-blindness would be wonderful, racism exists as a fundamental threat that permeates every context of everyday life. So, to approach any situation from a 'colour-blind' stance denies the reality of the lived experience of racism and thus exacerbates the problem more than it solves it.65

Social exclusion, on the other hand, can be found as the result and the reason of the discrimination and violence itself which maintains and re-constructs the discourses around the Black discrimination. In general terms, social exclusion, or social marginalization, is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. Social exclusion is the process in which individuals or people are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group.66 Social exclusion can be elaborated in five dimensions: economic, social, political, spatial, and discursive. To give an example, with reference to the socio-economic plight on Americans, Blacks in America have the highest poverty rate (27.4%), followed by Hispanics (26.6%) and Whites (9.9%). 45.8% of young black children (under age 6) live in poverty. Workers earning poverty-level wages are mostly women, blacks and between age 18 and 26. 42.7% of blacks aged between 16 and 24 are unemployed. Accordingly, a research by University of Missouri shows that there is still a hiring bias starting with the Black-sound names and continuing discrimination within the workplace.67 General narratives across the political spectrum on poverty and social exclusion of African-Americans is somewhat interesting. Beyond political rhetoric to "fix" the poor, this article argues that policy is a necessary but not an absolute remedy to multidimensional poverty. It reviews two reports and concludes that building bridges out of poverty must inform, educate and involve all stakeholders. The

65 Antrosio, Jason. 2011. “Biological Anthropology and Racism: An Entangled History.” Living Anthropologically website. Accessed on January 18, 2018. (https://www.livinganthropologically.com/biological- anthropology/biological-anthropology-racism/) 66 Centre for Global Solutions & Sustainable Development. n.d. "Social Inclusion." Accessed on April 3, 2018. (www.cengssud.org/social-inclusion) 67 Elajalde-Ruiz, Alexia. 2016. "Hiring bias study: Resumes with black, white, Hispanic names treated the same." Chicago Rribune. Accessed on April 3, 2018. (www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-bias-hiring-0504- biz-20160503-story.html) 45 educational system has seen significant increases in the number of high school graduates but only 2 out of every 10 black men between 21 and 28 have college degrees. Rising cost of education coupled with the tough school experiences of blacks combine to limit the opportunities available to African Americans from poor families. While segregation is not as pronounced now as it was in 1960, many blacks are still confined to poor neighbourhoods. High poverty neighbourhoods have high rates of crimes and violence, poor schools and weak connection to mainstream labour market. The effect of these on children raised in deprived communities include aggressive behaviour, poor language and communication skills, low academic performance, high dropout rate, low college graduation rate, early pregnancy due to early sexual activity, frequent prison terms, disease and high mortality rates, substance and drug abuse, depression, discrimination, stereotype and exclusion. Challenges in the labour market due to contracting global economy, corporatization of the public service, neo-liberalism, reduced wages, cut-backs in welfare and shrinking entry-opportunities for uneducated and low skilled blacks into the labour market as well as high unemployment rates among black men have fuelled poverty in black communities. Finally, blacks, especially black men are more likely to spend time in jail than any other group of Americans. Blacks compared to 1 in 33 Whites had spent time in jail. When a man is incarcerated, it has a damaging effect on him and on his family. After serving time in prison, economic potentials diminish greatly. Re-entering and reintegrating into society also poses a challenge, especially, if the period of incarceration is long. High incarceration of black men adds to instability, poverty and exclusion of "Negro" families.

When it comes to the social media, discrimination can be seen and promoted as well against Black people in the United States of America. In other words, the contexts for online discrimination also play a significant role and the most frequent contexts for these experiences were social networking sites like Facebook and text messaging. Minority youth indicated that they had experienced online discrimination on a social network. Others indicated that they had experienced online discrimination through text messages. Because researchers noted shifts in the popularity of online contexts among participants in interview data, specific sites were assessed for future incidents. And the remainder of the minority youth indicated that they had experienced online discrimination on Twitter and YouTube. Focusing on the theorising the discrimination, Glasher and Khan were discussed in their early writings that internet could reduce or eliminate racial discrimination that people of colour typically experience in offline

46 settings.68 Recent theorizing suggests that social media often requires users to reveal their identities and that doing so can make individuals more susceptible to experiencing racial discrimination. In addition, victims may have a potentially permanent record of their online interactions that they carry around on their devices. While we have quite an extensive literature on general forms of online victimization, research on experiences with race is surprisingly limited.69

RECONSIDERATION OF TODAY AND FUTURE: RESPONSIBILITIES, OBLIGATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES

a. State Level

Throughout the time to address the problem of many citizens’ suffering due to unequal treatment based on their race, colour, religion, gender in various settings including employment, credit, housing, public accommodation, voting and so on law makers enacted several federal laws to combat with discrimination and violence practiced either by state or non-state actors. These federal laws that prohibit discrimination based on race are: The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Title VII (Equal Employment Opportunities), The Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA), U.S. Code Title 42, Chapter 21-Civil Rights, Fair Housing Act, Voting Rights Act of 1965, Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act. Also, there are further legislations to prevent any other discriminations regarding the education. Yet, the discrimination and violence shown itself in different fields as it is discussed previous sections.

To eliminate discrimination and violence within the State level, initially further legislations are needed considering the blind spots of the issue. While creating these legislations, again, the identity politics need to be considered in respect. Regarding the Black discrimination and violence against Black people in the United States of America, if we accept the identity within the context of colour, colour-blindness, by discouraging discussions of racial matters and presuming that the best practice is to ignore the realities of racism, makes it more difficult to challenge those biases, and thus increases the likelihood of discrimination.70

68 Glaser, J., and K. Kahn. 2005. “Online prejudice and discrimination: From dating to hating.” In Y. Amichai- Hamburger (Ed.), The social net: Understanding our online behavior, (pp. 247-274). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 69 Tynes, Brendesha M.. 2015. "Online racial discrimination: A growing problem for adolescents." Physchological Science Agenda. American Psychological Association. Accessed on March 29, 2018. (www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2015/12/online-racial-discrimination.aspx) 70 Wise, Tim. 2010. "Colorblind: The Rise of Post-Racial Politics and the Retreat from Racial Equity." City Lights Publishers 47

b. International Level

Inspecting certain treaties and declarations on this particular matter, discrimination and violence against black people in the United States of America, that being "assessment and mitigation of discrimination on an international level", it may be inferred that such issues are to be made effort for in order for them to be entirely terminated or institute lawful punishment in their name in a multinational practice;

• Management of Social Transformations (MOST) Programme: MOST is UNESCO’s intergovernmental science programme on social transformations. MOST works with governments, social and human science communities and civil societies to improve connections between knowledge and action, connections that are one key to positive social change. Within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, MOST contributes to development, to the eradication of poverty, to inclusive and sustainable responses to environmental change and to the promotion of inclusive, effective and accountable governance, as well as to the achievement of UNESCO’s Global Priorities: Africa and Gender Equality. MOST supports Member States in improving policymaking processes through a strengthened research-policy interface, which uses knowledge focused on human needs from the social and human sciences to promote a culture of evidence-informed decision-making. • C111 – Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111):

ILO Convention No.111 or in other words, The Convention concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation is one of eight International Labour Organisation fundamental conventions which based on anti-discrimination. It is signed by 175 party States in June 25, 1958. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO _CODE:C111%20 • International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: "In this Convention, the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms

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in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life." http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx

• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: "1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development." http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx

• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: "1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status." http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx

• Convention on the Rights of the Child: "1. States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child's or his or her parent's or legal guardian's race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status." http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx

• Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty, G.A. res. 44/128, annex, 44 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 207, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989), entered into forceJuly 11, 1991: "1. No one within the jurisdiction of a State Party to the present Protocol shall be executed. 2. Each State Party shall take all necessary measures to abolish the death penalty within its jurisdiction."

• 1904 (XVIII). United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: "Discrimination between human beings on the ground of race, colour or ethnic origin is an offence to human dignity and shall be condemned as a denial of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations, as a violation of the human rights and fundamental freedoms proclaimed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

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as an obstacle to friendly and peaceful relations among nations and as a fact capable of disturbing peace and security among peoples."

http://www.un-documents.net/a18r1904.htm • 2037 (XX). Declaration on the Promotion Among Youth of the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and Understanding Between Peoples: "Young people shall be brought up in the knowledge of the dignity and equality of all men, without distinction as to race, colour, ethnic origins or beliefs, and in respect for fundamental human rights and for the right of peoples to self-determination."

http://www.un-documents.net/a20r2037.htm • United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: "The strengthening of peace and international understanding, the promotion of human rights and the countering of racialism, apartheid and incitement to war demand a free flow and a wider and better-balanced dissemination of information. To this end, the mass media have a leading contribution to make. This contribution will be the more effective to the extent that the information reflects the different aspects of the subject dealt with."71

• European Network Against Racism (ENAR): ENAR is the only pan-European anti- racism network that combines advocacy for racial equality and facilitating cooperation among civil society anti-racism actors in Europe. The organisation was set up in 1998 by grassroots activists on a mission to achieve legal changes at European level and make decisive progress towards racial equality in all EU Member States. Since then, ENAR has grown and achieved a great deal.72 ENAR works to put an end to racism and discrimination across Europe and make a real difference in ethnic and religious minorities’ lives. NAR is a strong professional organisation bringing together a unique set of skills, EU expertise and knowledge. Their approach is based on some key principles and values which guide whatever they do. ENAR is led by a Board of activists and experts which is dedicated to the fight for equality and against racism and guides their mission.

71UNESCO. 1979. "Records of the General Conference, 20th session, Paris, 24 October to 28 December 1978, v.1, Resolutions; 1979." UNESCO. Accessed on February 20, 2018. (unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001140/114032e.pdf#page=99) 72 European Network Against Racism. n.d. "About us." European Network Against Racism. Accessed on April 2, 2018. (www.enar-eu.org/About-us) 50

• The Mouvement national contre le racisme (National Movement Against Racism): National Movement Against Racism is created in 1941 by several Resisters who believed that a specific struggle against racism had to be fought in the context of France's liberation from German occupation. A primary goal was to save as many black children as possible from deportation, and the movement coordinated its actions with the Protestant and Catholic Church. Two clandestine newspapers, J'accuse in the North zone and Fraternité in the South zone, were charged with countering the Nazis' and Vichy's racist ideology. The MRAP was engaged in the creation of the alter- globalization NGO ATTAC in 1998. Currently, it concentrates its action against immigration-restricting laws and in favor of immigrants' rights, as well as denunciation of racism on the internet and against historical revisionism (courtsuit deposed against Bruno Gollnisch, member of the Front National). (https://mrap.fr/ )

• The International Movement Against All Forms of Discrimination and Racism (IMADR) is an international non-profit, non-governmental human rights organization devoted to eliminating discrimination and racism, forging international solidarity among discriminated minorities and advancing the international human rights system. Founded in 1988 by one of Japan’s largest minorities, the Buraku people, IMADR has grown to be a global network of concerned individuals and minority groups with regional committees and partners in Asia, Europe, North America and Latin America. IMADR’s International Secretariat is based in Japan and maintains a UN liaison office in Geneva. IMADR is in consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). (http://imadr.org/ )

Lastly, considering this particular section, the United Nations is at the moment working on a new resolution regarding the matter of indigenous peoples around the Globe; "Indigenous peoples and individuals are free and equal to all other peoples and individuals and have the right to be free from any kind of discrimination, in the exercise of their rights, in particular that based on their indigenous origin or identity."73 From this standpoint, some entities of United

73 United Nations. 2008. "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples." United Nations. Accessed on April 2, 2018. (www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf) 51

Nations has important implications, researchs, reports or resolutions on racism and racial discrimination as follows:

• Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CERD/Pages/CERDIndex.aspx • Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/SRRacism/Pages/IndexSRRacism.aspx • Ad-hoc Committee on the elaboration of complementary standards http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/AdHocCommittee/Pages/AdHocIndex.aspx • Independent Eminent Experts’ Group http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/Pages/IndependentEminentExperts.aspx • Intergovernmental Working Group on the effective implementation of the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/IntergovWG/Pages/IWGIndex.aspx • Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Racism/WGAfricanDescent/Pages/WGEPADIndex.a spx • United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - Fight against Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/fight- againstdiscrimination/

Furthermore, as United Nations documents, People of African descent: 69th General Assembly Resolutions respectively A/RES/69/19 (Permanent memorial to and remembrance of the victims of slavery and the transatlantic slave trade) and A/RES/69/16 (Programme of activities for the implementation of the International Decade for People of African Descent) and People of African descent: 68th General Assembly Resolutions including A/RES/68/237 (Proclamation of the International Decade for People of African Descent), A/RES/68/151 (Global efforts for the total elimination of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and the comprehensive implementation of and follow-up to the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action) and A/RES/68/7 (Permanent memorial to and remembrance of the victims of slavery and the transatlantic slave trade, as press release) need to be considered.

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c. Social Movements

Social movement, in general terms, represents a group of people who organised and coordinated to achieve certain goal(s) where the participants are interested in and become a great force for bringing the social change. Compared to other forms of collective behaviour, movements have a high degree of organization and are of longer duration.74

Considering what is discussed in previous sections, the importance of social movements in the demand of justice for Black people in the United States of America and the social change alongside with the legislative changes is given. From this point of view, social movements occupy a really significant place for the citizens and non-citizens for their demand for change. In this point, right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association also needed to be considered.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Starting from the Atlantic Slave Trade to the 2010s today’s world, the issue of discrimination and violence against Black people in the United States of America can be observable not only with changing power relations, institutions, knowledge – which is produced through scientific data, professionals, politicians, scholars and so on – but also with the civil right movement in 1960s, social movements, riots and further counter-movements.

To find ways to eliminate the existed discrimination and violence, regarding the historicity of the issue, the current debates, the effect of law, legislations, use of power, the intersectionality of the issue and other dimensions of the debate is recommended to be elaborated on.

74 Bostic, Philip J. n.d. "Social Movement." Learning To Give. Accessed on March 29, 2018. (www.learningtogive.org/resources/social-movement) 53

FURTHER DOCUMENTS

Articles

Broman, Clifford L., Roya Mavaddat, Shu-Yao Hsu. 2000. "The Experience and Consequences of Perceived Racial Discrimination: A Study of African Americans." in Journal of Black Psychology, 26(2): 165-180.

Feagin Joe, R.. 1992. "The Continuing Significance of Racism: Discrimination Against Black Students in White Colleges." in Journal of Black Studies, 22(4): 546-548.

Sommers, Samuel R. and Phoebe C. Ellsworth. 2001. "White Juror Bias: An Investigation of Prejudice Against Black Defendants in the American Courtroom." in Psychology Public Policy and Law, 7(1): 201-229.

Sue, Derald Wing., Kevin L. Nadal, Christina M. Capodilupo,. Kevin L. Nadal, Christina M. Capodilupo,. Annie I. Lin, Gina C. Torino, and David P. Rivera. 2008. “Racial Microaggressions Against Black Americans: Implications for Counseling.” in Journal of Counseling & Development, 86: 330-338.

Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. 1999. “Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being.” in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1): 135-149.

Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. M. B. 2008. “Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans.” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(3): 329-336.

Landrine, Hope., Elizabeth A. Klonoff. 1996. "The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences." in Journal of Black Psychology 22(4): 144-168.

Books

Banton, Michael. 2003. “International Action Against Racial Discrimination.” Clarendon Press.

Behnken, Brian D, Gregory D. Smithers. 2015. “Racism in American Popular Media: From Aunt Jemima to the Frito Bandito.” Praeger.

Daniels, Jessie. 2009. “Cyber Racism White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights.” Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

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Hall, Ronald E. 2010. "An Historical Analysis of Skin Color Discrimination in America Victimism Among Victim Group Populations." Springer.

Martin, Lori Latrice. 2015. “White Sports/Black Sports: Racial Disparities in Athletic Programs.” Praeger.

Perry, Richard J. 2007. "“Race” and Racism: The Development of Modern Racism in America." Palgrave.

Vaughan, Alden T. 1995. “Roots of American Racism: Essays on the Colonial Experience.” Oxford University Press. hooks, bell. 1995. " killing rage: Ending Racism." Holt Paperbacks.

Reports

Amnesty International. “USA: A submission to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.” 24 July 2014. Accessed on April 4, 2018. (http://www.refworld.org/docid/53ff0d944.html)

Freedom House. “Today's American: How Free? - Racial inequality: America's Achilles' heel.” 2 May 2008. Accessed on April 4, 2018. (http://www.refworld.org/docid/4910131ab.html)

Human Rights Watch. “USA: Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs.” 1 May 2000. G1202. Accessed on April 4, 2018. (http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a86f4.html)

United Nations Documents

UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 20 November 1963, A/RES/1904.

UN General Assembly. “United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.” GA Res 18/1904. UN GAOR. 18th sess. 1261st plen mtg. Agenda Item 43. (26 October 1966).

UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Doudou Diène : addendum: mission to the United States of America, 28 April 2009, A/HRC/11/36/Add.3.

UNESCO. 2015. "Colour? What Colour? Report on the fight against discrimination and racism in football." United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: Paris, France.

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Selected Statements and Speeches of the United Nations Secretary-General

World yet to overcome racism as slavery’s legacy ‘resounds down the ages’, SecretaryGeneral tells tribute event for victims of transatlantic trade (SG/SM/18472-GA/11901- OBV/1716, 24 March 2017): http://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sgsm18472.doc.htm

Leaders must counter hateful speech, stresses Secretary-General at International Day for Elimination of Racial Discrimination (SG/SM/18468-GA/11897-OBV/1714, 21 March 2017): http://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sgsm18468.doc.htm

States must combat lingering racism, human rights abuses, Deputy Secretary-General tells General Assembly Meeting to Commemorate Victims of Slavery (DSG/SM/952-GA/11769- OBV/1599, 29 March 2016): http://www.un.org/press/en/2016/dsgsm952.doc.htm

Secretary-General urges greater resolve to fight racism, celebrate African culture worldwide, in Message for International Observance (SG/SM/17602-OBV/1585, 17 March 2016): http://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sgsm17602.doc.htm

Deputy Secretary-General, marking Fiftieth Anniversary of Anti-Racism Convention, urges internet to be used as powerful tool in fight against racial discrimination (DSG/SM/921- RD/1015, 2 December 2015): http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/dsgsm921.doc.htm

Secretary-General commemorates anniversary of Chaim Herzog’s speech condemning General Assembly Resolution equating Zionism with racism (SG/SM/17319, 11 November 2015): http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sgsm17319.doc.htm

Secretary-General, in Message for International Observance, urges robust policies to end discrimination, universal ratification of Anti-Racism Convention (SG/SM/16586-OBV/1433- RD/1014, 11 March 2015): http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sgsm16586.doc.htm

Racial discrimination strikes at dignity, rights of individuals, stresses Deputy-SecretaryGeneral at International Day Commemoration (DSG/SM/758-GA/11490-OBV/1314, 21 March 2014): http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/dsgsm758.doc.htm

Condemn ideas based on hatred, incitement to intolerance, Secretary-General urges in message marking Day for Elimination of Racial Discrimination (SG/SM/15715-OBV/1307- RD/1012, 18 March 2014): http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/sgsm15715.doc.htm

Secretary-General, in observance message, equates fight against homophobia with struggle to eliminate racism, promote gender equality (SG/SM/15028-HR/5128, 16 May 2013): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sgsm15028.doc.htm

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Secretary-General calls international day opportunity to contrast positive sports values with despicable racism scarring even professional competition (SG/SM/14883-OBV/1190, 19 March 2013): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sgsm14883.doc.htm

Secretary-General calls on all people to join UN in drive to stamp out ‘weapon’ of racism, which is used to undermine peace, engender fear, incite war crimes (SG/SM/14172-RD/1010- OBV/1077, 20 March 2012): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2012/sgsm14172.doc.htm

In inclusiveness lie seeds of harmony, Secretary-General tells symposium on South Africa’s contribution to fight against racism, xenophobia (SG/SM/13833-RD/1008, 22 September 2011): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sgsm13833.doc.htm

Secretary-General, in message for International Day, says overcoming racism compels us to address public policies, private attitudes that perpetuate it (SG/SM/13453-OBV/966- RD/1005, 17 March 2011): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sgsm13453.doc.htm

Sports empowers disenfranchised communities, influences perceptions, inspires millions, says Secretary-General in Message for Day to Eliminate Racism (SG/SM/12790-OBV/859- RD/1003, 16 March 2010): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/sgsm12790.doc.htm

Closing Statement of Ms. Navanethem Pillay United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to the Durban Review Conference (24 April 2009): http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=8550

Secretary-General heartened by consensus on Durban review conference outcome; hopes those who did not participate will soon rejoin fight against racism (SG/SM/12197-RD/1001, 21 April 2009): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/sgsm12197.doc.htm

Secretary-General, at Durban review conference, says fight against racism ‘a truly great and noble cause that binds us as human beings’ (SG/SM/12192-RD/1000, 20 April 2009): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/sgsm12192.doc.htm

World has witnessed disturbing rise in hatred, bigotry, says Secretary-General, urging on day to eliminate racism for all states to work together to defeat it (SG/SM/12129-OBV/768- RD/999, 10 March 2009): http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/sgsm12129.doc.htm

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Websites

Abolish Human Abortion. 2011. "“The fetus is just a fish, and the Negro is just an ape.”." Abolish Human Abortion (blog). Accessed on March 21, 2018. (blog.abolishhumanabortion.com/2011/08/fetus-is-just-fish-and-negro-is-just.html)

Anderson, Monica and Gustavo López. 2018. "Key facts about black immigrants in the U.S." Pew Research Center. Accessed on March 30, 2018. (www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/01/24/key- facts-about-black-immigrants-in-the-u-s/)

Brunner, Borgna and Infoplease Staff. "Timeline: Key Moments in Black History." Infoplease. Accessed on March 28, 2018. (www.infoplease.com/spot/timeline-key-moments-black-history)

Capps, Randy, Kristen McCabe and Michael Fix. 2011 "New Streams: Black African Migration to the United States." Migration Policy Institute.

Connor, Phillip. 2018. "International migration from sub-Saharan Africa has grown dramatically since 2010." Pew Research Center. Accessed on March 30, 2018. (www.pewresearch.org/fact- tank/2018/02/28/international-migration-from-sub-saharan-africa-has-grown-dramatically-since- 2010/)

Cumoletti, Mattea and Jeanne Batalova. 2018. "Middle Eastern and North African Immigrants in the United States." Migration Policy Institute. Accessed on March 30, 2018. (www.migrationpolicy.org/article/middle-eastern-and-north-african-immigrants-united-states)

Dwamena, Anakwa. 2016. "Black African immigrants, race and police brutality in America." Africa is a Country. Accessed on March 30, 2018. (africasacountry.com/2016/10/no-segregation-in-matters-of- race-prejudice/)

Kendi, Ibram X.. 2017. "Uncovering the roots of racist ideas in America." The Conversation. Accessed on March 10, 2018. (https://theconversation.com/uncovering-the-roots-of-racist-ideas-in- america-71467)

PBS. n.d. "Racism in the United States: Who’s Responsible for Fixing the Problem?." PBS. Accessed on March 10, 2018. (www.pbs.org/wgbh/third-rail/episodes/episode-2-is-america-becoming-more-or- less-racist/racism-united-states/)

Southern Poverty Law Center. n.d. "Civil Rights Martyrs." Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed on March 17, 2018. (www.splcenter.org/what-we-do/civil-rights-memorial/civil-rights-martyrs)

The Advocates for Human Rights. 2012. "The Rights of Migrants in the United States." The Advocates for Human Rights. Accessed on March 18, 2018. (www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/migrant_rights_fact_sheet.pdf)

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