doi: 10.1111/j.1442-8903.2011.00591.x REVIEW Australia’s Stock Route Network: 1. A review of its values and implications for future management

By Pia E. Lentini, Joern Fischer, Philip Gibbons, David B. Lindenmayer and Tara G. Martin

Pia Lentini, Philip Gibbons and David Lindenma- Summary The Stock Route Network (SRN) is a vast system of public land, comprising yer are respectively PhD student, Senior Fellow and vegetated strips and small reserves across the eastern length of the Australian continent. Professor at the Fenner School of Environment and Now predominantly following the road system, this network was historically established to Society, the Australian National University (Hancock allow for the movement of livestock prior to truck and railway transport. Owing to declines in Building (43), Biology Place, Canberra ACT 0200; traditional uses, parts of the SRN may now be sold to private landholders, or put under long- Tel: +612 6125 1496; Email: [email protected]. term grazing leases, making them unavailable for other emerging uses. This is in spite of the au). Joern Fischer (formerly of the Fenner School of fact that it is widely accepted by researchers, practitioners, graziers and agriculturalists that Environment and Society) is a Professor with the the SRN holds great natural and cultural value. We conducted a review of scientific and grey Faculty of Sustainability (Leuphana University Lu- literature to determine the known values of the network for biodiversity conservation, cultural eneburg, Scharnhorststrasse 1, 21335 Lueneburg, heritage, rural communities and Australian society as a whole. We found that the majority of Germany). Tara Martin is a Research Scientist with existing literature on the network focuses on New South Wales (NSW) and is of a conserva- CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences (EcoSciences Precinct, 41 tion-based nature. The Stock Route Network supports a wide range of threatened species Boggo Road, Dutton Park QLD 4102). This research and communities, with considerable potential for many more to be discovered. The network forms part of a larger project investigating the value also holds heritage value for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. The societal of travelling stock routes for biodiversity conserva- benefits from the SRN are numerous because it provides land for recreation and apiary sites, tion, in response to a pressing need for quantitative a source of seed for revegetation projects, a focus for rural tourism, as well as the traditional data and information to guide stock route manage- benefits for stock droving and emergency agistment. In the light of our review, we identified ment decisions. key knowledge gaps pertaining to the values of the SRN and propose a number of options for its future management. Appropriate governance and increased investment in SRN manage- ment is now urgently required to ensure that it continues to conserve its many environmental and social values in perpetuity. Key words: linear remnant, roadside vegetation, SRN, stock reserve, stock route, travelling stock, TSR, verge.

and the entire network of NSW and Qld is Authority 2009, p. 31). Based on this sug- Introduction together referred to as the Stock Route gestion, the future of the SRN in NSW is he Stock Route Network (SRN) is a vast Network (SRN). uncertain. The stock routes of Queensland Tsystem of strips and small blocks of The use of the NSW network as a means are also experiencing a decline in use by remnant vegetation which stretches across of transporting stock has declined since travelling stock, with local councils the eastern length of Australia, covering the 1950s (O’Connor 2004). Rural Lands responsible for their management strug- approximately 4.5 million hectares Protection Boards (RLPBs) have been gling to administer them in an economi- (Fig. 1). Now predominantly following the responsible for the management of NSW cally viable manner. In response to road system, this network incorporates a stock routes since 1880 (Cameron & Spoo- problems that arose during the drought of wide variety of vegetation types, topogra- ner 2010), but they have been increasingly 2002–2003, a review recommended that phies, geologies and histories (Davidson subsidising stock route management the Queensland network be classified into 1999). Known as ‘the Long Paddock’, the because of this decline in use, which has ‘active’ and ‘inactive’ sections, with ‘inac- SRN was gazetted as public land early in in turn threatened their financial viability. tive’ stock routes being leased to private Australia’s pioneering history to allow for In 2008, the RLPB system underwent an graziers and subjected to Annual Grazing the movement of livestock prior to the independent review, which recommended Agreements (Department of Natural advent of truck and railway transport that the stock routes be ceded back to the Resources and Water 2008). (McKnight 1977). The SRN comprises the NSW Department of Lands (Integrated Although the SRN is now used for dro- Travelling Stock Routes and Travelling Marketing Communications 2008). The ving less often than it formerly was, it is Stock Reserves of New South Wales Department of Lands (now called the Land widely accepted by researchers, practitio- (NSW), and the Stock Route Network of and Property Management Authority) sta- ners, graziers and agriculturalists that it Queensland (Qld), as well as numerous ted that following this hand back ‘disposal holds great natural and cultural value. other parcels of Crown land (Hibberd through sale may be an appropriate out- When it emerged that the future of the net- et al. 1986). For the purpose of this come for a restricted number and area of work was in question, 513 scientists signed review, all are referred to as ‘stock routes’, TSRs’ (Land and Property Management the ‘Long Paddock Scientists Statement’,

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Northern Quoll Dasyurus hallucatus Large numbers recorded at Big Mitchell N stock route-a population stronghold for a species undergoing significant range contractions (Burnett 2001)

Julia Creek Dunnart Sminthopsis douglasi Stock routes were some of the few remaining areas rated as ‘highly suitable habitat’ for this threatened species (Smith et al. 2007)

Wandering Peppercress Lepidium peregrinum Was assumed extinct until rediscovered in 2001–the largest site containing most known individuals is in a stock route (NSW Scientific Committee 2000)

Legend Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia Endangered A known breeding area occurs in a sp. record stock route close to Barraba. The Barraba Shire attract tourist SRN ornithologists to the region through the “Bird Routes program” (Jones 2000) NRS

Tumut Grevillea Grevillea wilkinsonii Only nine small populations of this species remain–the second-largest is in a stock route (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2001)

0 250 500 km

Figure 1. ‘Endangered species in the Long Paddock’. Map shows: the Stock Route Network (SRN) of New South Wales and Queensland, the National Reserve System (NRS) and several examples of species that are listed by the Australian Government as Endangered, and that have been recorded in stock routes (photos top to bottom: Wildlife Explorer – Picasa Web Albums, Greg Mifsud, Catherine Wardrop, Chris Tzaros, Karen Hedley).

which highlighted the role the SRN plays findings for the ongoing administration aware of through other discussions with in environmental and heritage protection, and management of the SRN. stakeholders was also included. We did and in supporting traditional uses (Possing- not conduct a quantitative review of this ham & Nix 2008). The letter came at a criti- literature (such as a meta-analysis), but Methods cal point in the debate, but was primarily instead completed a conventional, qualita- intended to be an advocacy tool, as We conducted a broad literature search to tive review. opposed to a review of information col- identify existing scientific and grey litera- lected. A more in-depth review, which ture on the stock routes of NSW and Qld. Results presents evidence in support of the state- Using the terms ‘travelling stock’, ‘stock ments made, is both timely and much- route’ and ‘stock reserve’, we searched ISI We found 107 publications dealing with needed to inform the debate concerning Web of Knowledge (topic search – all stock routes, including 68 journal articles, the future of stock route management. In results included), Google Scholar (whole 13 government reports, 14 books, three this paper, we review and summarise infor- documents – first ten pages of results consultant’s reports, three conference mation on a wide range of present-day val- included) and JSTOR (all disciplines, all papers, two government submissions, one ues of the SRN, expanding on the themes content, all results included) up to Octo- independent report, one PhD and one introduced in the ‘Long Paddock Scientists ber 2010. We confined our search to litera- Honours thesis, and one letter (Table 1). Statement’, and identifying strengths and ture relating to stock routes of NSW and Most did not focus solely on stock routes, weaknesses in current knowledge. We Qld. Additional literature not identified and we may have failed to identify addi- then discuss the implications of our during the search that we were made tional material in which the SRN is a small

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Ta ble 1 . Literature considered in the review, categorised according to theme, state which the material covers (‘NA’ refers to publications that are not state-specific) and the type of publication (‘Book’ refers to both books and book chapters)

Theme State Publication Literature Total type Conservation (47) NSW Book Hibberd and Soutberg (1991), Williams et al. (1991) 2 Conference Davidson (1999) 1 Journal Brock et al. (1999), Debus et al. (2006), Dorrough et al. (2004), Driscoll (2004), Eldridge 26 et al. (2006), Gill and Williams (1996), Law and Chidel (2006), Leavesley (2002), Lentini et al. (2011a,b), Lewis et al. (2008), Lindenmayer et al. (2010b), Major et al. (1999c, 2003), McIntyre and Lavorel (1994b), Prober (1996), Prober and Thiele (1995, 2004, 2005), Prober et al. (1998, 2001), Sass (2003), Semple (1986), Spooner and Lunt (2004), Spooner and Smallbone (2009), Thompson et al. (2006) Report (Govt) Drew et al. (2002), Freudenberger and Drew (2001), Mills (2000), NSW National Parks 6 and Wildlife Service (2001, 2002), NSW Scientific Committee (2000) Thesis (Hons) Channing (2000) 1 QLD Journal Fensham et al. (2002), McIntyre and Martin (2001), McIntyre et al. (2002), 4 Smith et al. (2007) Report (Cons) Burnett (2001) 1 Report (Govt) Walsh (2009) 1 NA Book Breckwoldt (1986), Martin and Green (2002), Prober and Hobbs (2008), 4 Lindenmayer et al. (2010a) Journal Sutherst et al. (2007) 1 Cultural NSW Journal Cameron and Spooner (2010), King (1959), Lunt and Spooner (2005), No author (1860), 7 Heritage (19) O’Connor (2004), Smailes and Molyneux (1965), Spooner (2005) Report (Cons) Heritage Concepts Pty Ltd (2007) 1 Report (Govt) Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW (2008) 1 Submission Environmental Defenders Office NSW (2009) 1 QLD Journal Moore et al. (1928), Knowles et al. (1946), Morphy and Morphy (1984), 4 Saunders (1995) NA Book McKnight (1977) 1 Journal Spooner et al. (2010), Taylor (1926) 2 Report Pearson (1999) 1 Thesis (PhD) Kerwin (2006) 1 Society and NSW Book Scultz & Valenzisi (2010) 1 Science (22) Journal Burrows (2000), Dorrough et al. (2007), Gibbons et al. (2008), Jansen and Robertson 16 (2001), Jones (2000), Lunt et al. (2006), Major et al. (1999a,b, 2001), McIntyre and Lavorel (1994a), McIntyre et al. (1993), Miklos et al. (2010), Prober et al. (2002, 2005), Somerville and Nicholson (2005), Thompson and Eldridge (2005) Submission NSW Government (2007) 1 QLD Journal Fensham et al. (2007), Martin and McIntyre (2007), McIntyre et al. (2003) 3 NA Book Pigram and Jenkins (2006), 1 Rural NSW Book Anderson (2006) 1 communities (6) Conference John et al. (1997) 1 Journal Eldridge and Wilson (2004), No author (1915) 2 QLD Conference Duncan (1962) 1 NA Journal Heathcote (1991) 1 Management (5) NSW Report (Cons) Integrated Marketing Communications (2008) 1 Report (Govt) Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW and Industry and Investment 2 NSW (2010), Land and Property Management Authority (2009) QLD Report (Govt) Department of Natural Resources and Water (2008), Local Government Association of 2 Queensland Inc. (2003) Multiple values (8) NSW Book Hibberd et al. (1986, 1993), NSW Agriculture and Rural Lands Protection 4 Boards (2001), Nowland et al. (1997) Journal Davidson et al. (2005) 1 Report (Govt) Hampton and NSW Crown Lands Office (1982) 1 NA Journal Possingham (2008) 1 Letter Possingham and Nix (2008) 1 To ta l 107 component of the work rather than its cen- the SRN (as opposed to roadsides or rem- Lindenmayer et al. (2010b), O’Connor tral focus. nant vegetation in general). These were (2004) and Spooner et al. (2010). We identified only seven peer-reviewed Cameron and Spooner (2010), Davidson A total of 71% of all literature was spe- journal articles that focused specifically on et al. (2005), Lentini et al. (2011a,b), cific to NSW, 16% to Qld and 13% covered

ª 2011 Ecological Society of Australia ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 12 NO 2 AUGUST 2011 121 REVIEW issues relating to both states. We grouped (Eucalyptus blakelyi) woodland (Prober & an important link to Australia’s pioneering the information collected into five broad Thiele 1995; Burrows 2000; Spooner & past (Fig. 2). themes (biodiversity conservation, cultural Lunt 2004), Coolibah (Eucalyptus inter- Supporting rural heritage, supporting rural communities texta) – Black Box (Eucalyptus largiflo- communities and value to Australian society). For each rens) woodland (Gibbons et al. 2008), theme, we summarised existing findings, natural grasslands of the Queensland Cen- Perhaps the greatest value that modern-day then identified key knowledge gaps. tral Highlands (Fensham et al. 2002) and stock routes provide to rural communities Inland Grey Box (Eucalyptus microcarpa) is fodder for livestock during times of Biodiversity conservation woodland (Prober & Thiele 2004; Lunt drought, and emergency pasture following Some stock routes are in excellent condi- et al. 2006; Lentini et al. 2011a). floods or fire (Duncan 1962; Heathcote tion because of the absence of pesticides, 1991; Nowland et al. 1997). During some Cultural heritage herbicides, fertilisers, irrigation and culti- droughts, every stock route in particular vation (Hibberd et al. 1993; Davidson In many areas, the SRN overlaps with districts has been used by livestock at 1999; Davidson et al. 2005), as well as Indigenous trading paths, Song Lines and some point (Hampton and NSW Crown long-term set-stocking by domestic live- Dreaming Tracks (Department of Environ- Lands Office 1982). stock, which is commonplace on sur- ment and Climate Change NSW 2008). As a Droving on the stock routes is now less rounding private land (Dorrough et al. result, stock routes contain places and common than in the past, but still occurs, 2004; Martin & McIntyre 2007). Stock objects of significance to Aboriginal people and occasionally on quite large scales. The routes are some of the oldest remnants of such as scarred or carved trees, camp sites, review of the Rural Land Protection Board native vegetation in landscapes and sup- missions, quarries, axe-grinding grooves, system in NSW found that around 9.9 mil- port a large number of old, hollow-bearing ceremonial grounds, rock shelters or burial lion head of stock used the stock routes trees that provide vital habitat for hollow- sites (Nowland et al. 1997). According to annually. Surprisingly, Boards with highest nesting fauna (Law & Chidel 2006; Spoo- the NSW Aboriginal Heritage Information usage were also suffering the largest finan- ner & Smallbone 2009). Stock routes also Management System, in a 41 million ha cial losses (Integrated Marketing Communi- contain some of the largest remnants of section of the NSW wheat-sheep belt (see cations 2008) which suggest that a primary vegetation types currently underrepre- Lentini et al. 2011b, this issue), stock problem is not one of lack of use, but sented in the National Reserve System routes harbour around 1500 recorded rather costly management and inappropri- (Prober et al. 2001; Prober & Thiele 2005; Aboriginal heritage sites (pers. comm., ate pricing schedules. Law & Chidel 2006). DECCW November 2010). Stock routes also support rural econo- There are many examples of threatened The SRN also provides an important mies in a variety of other ways. For exam- species occurring in stock routes. The connection for European Australians to the ple, NSW is currently the largest native herb Wandering Peppercress (Lepi- development of modern Australia; ‘‘The beekeeping state in Australia, and honey dium peregrinum) was presumed extinct romantic image of the tall, browned, Aus- production is worth an estimated until it was rediscovered in 2001, and the tralian stockman or woman droving a mob $28.5 M ⁄ year (NSW Government 2007). majority of individuals were in a stock of sheep or cattle has captured the world’s Because many stock routes incorporate route (NSW Scientific Committee 2000). imagination…’’ (O’Connor 2004, p. 1). large tracts of remnant vegetation, they are Another ground-dwelling herb, Trioncinia This evocative image may be considered highly desirable sites for apiarists and allow retroflexa, was also rediscovered in a stock route (Fensham et al. 2002). Mammal sur- veys conducted in three stock routes of (a) (b) the Mount Molloy area in Qld revealed a total of 56 species, of which nine were classed as rare or threatened. Finally, sur- veys of approximately 200 stock routes by the Queensland Department of Environ- mental and Resource Management found at least 95 threatened species, of which 16 are federally listed as ‘Endangered’ under the Environment Protection and Biodiver- sity Conservation Act (EPBC Act, Walsh 2009). Several studies note the existence Figure 2. (a) The classic view of an Australian stock route: A drover with his mob of travelling of listed threatened ecological communi- sheep. ‘Australian stock route’, Harold Cazneaux, c. 1935 (Image courtesy of the Cazneaux family ties in the SRN, including White Box and the National Library of Australia) (b) A modern-day stock route, supporting three purposes: An (Eucalyptus albens) – Yellow Box (Euca- apiary, agistment and conservation of nationally endangered Grey Box (Eucalyptus microcarpa) lyptus melliodora) – Blakely’s Red Gum grassy woodland. ‘The Driftway’, Bogolong, 2009, NSW central-west slopes (Photo, Pia Lentini).

122 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 12 NO 2 AUGUST 2011 ª 2011 Ecological Society of Australia REVIEW bees to be supplied with a diverse range of stored higher levels of soil organic carbon 2006), and conversely, stock routes floral resources (NSW Agriculture and (8.21 kg ⁄ m2)thananadjacentcropping have been shown to influence fauna on Rural Lands Protection Boards 2001, see field (5.04 kg ⁄ m2). adjacent agricultural land (Lentini et al. Fig. 2). Stock routes located next to flower- Finally, stock routes provide a valuable 2011a). ing crops can provide bees with a source source of locally adapted seed for restora- 4 What is the value of the SRN compared of forage, while landholders simulta- tion projects. Seed from stock routes is with the National Reserve System? neously reap the benefits of crop pollina- likely to be genetically fit and diverse, Some authors have expressed concern tion (Breckwoldt 1986; Department of because the seed comes from relatively that because of their linear shape and Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2011). large, intact and well-connected remnants association with roads, stock routes are Some farming communities use their that include a wide range of vegetation susceptible to edge effects (Major et al. local stock routes to attract tourists. The types. Burrows (2000) found seed col- 1999a,b) and may act as conduits for small town of Barraba in NSW was the first lected from Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melli- weeds and pathogens (Lodge et al. to establish a series of ‘bird routes’, market- odora) trees in stock routes had 2005). Yet these negative effects may ing various stock routes as bird hotspots significantly higher reproductive output be offset by the fact that the SRN sup- (Fig. 1) which now attract enthusiast ‘twit- than seed from trees in paddocks, and Pro- ports threatened ecological communi- chers’ from as far afield as Norway, Can- ber et al. (1998) found that even small ties not represented in the National ada, Belgium and the USA (Jones 2000). remnant populations in stock routes can Reserve System (see Lentini et al. 2011a The scheme proved highly successful, and help maintain genetic diversity of the rare in this issue, for further exploration of several other districts have established bird Yam Daisy (Microseris lanceolata). this question.) trails of their own (Schultz & Valenzisi Knowledge gaps 2010). 5 We do not know the extent to which Given the outcomes of this literature the SRN preserves Indigenous sites. Other values for Australian review, we have identified eight key Many stock routes have not been sub- society knowledge gaps pertaining to the values ject to archaeological surveys, and Stock routes provide important sites for of the Stock Route Network. hence more work is needed to deter- recreation and scientific research, because mine the Indigenous heritage value of 1 Does the SRN provide connectivity and most are easy and free to access and incor- the network. facilitate dispersal? The SRN provides porate a wide variety of vegetation and substantial structural connectivity 6 The ecosystem services that the SRN environmental conditions. Much of the sci- across hundreds of kilometres of the provides have not been quantified. entific literature we found did not directly agricultural landscape, and this is possi- Ecosystem services may include pollina- investigate stock routes, but rather used bly one of its greatest assets (Fig. 1). tion and pest control by wildlife, water them as ‘reference sites’ (Prober et al. Despite these likely benefits, no study filtration, carbon sequestration and ero- 2002; Prober & Thiele 2004; Lunt et al. has empirically assessed this connectiv- sion mitigation. These and other likely 2006; Gibbons et al. 2008). This is because ity value to date. services need to be taken into account they are often the closest analogue to what when considering the financial costs grassland, woodlands and shrublands 2 Should we protect larger, or more and benefits of maintaining the SRN. resembled prior widespread agricultural intact stock routes? When considering development (Martin & Green 2002). which stock routes to prioritise for con- 7 What permit pricing schedules would These same characteristics also make stock servation, decision makers need to have best reflect demand and management routes appealing to the general public. a clear understanding of the outcomes costs? John et al. (1997) use a derived- According to ‘The Long Paddock’ direc- of trade-offs between high-quality, small demand approach to investigate com- tory, recreational activities that take place stock routes versus larger, but more petitive pricing of the stock route in stock routes include pony club and gym- degraded stock routes. These outcomes permit system in Nyngan, NSW. They khana events, fishing, bush walking and will change depending on the species found that the cost of droving permits picnicking (NSW Agriculture and Rural being targeted for conservation.’’ could be increased significantly from Lands Protection Boards 2001). $0.02 up to $0.80 ⁄ sheep ⁄ day before 3 What impact does landscape context Another benefit of stock routes is that demand becomes elastic. This area of have on stock routes? Few studies on they may act as carbon sinks in otherwise research warrants further attention, and the ecological value of stock routes cleared agricultural landscapes. A study in case studies that cover broader areas in have considered the impact of the NSW found that significantly more carbon different regions of the SRN would be surrounding landscape, which may be is stored in the above-ground components valuable. important in determining habitat suit- of the vegetation in stock routes and other ability. Surrounding land use is likely to 8 How many people use the SRN each roadside reserves compared to paddocks have an important influence on the year? Permits are not required to use (Eldridge & Wilson 2004). Similarly, Miklos quality of the stock routes (Martin et al. stock routes for many recreational et al. (2010) found that a stock route

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activities, research or seed collection, promote the protection of stock route val- accessible to the general public as places and data on recreational use are not ues. However, this would inhibit the acces- for recreation and research. aggregated consistently (Hampton and sibility of stock routes to the public. A The importance of maintaining and NSW Crown Lands Office 1982). This similar approach has been successfully restoring connectivity across cleared land- makes it difficult to quantify the extent employed by the Australian Government in scapes is becoming increasingly recogni- to which stock routes are used by the their Environmental Stewardship Program, sed, with significant efforts being made general public. which has made significant gains in the by both public and private entities in this conservation of box-gum woodland on pri- endeavour. The degradation of the stock vate land across south-eastern Australia via routes through intensive grazing would Discussion the implementation of a tender system run counter to current national and (Zammit et al. 2010). international multi-million dollar invest- Management issues Another alternative for the future man- ments to restore large-scale connectivity Through this literature review, as well as agement of the SRN is to incorporate it (Department of Environment and Climate our parallel study that demonstrates that into the current National Reserve System, Change NSW 2007). When considering the SRN complements the National which could be appropriate given its signif- future options for individual stock routes, Reserve System (Lentini et al. 2011a, this icance for biodiversity and cultural heri- management decisions are restricted by issue), we have shown that the SRN pro- tage. Transfer to the National Reserve both limited funding and time. However, vides a suite of values to Australian society, System would help achieve regional and both the Qld and NSW governments have and also that further research is needed in national conservation targets, and particu- a mandate to protect threatened ecosys- several key areas. However, an increasingly larly conservation objectives relating to tem and species, Indigenous and Euro- apparent overarching problem is that the comprehensiveness and representative- pean cultural heritage, and the interests multiple-use nature of the SRN does not fit ness. However, transfer to the National of the agricultural communities through into the single-use management structures Reserve System would also further strain the EPBC Act (1999), the Crown Lands of NSW and QLD, whereby different an already over-stretched system and Act (1989), the NSW Aboriginal Land departments manage land for different would exclude any form of grazing on Rights Act (1983) and Qld Aboriginal purposes. Therefore, it is unclear how stock routes. Such an approach is therefore Land Act (1991), the NSW Threatened management of the SRN can integrate unlikely to receive support from traditional Species Conservation Act (1995), Qld traditional uses of grazing and droving with rural users. These are just a few of the Nature Conservation Act (1992), and the emerging uses, such as conservation and options available, but clearly a funding Rural Lands Protection Act (1998). These recreation. model that better reflects contemporary legal obligations are clearly relevant to To this end, several approaches might uses of the SRN should be implemented. the SRN. be feasible. For example, the Rural Lands We hope that this review helps draw An uncertain future for the Protection Boards and local councils could attention to the fact that the stock routes Stock Route Network continue to manage stock routes, but in are a significant public asset. Given that recognition of their responsibility to pro- It is difficult to fully quantify what Austra- this natural infrastructure benefits not only tect and conserve threatened species and lian society might lose through the sale or rural communities, but all of society, communities, they would receive addi- long-term leasing of portions of the SRN. improved governance and increased tional financial support from State and Although we know that it supports threa- investment in SRN management is now Federal governments. Permit pricing tened species and ecological communities, urgently required to ensure that it contin- schedules for use of the stock routes and sites of cultural significance for Indige- ues to conserve its many environmental would need to be adjusted to better repre- nous people, to date survey efforts in the and social values in perpetuity. sent a user-pays system (see knowledge SRN have been disparate. There is a gaps 7 and 8, above). This would reflect chance that the loss of sections of the net- Acknowledgements not only the benefits derived by private work will also mean the loss of these con- enterprises which drove and agist live- servation and cultural assets before we The authors wish to acknowledge the assis- stock, but also the benefits to the rest of fully understand their extent. Sustained tance of Toni McLeish, Trudy O’Connor, Australian society, including recreation high grazing pressure, which stock routes Cecile van der Burgh, Bev Smiles, Judit and conservation. may be subjected to if sold or placed under Szabo, Peter Spooner, Lorraine Oliver, Alternative SRN management options long-term leases, has been known to Mason Crane, and Adam Blakester in pro- are available, but may restrict the use of reduce diversity of herbaceous flora (McIn- viding information for this review. Com- the SRN to certain groups. For instance, tyre et al. 2003; Dorrough et al. 2004), ments by three anonymous reviewers, as management of portions of the network inhibit tree regeneration (Fischer et al. well as the Editor and Editorial Board mem- could be transferred to adjacent landhold- 2009) and negatively affect woodland birds bers, on earlier versions of the manuscript ers, and market-based instruments (such as (Martin & McIntyre 2007). If sold or leased, were very valuable. This project received reverse auction) could be employed to these stock routes also will no longer be financial support from the Wilderness

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